t.26 


1 


*    •  : 

'  ' 


THE  NATIVE  RACES 


OF   THE 


PACIFIC   STATES. 


THE 


NATIVE   RACES 


OF 


THE  PACIFIC  STATES 


OF 


NORTH  AMERICA. 


BY 

HUBERT    HOWE    BANCROFT. 


VOLUME  I. 
WILD    TRIBES. 


NEW    YORK: 
D.    APPLETON   AND    COMPANY, 

1875. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  ys.ir  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
seventy  four,  by 

HUBERT   H.    BANCROFT. 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


RIVERSIDE,  CAMBRIDGE: 
PRINTED   BV  H    O    HOITOHTOV  AND  COMPANY. 


TO 

MY   BBOTHEB 

ALBERT   L.  BANCROFT 

I  DEDICATE  THIS  WORK. 


PREFACE. 


In  pursuance  of  a  general  plan  involving  the  produc 
tion  of  a  series  of  works  on  the  western  half  of  North 
America,  I  present  this  delineation  of  its  aboriginal  in 
habitants  as  the  first.  To  the  immense  territory  border 
ing  on  the  western  ocean  from  Alaska  to  Darien,  and  in 
cluding  the  whole  of  Mexico  and  Central  America,  I  give 
arbitrarily,  for  want  of  a  better,  the  name  Pacific  States. 
Stretching  almost  from  pole  to  equator,  and  embracing 
within  its  limits  nearly  one  tenth  of  the  earth's  surface, 
this  last  Western  Land  offers  to  lovers  of  knowledge  a 
new  and  enticing  field ;  and,  although  hitherto  its  several 
parts  have  been  held  somewhat  asunder  by  the  force 
of  circumstances,  yet  are  its  occupants  drawn  by  nature 
into  nearness  of  relationship,  and  will  be  brought  yet 
nearer  by  advancing  civilization;  the  common  oceanic 
highway  on  the  one  side,  and  the  great  mountain  ram 
parts  on  the  other,  both  tending  to  this  result.  The 
characteristics  of  this  vast  domain,  material  and  social, 
are  comparatively  unknown  and  are  essentially  peculiar. 
To  its  exotic  civilization  all  the  so-called  older  nations 
of  the  world  have  contributed  of  their  energies;  and 
this  composite  mass,  leavened  by  its  destiny,  is  now 
working  out  the  new  problem  of  its  future.  The  modern 
history  of  .this  West  antedates  that  of  the  East  by  over 
a  century,  and  although  there  may  be  apparent  hetero- 

486816 


viii  PREFACE. 

geneity  in  the  subject  thus  territorially  treated,  there  is 
an  apparent  tendency  toward  ultimate  unity. 

To  some  it  may  be  of  interest  to  know  the  nature  and 
extent  of  my  resources  for  writing  so  important  a  series 
of  works.  The  books  and  manuscripts  necessary  for  the 
task  existed  in  no  library  in  the  W7orld;  hence,  in  1859, 
I  commenced  collecting  material  relative  to  the  Pacific 
States.  After  securing  everything  within  my  reach  in 
America,  I  twice  visited  Europe,  spending  about  two 
years  in  thorough  researches  in  England  and  the  chief 
cities  of  the  Continent.  Having  exhausted  every  avail 
able  source,  I  was  obliged  to  content  myself  with  lying 
in  wait  for  opportunities.  Not  long  afterward,  and  at 
a  time  when  the  prospect  of  materially  adding  to  my 
collection  seemed  anything  but  hopeful,  the  Biblioteca 
Imperial  de  JMejico,  of  the  unfortunate  Maximilian,  col 
lected  during  a  period  of  forty  years  by  Don  Jose  Maria 
Andrade,  litterateur  and  publisher  of  the  city  of  Mexico, 
was  thrown  upon  the  European  market  and  furnished 
me  about  three  thousand  additional  volumes. 

In  1869,  having  accumulated  some  sixteen  thousand 
books,  manuscripts,  and  pamphlets,  besides  maps  and 
cumbersome  files  of  Pacific  Coast  journals,  I  determined 
to  go  to  work.  But  I  soon  found  that,  like  Tantalus, 
while  up  to  my  neck  in  water,  I  was  dying  of  thirst. 
The  facts  which  I  required  were  so  copiously  diluted 
with  trash,  that  to  follow  different  subjects  through  this 
trackless  sea  of  erudition,  in  the  exhaustive  manner  I 
had  proposed,  with  but  one  life-time  to  devote  to  the 
work,  was  simply  impracticable.  In  this  emergency  my 
friend,  Mr  Henry  L.  Oak,  librarian  of  the  collec 
tion,  came  to  my  relief.  After  many*  consultations, 
and  not  a  few  partial  failures,  a  system  of  indexing  the 


PREFACE.  IX 

subject-matter  of  the  whole  library  was  devised,  suffi 
ciently  general  to  be  practicable,  and  sufficiently  partic 
ular  to  direct  me  immediately  to  all  my  authorities  on 
any  given  point.  The  system,  on  trial,  stands  the  test, 
and  the  index  when  completed,  as  it  already  is  for  the 
twelve  hundred  authors  quoted  in  this  work,  will  more 
than  double  the  practical  value  of  the  library. 

Of  the  importance  of  the  task  undertaken,  I  need 
not  say  that  I  have  formed  the  highest  opinion.  At 
present  the  few  grains  of  wheat  are  so  hidden  by 
the  mountain  of  chaff  as  to  be  of  comparatively  little 
benefit  to  searchers  in  the  various  branches  of  learn 
ing;  and  to  sift  and  select  from  this  mass,  to  extract 
from  bulky  tome  and  transient  journal,  from  the  archives 
of  convent  and  mission,  facts  valuable  to  the  scholar 
and  interesting  to  the  general  reader;  to  arrange  these 
facts  in  a  natural  order,  and  to  present  them  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  be  of  practical  benefit  to  inquirers  in  the 
various  branches  of  knowledge,  is  a  work  of  no  small 
import  and  responsibility.  And  though  mine  is  the 
labor  of  the  artisan  rather  than  that  of  the  artist,  a  forg 
ing  of  weapons  for  abler  hands  to  wield,  a  producing 
of  raw  materials  for  skilled  mechanics  to  weave  and 
color  at  will;  yet,  in  undertaking  to  bring  to  light  from 
sources  innumerable  essential  facts,  which,  from  the 
very  shortness  of  life  if  from  no  other  cause,  must  other 
wise  be  left  out  in  the  physical  and  social  generalizations 
which  occupy  the  ablest  minds,  I  feel  that  I  engage  in 
no  idle  pastime. 

A  word  as  to  the  Nations  of  which  this  work  is  a  de 
scription,  and  my  method  of  treating  the  subject.  Abo 
riginally,  for  a  savage  wilderness,  there  was  here  a  dense 
population;  particularly  south  of  the  thirtieth  parallel, 


X  .     PREFACE. 

and  along  the  border  of  the  ocean  north  of  that  line. 
Before  the  advent  of  Europeans,  this  domain  counted 
its  aborigines  by  millions;  ranked  among  its  people 
every  phase  of  primitive  humanity,  from  the  reptile- 
eating  cave-dweller  of  the  Great  Basin,  to  the  Aztec  and 
Maya-Quiche  civilization  of  the  southern  table-land, 
—a  civilization,  if  we  may  credit  Dr  Draper,  "  that 
might  have  instructed  Europe,"  a  culture  wantonly 
crushed  by  Spain,  who  therein  "  destroyed  races  more 
civilized  than  herself." 

Differing  among  themselves  in  minor  particulars  only, 
and  bearing  a  general  resemblance  to  the  nations  of  east 
ern  and  southern  America;  differing  again,  the  whole, 
in  character  and  cast  of  features  from  every  other  people 
of  the  wrorld,  we  have  here  presented  hundreds  of 
nations  and  tongues,  with  thousands  of  beliefs  and 
customs,  wonderfully  dissimilar  for  so  segregated  a 
humanity,  yet  wonderfully  alike  for  the  inhabitants  of 
a  land  that  comprises  within  its  limits  nearly  every  phase 
of  climate  on  the  globe.  At  the  touch  of  European 
civilization,  whether  Latin  or  Teutonic,  these  nations 
vanished;  and  their  unwritten  history,  reaching  back 
for  thousands  of  ages,  ended.  All  this  time  they  had 
been  coming  and  going,  nations  swallowing  up  nations, 
annihilating  and  being  annihilated,  amidst  human  con 
vulsions  and  struggling  civilizations.  Their  strange 
destiny  fulfilled,  in  an  instant  they  disappear;  and  all 
we  have  of  them,  besides  their  material  relics,  is  the 
glance  caught  in  their  hasty  flight,  which  gives  us  a 
few  customs  and  traditions,  arid  a  little  mythological 
history. 

To  gather  and  arrange  in  systematic  compact  form  all 
that  is  known  of  these  people;  to  rescue  some  facts, 


PKEFACE.  xi 

perhaps,  from  oblivion,  to  bring  others  from  inaccessible 
nooks,  to  render  all  available  to  science  and  to  the 
general  reader,  is  the  object  of  this  work.  Necessarily 
some  parts  of  it  may  be  open  to  the  charge  of  dryness; 
I  have  not  been  able  to  interlard  my  facts  with  interest 
ing  anecdotes  for  lack  of  space,  and  I  have  endeavored 
to  avoid  speculation,  believing,  as  I  do,  the  work  of  the 
collector  and  that  of  the  theorizer  to  be  distinct,  and 
that  he  who  attempts  to  establish  some  pet  conjecture 
while  imparting  general  information,  can  hardly  be 
trusted  for  impartial  statements.  With  respect  to  the 
territorial  divisions  of  the  first  volume,  which  is  con 
fined  to  the  Wild  Tribes,  and  the  necessity  of  giving 
descriptions  of  the  same  characteristics  in  each,  there 
may  be  an  appearance  of  repetition;  but  I  trust  this 
may  be  found  more  apparent  than  real.  Although  there 
are  many  similar  customs,  there  are  also  many  minor 
differences,  and,  as  one  of  the  chief  difficulties  of  this 
volume  was  to  keep  it  within  reasonable  limits,  no  delin 
eation  has  been  repeated  where  a  necessity  did  not  ap 
pear  to  exist.  The  second  volume,  which  treats  of  the 
Civilized  Nations,  offers  a  more  fascinating  field,  and 
with  ample  space  and  all  existing  authorities  at  hand, 
the  fault  is  the  writer's  if  interest  be  not  here  combined 
with  value.  As  regards  Mythology,  Languages,  Antiq 
uities,  and  Migrations,  of  which  the  three  remaining 
volumes  treat,  it  has  been  my  aim  to  present  clearly  and 
concisely  all  knowledge  extant  on  these  subjects;  and 
the  work,  as  a  whole,  is  intended  to  embody  all  facts  that 
have  been  preserved  concerning  these  people  at  the  time 
of  their  almost  simultaneous  discovery  and  disappear 
ance.  It  will  be  noticed  that  I  have  said  little  of  the 
natives  or  their  deeds  since  the  coming  of  the  Euro- 


xii  PREFACE. 

peans;  of  their  wars  against  invaders  and  among  them 
selves;  of  repartimientos,  presidios,  missions,  reserva 
tions,  and  other  institutions  for  their  conquest,  conver 
sion,  protection,  or  oppression.  My  reason  for  this  is 
that  all  these  things,  so  far  as  they  have  any  importance, 
belong  to  the  modern  history  of  the  country  and  will 
receive  due  attention  in  a  subsequent  work. 

In  these  five  volumes,  besides  information  acquired 
from  sources  not  therein  named,  are  condensed  the  re 
searches  of  twelve  hundred  writers,  a  list  of  whose  works, 
with  the  edition  used,  is  given  in  this  volume.  I 
have  endeavored  to  state  fully  and  clearly  in  my  text 
the  substance  of  the  matter,  and  in  reaching  my  conclu 
sions  to  use  due  discrimination  as  to  the  respective  value 
of  different  authorities.  In  the  notes  I  give  liberal  quo 
tations,  both  corroborative  of  the  text,  and  touching  points 
on  which  authors  differ,  together  with  complete  references 
to  all  authorities,  including  some  of  little  value,  on  each 
point,  for  the  use  of  readers  or  writers  who  may  either 
be  dissatisfied  with  my  conclusions,  or  may  wish  to  in 
vestigate  any  particular  branch  of  the  subject  farther 
than  my  limits  allow. 

I  have  given  full  credit  to  each  of  the  many  authors 
from  whom  I  have  taken  material,  and  if,  in  a  few  in 
stances,  a  scarcity  of  authorities  has  compelled  me  to 
draw  somewhat  largely  on  the  few  who  have  treated  par 
ticular  points,  I  trust  I  shall  be  pardoned  in  view  of 
the  comprehensive  nature  of  the  work.  Quotations 
are  made  in  the  languages  in  which  they  are  written, 
and  great  pains  has  been  taken  to  avoid  mutilation  of 
the  author's  words.  As  the  books  quoted  form  part  of 
my  private  library,  I  have  been  able,  by  comparison 
with  the  originals,  to  carefully  verify  all  references  after 


PREFACE,  xiii 

they  were  put  in  type;  hence  I  may  confidently  hope 
that  fewer  errors  have  crept  in  than  are  usually  found 
in  works  of  such  variety  and  extent. 

The  labor  involved  in  the  preparation  of  these  volumes 
will  be  appreciated  by  few.  That  expended  on  the  first 
volume  alone,  with  all  the  material  before  me,  is  more 
than  equivalent  to  the  well-directed  efforts  of  one  person 
for  ten  years.  In  the  work  of  selecting,  sifting,  and  ar 
ranging  iny  subject-matter,  I  have  called  in  the  aid  of  a 
large  corps  of  assistants,  and,  while  desiring  to  place  on 
no  one  but  myself  any  responsibility  for  the  work,  either 
in  style  or  matter,  I  would  render  just  acknowledgment 
for  the  services  of  all ;  especially  to  the  following  gentle 
men,  for  the  efficient  manner  in  which,  each  in  his 
special  department,  they  have  devoted  their  energies  and 
abilities  to  the  carrying  out  of  my  plan; — to  Mr  T. 
Arundel-Harcourt,  in  the  researches  on  the  manners 
and  customs  of  the  Civilized  Nations ;  to  Mr  Walter  M. 
Fisher,  in  the  investigation  of  Mythology ;  to  Mr  Albert 
Goldschmidt,  in  the  treatise  on  Language;  and  to  Mr 
Henry  L.  Oak,  in  the  subject  of  Antiquities  and  Aborig 
inal  History. 


CONTENTS  OF  THIS  VOLUME. 


CHAPTEK  I. 

ETHNOLOGICAL  INTRODUCTION. 

PAGE. 

Facts  and  Theories — Hypotheses  concerning  Origin — Unity  of  Race — 
Diversity  of  Race — Spontaneous  Generation — Origin  of  Animals 
and  Plants — Primordial  Centres  of  Population — Distribution  of 
Plants  and  Animals — Adaptability  of  Species  to  Locality — Classifi 
cation  of  Species— Ethnological  Tests— Races  of  the  Pacific — First 
Intercourse  with  Europeans 1 

CHAPTEK  II. 

HYPERBOREANS. 

General  Divisions — Hyperborean  Nations — Aspects  of  Nature — Vegeta 
tion — Climate — Animals — The  Eskimos — Their  Country — Physical 
Characteristics  —  Dress  —  Dwellings  —  Food  — Weapons —  Boats — 
Sledges — Snow-Shoes — Government — Domestic  Affairs — Amuse 
ments — Diseases — Burial — The  Koniagas,  their  Physical  and  Social 
Condition— The  Aleuts— The  Thlinkeets— The  Tiimeh '. .  33 

CHAPTER  III. 

COLUMBIANS. 

Habitat  of  the  Columbian  Group— Physical  Geography — Sources  of 
Food  Supply— Influence  of  Food  and  Climate — Four  extreme  Classes 
— Haidahs — Their  Home — Physical  Peculiarities — Clothing— Shel 
ter— Sustenance— Implements— Manufactures— Arts— Property- 
Laws — Slavery — Women — Customs — Medicine — Death — TheNoot- 
kas— The  Sound  Nations— The  Chinooks^The  Shushwaps— The 
Salish— The  Sahaptins 150 

CHAPTER   IV. 

CALIFORNIANS. 

Groupal  Divisions;  Northern,  Central,  and  Southern  Calif ornians,  and 
Shoshones— Country  of  the  Califomians — The  Klamaths,  Modocs, 
Shastas,  Pitt  River  Indians,  Eurocs,  Cahrocs,  Hoopahs,  Weeyots, 


xvi  CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

Tolewahs,  and  Rogue  River  Indians  and  their  Customs — The  Teha- 
mas,  Pomos,  Ukiahs,  Gualalas,  Sonomas,  Petalumas,  Napas,  Sus- 
cols,  Suisunes,  Tamales,  Karquines,  Tulomos,  Thamiens,  Olchones, 
Runsiens,  Escelens,  and  others  of  Central  California — The  Ca- 
huillos,  Diegueiios,  Islanders,  and  Mission  Rancherias  of  Southern 
California — The  Snakes  or  Shoshones  proper,  Utahs,  Bannocks, 
Washoes  and  other  Shoshone  Nations 322 

CHAPTEK  V. 

NEW  MEXICANS. 

Geographical  Position  of  this  Group,  and  Physical  Features  of  the  Ter 
ritory — Family  Divisions;  Apaches,  Pueblos,  Lower  Californians, 
and  Northern  Mexicans — The  Apache  Family:  Comanches,  Apaches 
proper,  Hualapais,  Yumas,  Cosninos,  Yampais,  Yalchedunes,  Ya- 
majabs,  Cruzados,  Nijoras,  Navajos,  Mojaves,  and  their  customs 
— The  Pueblo  Family:  Pueblos,  Moquis,  Pimas,  Maricopas,  Papa- 
gos,  and  their  Neighbors — The  Cochimis,  Waicuris,  Pericuis,  and 
other  Lower  Californians — The  Seris,  Sinaloas,  Tarahumares,  Con- 
chos,  Tepehuanes,  Tobosos,  Acaxees,  and  others  in  Northern 
Mexico 471 

CHAPTER  VI. 

WILD  TRIBES  OF    MEXICO. 

Territorial  Aspects — Two  Main  Divisions;  Wild  Tribes  of  Central  Mex 
ico,  and  Wild  Tribes  of  Southern  Mexico — The  Coras  and  others  in 
Jalisco — Descendants  of  the  Aztecs — The  Otomis  and  Mazahuas 
Adjacent  to  the  Valley  of  Mexico — The  Fames — The  Tarascos  and 
Matlaltzincas  of  Michoacan — The  Huaztecs  and  Totonacos  of  Vera 
Cruz  and  Tamaulipas — The  Chontales,  Chinantecs,  Mazatecs,  Cui- 
catecs,  Chatinos,  Miztecs,  Zapotecs,  Mijes,  Huaves,  Chiapanecs, 
Zoques,  Lacandones,  Choles,  Mames,  Tzotziles,  Tzendales,  Cho- 
chones  and  others  of  Southern  Mexico 615 

CHAPTER  VII. 

WILD   TRIBES   OF   CENTRAL   AMERICA. 

Physical  Geography  and  Climate — Three  Groupal  Divisions;  First,  the 
nations  of  Yucatan,  Guatemala,  Salvador,  Western  Honduras,  and 
Nicaragua;  Second,  The  Mosquitos  of  Honduras;  Third,  the  na 
tions  of  Costa  Rica  and  the  Isthmus  of  Panamd — The  Popolucas, 
Pipiles  and  Chontales — The  Descendants  of  the  Maya-Quiche  Races 
—The  Natives  of  Nicaragua — The  Mosquitos,  Poyas,  Ramas,  Len- 
cas,  Towkas,  Woolwas,  and  Xicaques  of  Honduras — The  Guatusos 
of  the  Rio  Frio — The  Caimanes,  Bayamos,  Dorachos,  Goajiros, 
Mandingos,  Savanerics,  Sayrones,  and  Viscitas  living  in  Costa  Rica 
and  on  the  Isthmus .  684 


AUTHORITIES  QUOTED. 


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Abert  (J.  W.),  Report  of  his  Examination  of  New  Mexico.     1846-7.    (30th 

Congress,  1st  Session,  Senate  Executive  Doc.  41.)     Washington,  1848. 
About  (Edmond),  Handbook  of  Social  Economy.     New  York,  1873. 
Acazitli  (Francisco  de  Sandoval),  Kelacion  de  la  Jornada  que  hizo.     Indios 

Chichimecas  dc  Xuchipila.     In  Icazbalceta,  Col.  de  Doc.,  torn.  ii. 
Acosta  ( Joaquin),  Compendio  Historico  del  Descubrimiento,  etc.  de  la  Nueva 

Granada.     Paris,  1848. 
Acosta  (Josef  de),  Historia  Natural  y  Moral  de  las  Yndias.     Sevilla,  1590. 

[Quoted  as  Hist,  de  las  Ynd.] 
Acosta  (Josef  de),  The  Naturall  and  Morall  Historic  of  the  East  and  West 

Indies.     London,  n.  d.  [1604].     [Quoted  as  Hist.  Nat.  Ind.] 
Adair  (James),  The  History  of  the  American  Indians.    London,  1775.  4to. 
Adelung  (Johann  Christoph),  see  Vater  (J.  S.),  Mithridates. 
Akademie  der  Wissenschaften,  Sitzungsberichte.     Berlin. 
Alaman  (Lucas),  Disertaciones  sobre  la  Historia  de  la  Kepiiblica  Mejicana. 

Mejico,  1844-9.  3  vols. 

Alaman  (Lucas),  Historia  de  Mejico.     Mejico,  1849-52.  5  vols. 
Alarcon  (Fernando),  The  Relation  of  the  Nauigation  and  Discouery  which 

Captaine  Fernando  Alarchon  made,   [1540.]     In  Hakluyt's  Voy.,  vol. 

iii. ;   Ramusio,   Navigation!,  torn.  iii. ;  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie 

i.,  torn.  ix. 

Album  Mexicano.     Mexico,  1849. 
Alcedo  (Antonio  de),  Diccionario  Geografico  Historico.     Madrid,  1786-9. 

5  vols. 
Alegre   (Francisco  Javier),   Historia  de  la    Compania  de  Jesus  en  Nueva 

Espafia.     Mexico,  1841.  3  vols. 
Almaraz  (Ramon),  Memoria  de  los  trabajos  ejecutados por  la  Comision  Cien- 

tifica  de  Paciiuca.     Mexico,  1865. 

Almaraz  (Ramon),  Memoria  acerca  de  los  Terrenos  de  Metlaltoyuca.     Mex 
ico,  1866. 
Alric  (Henri  J.  A.),  Dix  Ans  de  Residence  d'un  missionnaire  dans  les  deux 

Californies.     Mexico,  1866. 

Alzate  y  Ramirez  (Jose  Antonio),  Gacetas  de  Literatura  de  Mexico.     Mex 
ico,  1790-4.  3  vols.;  and  Puebla,  1831.  4  vols. 
Alzate  y  Ramirez  (Jose  Antonio),  Memoria  sobre  la  Naturaleza,  etc.,  de  la 

Grana.     MS.    Mexico,  1777. 

America,  An  Account  of  the  Spanish  Settlements  in.     Edinburgh,  1762. 
American  Annual  Register.     New  York,  1827  et  seq. 
American  Antiquarian  Society,  Transactions  and  Collections.     Worcester, 

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Carbajal  (Francisco  Leon),  Discurso  sobre  la  Legislacion  de  los  Antiguos 

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Carochi  (Horacio),  Compendio  del  Arte  de  la  Lengua  Mexicana Dis- 

puesto. .  .  .por  el  P.  Ignacio  de  Paredes.  Mexico,  1759. 

Carpenter  (Win.  W.),  Travels  and  Adventures  in  Mexico.  New  York, 
1851. 

Carranza  (Domingo  Gonzales),  A  Geographical  Description  of the  West 

Indies.  London,  1740. 

Carriedo  (Juan  B. ),  Los  Palacios  Antiguos  de  Mitla.  In  Ilustracion  Mex 
icana.,  torn.  ii. 

Carrington  (Mrs  M.  J.),  Absaraka,  Home  of  the  Crows.    Philadelphia,  1868. 

Cartari  (Vicenzo),  Le  vere  e  nove  Imagini  de  gli  Dei  delli  Antichi.  Padoua, 
1615. 

Cartas  Edificantes  y  Curiosas  Escritas  de  las  Missiones  Estrangeras  por 
algunos  missioneros  de  la  Comp.  de  Jesus.  Madrid.  1755-7.  16  vols. 

Carvalho  (S.  N.),  Incidents  of  Travel  and  Adventure  in  the  Far  West. 
New  York,  1858. 

Castaneda  de  Nagera  (Pedro  de),  Relation  du  Voyage  de  Cihola.  In  Ter- 
naux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn.  ix.  Paris,  1838. 

Castano  de  Sosa  (Caspar),  Memoria  del  Descubrimiento. .  .  .del  Nuevo 
Reino  de  Leon.  1590.  In  Pacheco,  Col.  de  Doc.  Ined.,  torn.  iv. 

Catecismo  en  Idioma  Mixteco.     Puebla,  1837. 

Cathecismo  y  Suma  de  la  Doctrina  Christiana. . .  .por  el  III.  Concilio  Pro 
vincial,  '1585.  MS. 

Catherwood  (F.),  Views  of  Ancient  Monuments  in  Central  America,  Chia 
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Catlin  (George),  Illustrations  of  the  Manners,  Customs  and  Condition  of 
the  North  American  Indians.  London,  1866.  2  vols. 

Catlin  (George),  Okeepa.     Philadelphia,  1867. 

Cavo  (Andres),  Los  Tres  Siglos  de  Mexico.     Mexico,  1836-8.  4  vols. 

Chambers'  Edinburgh  Journal.     London,  1834  et  seq. 

Champagnac  (J.  B.  J.),  Le  Jeune  Voyageur  en  Californie.     Paris,  n.  d. 

Chandless  (Win.),  A  Visit  to  Salt  Lake.     London,  1857. 

Chappe  D'Auteroche,  Voyage  en  Californie.     Paris,  1772.  4to. 

Charlevoix  (Fr.  Xav.  de),  Histoire  de  la  Nouvelle  France.  Paris,  1744. 
4to.  3  vols. 

Charnay  (Desire),.  Cites  et  Ruines  Americaines. . . .  Avec  un  Texte  par  M. 
Viollet-le-Duc.  Paris,  1863.  With  folio  atlas  of  photographs. 

Charpenne  (Pierre),  Mon  Voyage  an  Mexique.     Paris,  1836.  2  vols. 

Chateaubriand  (de),  Voyages  en  Amerique.     Paris,  n.d. 

Chaves  (G.),  Rapport  sur  la  Province  de  Meztitlan.  1579.  In  Ternaux- 
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Chevalier  (Michel),  L'Isthme  de  Panarnd.     Paris,  1844. 

Chevalier  (Michel),  Du  Mexique  avant  et  pendant  le  Conquete.  Paris, 
1845. 

Chevalier  (Michel),  Le  Mexique,  Ancien  et  Moderne.     Paris,  1864. 

Chimalpopocatl  (Faustino  Galicia,,  Disertacion  sobre  la  Riqueza,  etc.,  del 
Idioma  Mexicano.  In  Museo  Mexicano,  torn.  iv. 

Chinook  Jargon,  Vocabulary.     San  Francisco,   1860. 

Chipman  (C.),  Mineral  Resources  of  Northern  Mexico.     New  York,  1868. 

Choris  (Louis),  Voyage  Pittoresque  autour  du  Monde.     Paris,  1822.  folio. 

Choules  (John  O.),  and  Thomas  Smith,  The  Origin  and  History  of  Mis 
sions.  New  York,  1851.  4to.  2  vols. 

Cincinnatus,  Travels  on  the  Western  Slope  of  the  Mexican  Cordillera.  San 
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Clark  (Joseph  G.),  Lights  and  Shadows  of  Sailor  Life.     Boston,  1848. 

Clavigero  (Francesco  Saverio),  Storia  della  California.  Venezia,  1789.  2 
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Clavigero  (Francesco  Saverio),  Storia  Antica  del  Messico.  Cesena,  1780. 
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Cleveland  (Richard  J.),  A  Narrative  of  Voyages.    Cambridge,  1842.  2  vols. 

Cockburn  (John),  A  Journey  Overland  from  the  Gulf  of  Honduras  to  the 
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Codex  Mendoza,  etc.,  See  Mex.  Picture -Writings. 
Cogolludo  (Diego  Lopez),  Historia  de  Yucathan.     Madrid,  1688.  folio. 
Coke  (Henry  J.),  A  Ride  over  the  Rocky  Mountains.     London,  1852. 
Collinson  (R.),  Account  of  the  Proceedings  of    H.  M.  S.  Enterprise,  from 

Behring  Strait  to  Cambridge  Bay.     In  Lond.   Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol. 

xxv.     London,  1855. 
Colombo  (Fernando),  Historic,  della  vita,  e  de'  fatti  dell'  Ammiraglio  D. 

Christoforo  Colombo  suo  Padre.     Venetia,  1709. 
Colon  .(Fernando),    La   Historia  del   Almirante   D.    Christoval    Colon   su 

Padre.     In  Barcia,  Historiadores  Prim.,  torn.  i. 
Colton  (Walter),  Deck  and  Port.     New  York,  1860. 
Colton  (Walter),  The  Land  of  Gold.     New  York,  1860. 
Colton  (Walter),  Three  Years  in  California.     New  York,  1850. 
Cornbier  (C.),  Voyage  an  Golfe  de  California.     Paris,  n.d. 
Commettant  (Oscar),  Les  Civilisations  Inconnues.     Paris,  1863. 
Comite  d'Archeologie  Americaine,  Annuaire.     Paris,  1866-7. 
Concilios   Provinciates  Mexicanos.     1°,  2°,  3°,  y  4°;  1555,  1565,  1585,   1771. 

The  original  MS.  Records,  folio.  5  vols. 

Cornier  (Josiah),  Mexico  and  Guatemala.     London,  1831.  2  vols. 
Cook  (James),  A  Voyage  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.     London,  1784.  4to.  3  vols. 

and  folio  atlas. 

Cooke  (P.  St  G.),  Scenes  and  Adventures  in  the  Army.    Philadelphia,  1857. 
Cooper,  The  History  of  North  America.     London,  1789. 
Coreal  (Francois),  Voyages  aux  Indes  Occidentales.     Paris,  1722.  2  vols. 
Cornwallis  (Kinahan),  The  New  El  Dorado,  or  British  Columbia.     London, 

1858. 
Coronado  (Francisco  Vazquez  jde),   The   Relation  of.     Country  of  Cibola. 

[1540.]     In   Hakluyt's    Voyages,    vol.     iii. ;    Ternaux-Compans,  Voy., 

serie  i.,  torn,  ix.;  Ramusio,  Navig.,  torn.  iii. 
Cortes  (Hernan),   Aventuras  y  Conquistas  de   Hernan   Cortes  en   Mejico. 

Barcelona,  1846. 
Cortes  (Hernan),   Carta  Inedita.  [Oct.  15,   1524.]     In  Icazbalceta,  Col.  de 

Doc.,  torn.  i. 
Cortes   (Hernan),    Cartas  y  Relaciones   de   Hernan  Cortes  al   Emperador 

Carlos  V.     Paris,   1866. 
Cortes   (Hernan),  The  Despatches  of.     Translated  by  Geo.  Folsom.     New 

York,  1843. 

Cortes  (Hernan),  Historia  de  Nueva-Espana.     Aumentada  por  Don  Fran 
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Cortes  (Hernan),  Vida  de  Hernan  Cortes.     [De  Rebus  Gestis,  etc.]   In  Icaz 
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Cortes,  Martyr,  et  al.,  De  Insvlis  nvper  invehtis  Ferdinandi  Cortesii  ad 

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Cortez  (Jose),  History  of  the  Apache  Nations.  [1799.]  InPac.  R.  R.  Repts., 

vol.  iii. 
Cotheal  (Alex.  J. ),  A  Grammatical  Sketch  of  the  Language  spoken  by  the 

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Coulter  (John),  Adventures  on  the  Western  Coast  of  South  America  and 

the  Interior  of  California.     London,  1847.  2  vols. 
Coulter  (Thomas),  Notes  on  Upper  California.    In  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour., 

vol.  v. 
Cousin  (Victor),  Course  of  the  History  of  Modern  Philosophy.    New  York, 

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Cox  (Isaac),  The  Annals  of  Trinity  County.     San  Francisco,  1858. 
Cox  (Ross),  Adventures  on  the  Columbia  River.     London,  1831.  2  vols. 
Coxe   (Wm.),    Account  of  the  Russian  Discoveries  between  Russia  and 

America.     London,  1787. 
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Crespi  (Juan),  Diario  de  la  Espedicion  de  Mar  que  hizo  la  fragata  Santiago. 

[Capt.  Juan  Perez,  1774.]     In  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn.  vi. 
Crespi  (Juan),  Viage  de  la  Espedicion  de  Tierra  de  San  Diego  a  Monterey. 

Copia  del  Diario,  etc.  [1769.]   In  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn.  vi. 
Cronise  (Titus  Fey),  The  Natural  Wealth  of  California.     San  Francisco, 

1868. 

Crowe  (Frederick),  The  Gospel  in  Central  America.     London,  1850. 
Cuadcrno  Historico  de  las  Agresiones  y  Hazanas  de  tres  celebres  Apaches. 

In  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn.  iii. 
Cuesta  (Felipe  Arroyo  de  la),  Extracto  de  la  Gramatica  Mutsun.     (Shea's 

Linguistics,  No'  4. )     New  York,   1861. 
Cuesta  (Felipe  Arroyo  de  la),  A  Vocabulary  or  Phrase  Book  of  the  Mutsun 

Language  of  Alta  California.     (Shea's  Linguistics,  No.  8.)   New  York, 

1862. 

Culleu,  The  Isthmus  of  Darien  Ship  Canal.     London,  1853. 
Cutts  (J.  Madison),  The  Conquest  of  California  and  New  Mexico.     Phila 
delphia,  1847. 

Dale  (R.),  Notes  of  an  Excursion  to  the  Isthmus  of  Teliuantepec.     Lon 
don,  1851. 

Dall  (Win.  H.),  Alaska  and  its  resources.     Boston,  1870. 
Dally    (E.),    Sur  les  Races  Indigenes   et  sur  1'Archeologie  du   Mexique. 

Paris,  1862. 
Dampier  (Wm.),  A  New  Voyage  round  the  World.     London,  1699-1709.  3 

vols. 

Dapper  (O.),  Die  Unbekannte  Neue  Welt.     Amsterdam,   1673.  folio. 
Darwin  (Charles),  The  Descent  of  Man.     New  York,  1871.  2  vols. 
Darwin  (Charles),  On  the  Origin  of  Species.     New  York,  1871. 
Davidson  (George),  Directory  for  the  Pacific  Coast  of  the  United  States. 

Washington,  n.d.  \^ 

Davila  (Gil  Gonzalez),  Teatro  Eclesiastico  de  la  Primitiva  Iglesia  de  las 

Indias  Occidentales.     Madrid,  1649-55.  2  vols.  folio. 
Davila  (Julian  Gutierrez),  Meniorias  Historicas  de  la  Congregacion  de  el 

Oratorio  de  la  Ciudad  de  Mexico.     Mexico,  1736.  folio. 
Davila  Padilla  (Avgvstin),  Historia  de  la  Fvndacion  y  Discvrso  de  la  Pro- 

vincia  de  Santiago  de  Mexico.     Brusselas,  1625.  folio. 

Davis  (A.),  Antiquities  of  America.     Buffalo,    1846,  and  New  York,  1847. 
Davis  (W.  Wr.  H.),  El  Gringo;  or,   New  Mexico  and  her   People.      New 

York,  1857. 
Dease  and  Simpson,  An  Account  of  the  Recent   Arctic  Discoveries.     In 

Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  viii. 

De  Bercy  (Drouin),  L'Europe  et  1'Amerique.     Paris,  1818. 
De    Costa  (B.    F.),  The   Pre-Columbian   Discovery  of  America.     Albany, 

1868. 

De  Groot  (Henry),  British  Columbia.     San  Francisco,  1859. 
Delafield  (John),  An  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  of  the  Antiquities  of  America. 

Cincinnati,  1839.  4to. 

Delano  (A.),  Life  on  the  Plains.     New  York,  1861. 
Delaporte,  Reisen  eines  Franzosen.     Leipzig,  1772. 
Democratic  Review.     Washington,  etc.,  1832  et  seq. 
Denkschriften  der  russischen  geographischen  Gesellschaft  zu  St  Petersburg. 

Weimar,  1849  et  seq. 
Derbec,   Lettres  ecrites  de  la  Calif ornie.     In  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy., 

1851.,  torn,  cxxviii-xxx. 

De  Smet  (P.  J.  de),  Letters  and  Sketches.     Philadelphia,  1843. 
De  Smet  (P.  J.  de),  Missions  de  1'Oregon.    London,  1848. 
De  Smet  (P.  J.  de),  Oregon  Missions  and  Travels  over  the  Rocky  Mount 
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De  Smet  (P.  J.  de),  Voyages  aux  Montagnes  Rocheuses.     Lille,  1859. 
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XXVi  AUTHORITIES  QUOTED. 

Dewees  (W.  B.),  Letters  from  an  Early  Settler  of  Texas.     Louisville,  1852. 

Diaz  (Juan),  Itinerario  de  la  Armada  del  Key  Catolico  a  la  Isla  de  Yucatan, 
1518,  en  la  que  fue  Juan  de  Grijalva.  In  Icazbalceta,  Col.  de  Doc., 
torn.  i. ;  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn.  x. 

Diaz  del  Castillo  (Denial),  Historia  Verdadera  de  la  Conquista  de  la  Nueva- 
Espaiia.  Madrid,  1632.  4to. 

Diccionario  Universal  de  Historia  y  de  Geografia.  Mexico,  1853.  4to.  10 
vols. 

Dillon  (A.),  Beautes  de  1'Histoire  du  Mexique.     Paris,  1822. 

Diorama.     [Mexico.]  n.d. 

Dixon  (George),  A  Voyage  round  the  World.     London,  1789.  4to. 

Dobbs  (Arthur),  An  Account  of  the  Countries  adjoining  to  Hudson's  Bay. 
London,  1744.  4to. 

Doctrina  Christiana  y  Confesionario  en  Lengua  Nevome.  (Shea's  Linguist 
ics,  No.  5.)  San  Augustine,  1862. 

Documentos  para  la  Historia  de  Mexico.  Mexico,  1853-7.  20  vols.  4 
series.  Series  iii.  in  folio  and  in  4  parts  referred  to  as  volumes. 

Documentos  para  la  Historia  eclesiastica  y  civil  de  Nueva  Vizcaya.  In 
Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn.  iv. ;  and  MS. 

Dollfus  (A. ),  and  E.  de  Mont-Serrat,  Voyage  Geologique  dans  les  Repub- 
liques  de  Guatemala  et  de  Salvador.  Paris,  1868.  4to.  (Mission  Sci- 
entifique,  Geologic.) 

Domenech  (Emmanuel),  Journal  d'un  Missionaire  ait  Texas  et  au  Mexique. 
Paris,  1857. 

Domenech  (Emmanuel),  Manuscrit  Pictographique  Americain.  Paris, 
1860. 

Domenech  (Emmanuel),  Le  Mexique  tel  qu'il  est.     Paris,  1867. 

Domenech  (Emmanuel),  Seven  Years'  Residence  in  the  Great  Deserts  of 
North  America.  London,  1860. 

Dominguez  (F.  A.),  and  S.  V.  de  Fscalante,  Diario  y  Derrotero,  Santa 
Fe  a  Monterey,  1776.  In  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  ii.,  torn.  i. 

D'Orbigny  (Alcide),  Voyage  dans  les  deux  Ameriques.     Paris,  1859. 

Douglass  (Wm.),  A  Summary,  Historical  and  Political,  of  British  Set 
tlements.  Boston,  1755.  2  vols. 

Dragoon  Campaigns  through  the  Rocky  Mountains.     New  York,  1846. 

Drake  (Francis),  The  World  Encompassed.  Out  of  the  Notes  of  Master 
Francis  Fletcher.  London,  1854.  (Hakl.  Soc.  ed.) 

Drake  (Samuel  G.),  The  Aboriginal  Races  of  North  America.  Philadel 
phia,  1860. 

Draper  (John  Wm.),  History  of  the  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe. 
New  York,  1872. 

Draper  (John  Wm.),  Thoughts  on  the  Future  Civil  Polity  of  America.  New 
York,  1871. 

Drew  (C.  S.),  Official  Report  of  the  Owyhee  Reconnoissance.  Jackson 
ville,  1865. 

Duhaut-Cilly  (A.),  Viaggio  intorno  al  globo.     Torino,  1841.    2  vols. 

Dunbar  (Edward  E.),  The  Mexican  Papers.     New  York,  1860. 

Duniway  (Abigail  J.),  Captain  Gray's  Company;  or  Crossing  the  Plains. 
Portland,  1859. 

Dunlop  (Robert  Glasgow),  Travels  in  Central  America.     London,  1847. 

Dunn  (Henry),  Guatirnala,  or  the  United  Provinces  of  Central  America. 
New  York,  1828. 

Dunn  (John),  History  of  the  Oregon  Territory.     London,  1844. 

Dupaix  (Guillermo),  Relation  de  la  premiere  (seconde  et  troisieme)  Expedi 
tion  pour  la  Recherche  des  Antiquites  du  Pays.  Spanish  text  and 
French  translation,  in  Antiq.  Mex.,  torn,  i.,  div.  i.  Plates  in  id., 
torn.  iii.  Spanish  text,  in  Kingsborough's  Mex.  Antiq.,  vol.  V. 
English  translation,  in  id.,  vol.  vi.  Plates  in  id.,  vol.  iv. 

Duponceau  (P.  Et.),  Memoire  sur  le  systeme  Grammaticale  des  Languea 
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Edinburgh  Review.     Edinburgh,  1802  et  seq. 

Edward  (David  B.),  The  History  of  Texas.     Cincinnati,  1836. 

Edwards  (Bryan),  The  History,  Civil  and  Commercial,  of  the  British  Colo 
nies  in  the  West  Indies.  London,  1793-1801.  4to.  3  vols. 

Edwards  (Frank  S.),  A  Campaign  in  New  Mexico.     Philadelphia,  1847. 

Emerson  (R.  W.),  Essay  on  Civilization. 

Emory  (Wm.  H.),  Report  of  the  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Boundary  Survey.  (34th 
Cong.,  1st  Sess.,  House  Ex.  Doc.  135.)  Washington,  1857.  4to.  3  vols. 

Emory,  Abert,  and  Cooke,  Notes  of  Military  Reconnoissance,  etc.,  in  New 
Mexico  and  California.  (30th  Cong.,  1st  Sess.,  Ex.  Doc.  41.)  Wash 
ington,  1848. 

Erman  (A.),  Archiv  fur  Wissenschaftliche  Kunde  von  Russland.     Berlin. 

Escalante  (Silvestre  Velez  de),  Carta  escrita  en  2  de  Abril  de  1778  afios. 
In  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  pt  iv. 

Escalera  (Evaristo),  and  M.  G.  Liana,  Mej'ico  Historico-descriptivo.  Mad 
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Escobar  (Alonso  de),  Account  of  the  Province  of  Vera  Paz.  In  Lond. 
Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xi. 

Escudero  (Jose  Agustin  de),  Noticias  Estadisticas  del  Estado  de  Chihua 
hua.  Mexico,  1834. 

Escudero  (Jose  Agustin  de),  Noticias  Estadisticas  del  Estado  de  Durango. 
Mexico,  1849. 

Escudero  (Jose  Agustin  de),  Noticias  Estadisticas  de  Sonora  y  Sinaloa. 
Mexico,  1849. 

Esparza  (Marcos  de),  Informe  presentado  al  Gobierno.     Zacatecas,  1830. 

Espeio  (Antonio  de),  El  Viaie  <jve  hizo  Antonio  de  Espeio  en  el  anno  de 
ochenta  y  tres  (to  New  Mexico).  In  Hakluyt's  Voyages,  vol.  iii. 

Espinosa  (Isidro  Felis  de),  Chronica  Apostolica  y  Serdphica  de  todos  los 
Colegios  de  Propaganda  Fide  de  esta  Nueva-Espaiia.  Primera  Parte. 
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Esquemelin  (A.   O.),  De  Americaensche  Zee-Roovers.     Amsterdam,  1678. 

Esteva  (Jose  Maria),  Apuntes  Arqueologicos.     In  Museo  Mex.,  torn.  ii. 

Evans  (Albert  S.),  Our  Sister  Republic.     Hartford,  1870. 

Fabens  (Joseph  W.),  A  Story  of  Life  on  the  Isthmus.     New  York,  1853. 

Fages  (Eduardo),  Noticias  Estadisticas  sobre  el  Departamento  de  Tuxpan. 
In  Soc.  Mex.  Geog.,  Boletin,  torn.  iv. 

Fages  (Pedro),  Voyage  en  Californie.  In  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1844. 
torn.  ci. 

Fancourt  (Charles  St  John),  The  History  of  Yucatan.     London,  1854. 

Farnham  (Thomas  J.),  The  Early  Days  of  California.     Philadelphia,  1860. 

Farnham  (Thomas  J.),  Life  and  Adventures  in  California.    New  York,  1846. 

Farnham  (Thomas  J.),  Mexico.     New  York,  1846. 

Farnham  (Thomas  J. ),  Travels  in  the  Great  Western  Prairies.  New  York, 
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Hacke  (Wm.),  A  Collection  of  Original  Voyages.     London,  1699. 

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Hakluyt   (Richard),    The   Principal   Navigations,  Voyages,   etc.     London, 

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Hardy  (R.  W.  H.),  Travels  in  the  Interior  of  Mexico.     London,  1829. 
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Helps  (Arthur),  The  Life  of  Las  Casas.     Philadelphia,  1868. 

Helps  (Arthur),  The  Spanish  Conquest  in  America.    London.  1858-61.  4  vols. 

Henderson  (Alex.),   A  Grammar  of  the  Moskito  Language.     New  York, 

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Hill  (S.  S.),  Travels  in  Peru  and  Mexico.     London,  1860.  2  vols. 
Hind  (Henry  Youle),  Narrative  of  the  Canadian  Red  River  Exploring  Ex 
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Hinton  (It.),  The  Land  of  Gold.     Baltimore,  1855. 
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Hittell  (John  S.),  The  Resources  of  California.     San  Francisco,  1867. 
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Horn  (George),  De  Originibus  Americanis.     Hagae,  1652. 
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Hughes  (John  T.),  Doniphan's  Expedition.     Cincinnati,  1850. 
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Humboldt  (Alex,  de),  Vues  des  Cordilleres,  et  Monumens  des  Peuples  Indi 
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t 


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Iberri,  Ruinas  de  Monte-Real,  Vera  Cruz.     In  Museo  Mex.,  torn.  iii. 

Icazbalceta  ( Joaquin  GarciaJ,  Coleccion  de  Documentos  para  la  Historia  de 
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Ilustracion  Mexicana.     Mexico,  1851. 

Incidents  and  Sketches.     Cincinnati,  n.d. 

Indian  Affairs,  Report  of  the  Commissioner.     Washington,  1854  et  seq.. 

Indian  Life,  Traits  of  American.     London,  1853. 

Institute  Nacional  de  Geografia  y  Estadistica,  Boletin.  See  Sociedad  Mex 
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Irving  (Washington),  The  Adventures  of  Captain  Bonneville.  New  York, 
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Irving  (Washington),  Astoria.     New  York,  I860. 

Irving  (Washington),  The  Life  and  Voyages  of  Christopher  Columbus.  New 
York,  1869.  3  vols. 

Ives  (Joseph  C.),  Report  upon  the  Colorado  River  of  the  West.  (36th 
Cong.,  1st  Sess.,  House  Ex.  Doc,  90.)  Washington,  1861.  4to. 

Ixtlilxochitl  (Fernando  de  Alva),  Cruautes  Horribles  des  Conquerants  du 
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Ixtlilxochitl  (Fernando  de  Alva),  Histoire  des  Chichimeques.  In  Ternaux- 
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Ixtlilxochitl  (Fernando  de  Alva),  Historia  Chichimeca.  In  Kingsborough's 
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Ixtlilxochitl  (Fernando  de  Alva),  Relaciones.  In  Kingsborough's  Mex.  An 
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Jackson  (George  W.),  Vocabulary  of  the  Wintoon  Language.     MS. 
James  (Edwin),  Account  of  an  Expedition  from  Pittsburgh  to  the  Rocky 

Mountains.     London,  1823.  3  vols. 

Japanese  Equivalent  of  the  most  common  English  Words.     Tokei,  n.d. 
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Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn.  ix. 

Jefferys  (Thomas),  Voyages  from  Asia  to  America.    London,  1761.  4to. 
Jenkins  (John  S. ),  Voyage  of  U.   S.   Exploring  Squadron.     Auburn,  1850. 
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Johnson  (Chas.  Granville),  History  of  the  Territory  of  Arizona.  San  Fran 
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Johnston  (Theodore  T.),  California  and  Oregon.     Philadelphia,  1857. 
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1873. 

Jones  (George),  The  History  of  Ancient  America.     London,  1843. 
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M'Clure  (R.),  Discovery  of  the  North- West  Passage.    In  Lond.  Geog.  Soc., 
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Marquez   (Pietro),    Due  Antichi  Monumenti  di  Architettura  Messicana. 
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Marsh  (G.  P.),  Man  and  Nature.     New  York,  1867. 

Martin  (Ch.),  Precis  des  Evenements  de  la  Campagne  du  Mexiquc.     Paris, 

Martin  (John,)  An  Account  of  the  Natives  of  the  Tonga  Islands.    London, 

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Martin  (R.  Montgomery),  History  of  the  West  Indies.     London,  1836.  2 

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Martin  (R.  Montgomery),  The  Hudson's  Bay  Territories  and  Vancouver's 

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Martyr  (Peter),  Decades.     In  Voy.,  a  Selection,  etc.  London,   1812. 
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Maurelle  (Fran.  Antonio),  Journal  of  a  Voyage  in  1775.  n.pl.,  n.d.  4to. 
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Mayer  (Brantz),  Mexico  as  it  was  and  as  it  is.     New  York,  1854. 
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Mayer  (Brantz),  Observations  on  Mexican  History  and  Archaeology.  (Smith 
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Meares  (John),  Voyages  made  in  the  years  1788-9.     London,  1790.  4to. 
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Meline  (James  F.),  Two  Thousand  Miles  on  Horseback.     New  York,  1867. 
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Codex  Bologna,  Fac-simile,  Library  of  the  Institute,  vol.  ii. 
Codex  Borgian,  Fac-simile,  Borgian  Museum,  Rome.  vol.  iii. 
Codex  Boturini,  Fac-simile,  Collection  of  Boturini.  vol.  i. 
Codex  Dresden,  Fac-simile,  Royal  Library.  vol.  iii. 
Codex  Fejervary,  Fac-simile,  in  possession  of  M.  F —    — .    vol.  iii. 
Codex  Mendoza,  Copy  of  the  Collection  of  Mendoza.  vol.  i,     Explicacion 

de  la  Coleccion.  vol.  v.     Interpretion  of  the   Collection,  vol.  vi. 
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Explicacion,  vol.  v.     Explanation,  vol.  vi. 
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Spiegazione  delle  Tavole,  vol.  v,     Translation,  vol.  vi. 
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Mexican  Sculpture,  Specimens  preserved  in  the  British  Museum.    In  Kings- 
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Mexico,  Noticias  de  la  Ciudad.     Mexico,  1855.  4to. 

Mexico,  A  Trip  to,  by  a  Barrister.     London,  1851. 

Mexique  Cpnquis.     Paris,  1752.  2  vols. 

Mexique,  Etudes  Historiques.     Paris,  1859. 

Meyer  (Carl),  Nach  dem  Sacramento.     Aarau,  1855. 

Michler  (N.),  Report  of  Survey  for  Ship  Canal  near  Darien.  (36th  Cong., 
2d  Sess.,  Senate  Ex.  Doc.  9.)  Washington,  1861. 

Mijangos  (Joan),  Espeio  Divino  en  Lengua  Mexicana.     Mexico,  1607. 

Milburn  (Win.  Henry),  The  Rifle,  Axe,  and  Saddle-Bags.    New  York,  1857. 

Mill  (John  Stuart),  Dissertations  and  Discussions.     London,  1867.  3  vola. 

Mill  (John  Stuart),  Essay  on  Civilization. 

Mill  (Nicholas),  History  of  Mexico.     London,  1824. 

Miller  (Joaquin),  Life  Amongst  the  Modocs.     London,  1873. 

Milton,  and  Cheadle,  The  North- West  Passage  by  Land.     London,  [1865]. 

Miscellanea  Curiosa.     London,   1827. 

Mission  Scientirique  au  Mexique  et  dans  1'Ame'rique  Centrale.  Geologic, 
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Mofras  (Duflot  de),  Exploration  du  Territoire  de  l'0re*gon,  des  Californies, 
etc.  Paris,  1844.  2  vols.  and  atlas. 

Molina  (Alonso  de),  Vocabulario  en  Lengua  Castellana  y  Mexicana.  Mex 
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Molina  (Felipe),  Coup  d'Oeilrapide  sur  la  Republique  de  Costa  Rica.  Paris, 
1850. 

Molina  (Felipe),  Memoir  on  the  Boundary  Question,  Costa  Rica  and  Nica 
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Mollhausen  (Balduin),  Der  Fluchtling.     Leipzig,  1862.  4  vols. 

Mollhausen  (Balduin),  Das  Mormonenmadchen.     Jena,  1864.  4  vols. 

Mollhausen  (Balduin),  Reisen  in  die  Felsengebirge  Nord-Amerikas.  Leip 
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Mollhausen  (Balduin),  Tagebuch  einer  Reise  vom  Mississippi  nach  den 
Kiisten  der  Sudsee.  Leipzig,  1858.  4to. 

Monglave  (Eugene  de),  Re'sume  de  1'Histoire  dn  Mexique.     Paris,  1826. 

Montanus  (Arnoldus),  De  Nieuwe  en  Onbekende  Weereld.  Amsterdam, 
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Montgomery  (G.  W.),  Narrative  of  a  Journey  to  Guatemala.  New  York, 
1839. 

Moore  (Francis,  Jr.),  Description  of  Texas.    New  York,  1854. 

Morelet  (Arthur),  Voyage  dans  1'Amerique  Centrale,  1'Isle  de  Cuba  et  le 
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Morfi  (Juan  Agustin  de),  Viage  de  Indies  y  Diario  del  Nuevo-Me"xico.  In 
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Morineau  (P.  de),  Notice  sur  la  Nouvelle  Californie.  In  Nouvelles  Annales 
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Morrell  (Benjamin),  A  Narrative  of  four  Voyages  to  the  South  Sea,  etc. 
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Palliser  (John),  Exploration  of  British  America.     London,  1860.  folio. 
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Paredes  (Ignacio  de),  Promptuario  Manual  Mexicano.     Mexico,  1759. 
Parker  (Samuel),  Journal  of  an  Exploring  Tour.     Ithaca,  1842. 
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Parkman  (Francis),  The  California  and  Oregon  Trail.     New  York,  1849. 
Parkman  (Francis),  The  Jesuits  in  North  America.     Boston,  1867. 
Parry  (W.  E.),  Journals  of  the  first,  second  and  third  Voyages  for  the  Dis 
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Pattie  (James  O.),  The  Personal  Narrative  of,  edited  by  Timothy  Flint. 

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Pemberton  (J.  Despard),  Facts  and  Figures  relating  to  Vancouver's  Island 

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Perez  (Juan),  Relacion  del  viage  en  1774  con  la  fragata  Santiago.     MS. 
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Perez  (Manuel),  Arte  de  el  Idioma  Mexicano.     Mexico,  1713. 

Peters  (De  Witt  C.),  The  Life  ana  Adventures  of  Kit  Carson.  New  York, 
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Petit-Thouars  (Abel  du),  Voyage  autour  du  Monde.     Paris,  1840-4.  5  vols. 

Petzholdt  (J.),  Das  Bueh  der  Wilden.     Dresden,  1861. 

Pfeiffer  (Ida),  A  Lady's  second  Journey  round  the  World.  New  York, 
1856. 

Phelps  (W.  D.),  Fore  and  Aft.    Boston,  1871. 

Pickering  (Charles),  ^The  Races  of  Man:  and  their  Geographical  Distribu 
tion.  Philadelphia,  1848.  4to.  (U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.) 

Pidgeon  (William),  Traditions  of  Decoodah,  and  Antiquarian  Researches. 
NCAV  York,  1858. 

Pike  (Zebulon  Montgomery),  Exploratory  Travels  through  the  Western 
Territories  of  North  America.  London,  1811.  4to. 

Pilar  (Garcia  del),  Relacion  de  la  Entrada  de  -Nuiio  de  Guzman.  In  Icaz- 
balceta,  Col.  de  Doc.,  torn.  ii. 

Pirn  (Bedford),  The  Gate  of  the  Pacific.     London,  1863. 

Pirn  (Bedford),  and  Berthold  Seemann,  Dottings  on  the  Roadside  in  Pan 
ama,  Nicaragua,  and  Mosquito.  London,  1869. 

Pimentel  (Francisco),  Cuadro  Descriptive  y  Comparative  de  las  Lenguas 
indigenas  de  Mexico.  Mexico,  1862-5.  2  vols. 

Pimentel  (Francisco),  La  Economia  Politica.     Mexico,  1866. 

Pimentel  (Francisco),  Memoria  sobre  las  Causas  que  han  originado  la  Situ- 
acion  Actual  de  la  Raza  Indigena  le  Mexico.  Mexico,  1864. 

Pimeria,  Noticias  de  la.     In  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  pt  iv. 

Pineda  (Emilio),  Descripcion  Geografica  del  Departamento  de  Chiapas  y 
Soconuseo.  In  Soc.  Mex.  Geog.,  Boletin,  torn.  iii. 

Pinkerton  (John),  A  General  Collection  of  Voyages  and  Travels.  London, 
1808-14.  17  vols.  4to. 

Pioneer.     San  Francisco,  1854-5.  4  vols. 

Pitman  (Robert  Birks),  A  Succinct  View  and  Analysis  of  Ship  Canal  across 
the  Isthmus  of  America.  London,  1825. 

Pizarro  y  Orellana  (Fernando),  Varones  Ilvstres  del  Nvevo  Mvndo.  Mad 
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Pontelli  (L.  de),  Explorations  in  Central  America.  In  Nouvelles  Annales 
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Poole  (Francis),  Queen  Charlotte  Islands.     London,   1872. 

Porter  (Jane),  Sir  Edward  Seaward's  Narrative  of  his  Shipwreck.  London, 
1841.  2  vols. 

Porter  (Noah),  The  Sciences  of  Nature  versus  the  Science  of  Man.  New 
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Portlock  (Nathaniel),  A  Voyage  round  the  World.     London,  1789. 

Poussin  (G.  T.),  Question  de  1'Oregon.     Paris,  1846. 

Powers  (Stephen),  The  Northern  California  Indians.  In  Overland  Monthly, 
vols.  viii.  et  sea. 

Powers  (Stephen),  Porno:  Some  Accounts  of  the  Habits,  Customs,  Tradi 
tions  and  Languages  of  the  California  Indians.  MS.  1873. 

Powers  (Stephen),  Vocabularies  of  the  California  Indians.     MSS. 

Poyet  (C.  F.),  Notices  Geographiques.     Paris,  1863. 

Pradt,  Cartas  al  Sr  Abate  de  Praclt.     Madrid,  1829. 

Prariedom.     Rambles  and  Scrambles  in  Texas.     New  York,  1845. 

Prescott  (William  H.),  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico.  New  York, 
1844.  3  vols. 

Prescott  (William  H.),  Historia  de  la  Conquista  de  Mexico.  Mexico,  1844- 
6.  3  vols. 

Prescott  (William  H.),  Historia  de  la  Conquista  de  Mexico.  Madrid,  1847- 
50.  4  vols. 

Prichard  (James  Cowles),  The  Natural  History  of  Man.  London,  1855. 
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Prichard  (James  Cowles),  Researches  in  the  Physical  History  of  Mankind. 

London,  1836-47.  5  vols. 
Priest  ( Josiah),  American  Antiquities  and  Discoveries  in  the  West.  Albany, 

1838. 

Prieto  (Guillermo),  Viajes  de  Orden  Suprema.    Mexico,  1857. 
Purchas  his  Pilgrimes.     London,  1625-6.  5  vols.  folio. 
Puydt  (Lucien  de),  Account  of  Scientific  Explorations  in  the  Isthmus  of 

Darien,  1861,  1865.     In  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxviii. 

Quarterly  Review,  London,  1809  et  seq. 

Queretaro,  Noticias  Estadisticas.     Mexico,  1848. 

Quintana  (Manuel  Josef),  Vidas  de  Espanoles  Celebres.     Paris,  1845. 

Radloff(L.),  Einige  Nachrichten  iiber  die  Sprache  der  Kaiganeu;  in  Me 
langes  Russes,  torn,  iii.,  livraison  v.     St  Petersbourg,  1858. 
Rae(W.  F.),  Westward  by  Rail.     London,  1870. 
Ramirez  (Antonio  de  Guadalupe),  Breve  Compendio  de  todo  lo  quo  debe 

saber  y  entender  el  Christiano,  en  Lengua  Othomi.     Mexico,  1785. 
Ramirez  (Jose  Fernando),  Cuadro  Historico-Gerogliiico  de  la  Peregrinacion 

de  las  Tribus  Aztecas.     In  Garcia  y  Cubas,   Atlas. 
Ramirez  (Jose  Fernando),  Discursos  sobre  la  Historia  Antigua  de  Mejico. 

In  Revista  Cientifica,  torn,  i. 
Ramirez  (Jose  Fernando),  Notas  y  Esclarecimientos  a  la  Historia  de  la  Con- 

quista.     In  Prescott  (W.  H.),  Hist.  Conq.  Mex.,  Mexico,  1845.,  torn.  ii. 
Ramirez  (Jose  Fernando),  Noticias  Historicas  de  Durango.     In  Soc.  Mex. 

Geog.,  Boletin,  torn.  v. 
Ramirez  (Jose  Fernando),  Noticias  Historicas  y  Estadisticas  de  Durango. 

Mexico,  1851. 
Ramirez  (Jose  Fernando),  Proceso  de  Residencia  contra  Pedro  de  Alvarado. 

Mexico,  1847. 
Ramusio   (Giovanni  Battista),  Navigation!  et  Viaggi.      Venetia,   torn,  i., 

1554;  torn,  ii.,  1583;  torn,  iii.,   1565.   3  vols.  folio. 
Ranking  (John),  Historical  Researches  on  the  Conquest  of  Peru,   Mexico, 

etc.,  by  the  Mongols.     London,  1827. 
Raso  (Antonio  del),   Notas  Estadisticas  del  Departamento  de  Queretaro. 

In  Soc.  Mex.  Geog.,  Boletin,  torn.  iii. 

Rattray  (Alex.),  Vancouver  Island  and  British  Columbia.    London,  1862. 
Ran  (Charles),  Indian  Pottery.     In  Smithsonian  Report,  1866. 
Raven  (Ralph),  Golden  Dreams  and  Leaden  Realities.     New  York,  1853. 
Raynal   (G.  T.),    Histoire  Philosophique  et  Politique.     Paris,  1820-1.  12 

vols.  and  atlas. 

Registro  Trimestre.     Mexico,  1832. 
Registro  Yucateco.     Merida,  1845.  2  vols. 
Reichardt  (C.  F.),  Centre- Amerika.     Braunschweig,  1851. 
Reichardt  (C.  F.),  Nicaragua.     Braunschweig,  1854. 
Reid  (Hugo),  The  Indians  of  Los  Angeles  County.     In  Los  Angeles  Star, 

1852;  California  Farmer,  1861;  and  in  Hayes  Collection. 
Relacion  de  algunas  cosas  de  la  Nueva  Espafia.  [Anonymous  Conqueror.] 

In  Icazbalceta,  Col  de  Doc.,  torn.  i. 
Relatione  d'  alcvne  cose  della  Nuoua  Spagna,  etc.,  per  vn  gentil'huomo  del 

Signor  Fernando  Cortese.  [Anonymous  Conqueror.]     In  Ramusio,  Navi- 

gationi,  torn.  iii. 

Religious  Ceremonies  and  Customs.     London,  1731.  3  vols.  folio. 
Remesal  (Antonio  de),   Historia  de  la  Provincia  de  S.  Vicente  de  Chyapa. 

Madrid,  1619.  4to. 
Remy  (Jules),  and  Julius  Brenchley,  A  Journey  to  Great  Salt  Lake  City. 

London,  1861.  2  vols. 

Revere  (Joseph  Warren),  A  Tour  of  Duty  in  California.    New  York,  1849. 
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xlii  AUTHORITIES  QUOTED. 

Revista  Cientifica  y  Literaria.     Mexico,  1845.  2  vols. 

Re  vista  Mexicana.     Mexico,  1835. 

Revue  Americaine.     Paris,  1826  et  seq. 

Revue  des  Deux  Mondes.     Paris,  1839  et  seq. 

Revue  Fran9aise.     Paris,  1864. 

Ribas  (Andres  Perez  de),  Historia  de  los  Trivmphos  de  Nvestra  Santa  Fee, 
en  las  Misiones  de  la  Provincia  de  Nueva-Espana.  Madrid,  1645.  folio. 

Ribero  (L.  Miguel),  Proyecto  de  Monarquia  en  Mexico.     Madrid,  1846. 

Richardson  (John),  Arctic  Searching  Expedition:  A  Journal  of  a  Boat  Voy 
age.  London,  1851.  2  vols. 

Richardson  (John),  The  Polar  Regions.     Edinburgh,   1861. 

Richthofen  (Emil  Karl  Heinrich  von),  Die  Aeusseren  und  Inneren  Politischen. 
Zustande  der  Republik  Mexico.  Berlin,  1854. 

Rio  (Antonio  del),  Description  of  the  Ruins  of  an  Ancient  City  [Palenque]. 
London,  1822.  4to. 

Rio  (Antonio  del),  Beschreibung  einer  Alten  Stadt.  [With  additions  by 
the  translator,  J.  H.  von  Minutoli.]  Berlin,  1532. 

Rios  (Epitacio  J.  de  los),  Compendio  de  la  Historia  de  Mexico.  Mexico, 
1852. 

Ripaldo,  Catecismo  (en  idioma  Mixteco).     Puebla,   1719. 

Ritos  Antiguos,  Sacrificios  e  Idolatrias  de  los  Indies  de  la  Nueva-Espana. 
In  Kingsborough's  Mex.  Antiq.,  vol.  ix. 

Rittner  (Heinrich),  Guatimozin  iiber  die  Welt  und  die  Erde.     Berlin,  1801. 

Rivera,  and  Garcia,  Ruinas  de  la  Quemada.     In  Museo  Mexicano,  torn.  i. 

Rivero  (Mariano  Edward),  See  Tschudi,  Peruvian  Antiq. 

Robertson  (William),  The  History  of  America.    London,  1777.  2  vols.  4to. 

Robertson  (William  Parrish),  A  Visit  to  Mexico.     London,  1853.  2  vols. 

Robinson  (Alfred),  Life  in  California.     New  York,  1846. 

Robinson  (Fayette),  California  and  its  Gold  Regions.     New  York,  1849. 

Rochelle  (Roiix  de),  Etats  Unis  d'Amerique.     Paris,  1853. 

Rogers  (Woodes),  A  Cruising  Voyage  round  the  World.     London,  1718. 

Rollin,  Memoire  Physiologique  et  Pathologique  sur  les  Americains.  In  Pe- 
rouse,  Voy.,  torn.  iv. 

Romero  (Jose  'Guadalupe),  Noticias  para  formar  la  Historia  y  la  Estadistica 
del  Obispado  de  Michoacan.  Mexico,  1862;  and  in  Soc.  Mex.  Geog., 
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THE  NATIVE  RACES 

OP  THE 

PACIFIC   STATES. 

WILD    TRIBES. 
CHAPTER  I. 

ETHNOLOGICAL   INTRODUCTION. 

FACTS  AND  THEORIES  —  HYPOTHESES  CONCERNING  ORIGIN  —  UNITY  OP  EACE — 
DIVERSITY  or  RACE — SPONTANEOUS  GENERATION — ORIGIN  or  ANIMALS  AND 
PLANTS — PRIMORDIAL  CENTRES  OP  POPULATION — DISTRIBUTION  OP  PLANTS 
AND  ANIMALS — ADAPTABILITY  OF  SPECIES  TO  LOCALITY — CLASSIFICATION 
OF  SPECIES — ETHNOLOGICAL  TESTS — RACES  OP  THE  PACIFIC — FIRST  INTER 
COURSE  WITH  EUROPEANS. 

Facts  are  the  raw  material  of  science.  They  are  to 
philosophy  and  history,  what  cotton  and  iron  are  to 
cloth  and  steam-engines.  Like  the  raw  material  of  the 
manufacturer,  they  form  the  bases  of  innumerable  fabrics, 
are  woven  into  many  theories  finely  spun  or  coarsely 
spun,  which  wear  out  with  time,  become  unfashionable, 
or  else  prove  to  be  indeed  true  and  fit,  and  as  such  re 
main.  This  raw  material  of  the  scholar,  like  that  of  the 
manufacturer,  is  always  a  staple  article ;  its  substance 
never  changes,  its  value  never  diminishes ;  whatever 
may  be  the  condition  of  society,  or  howsoever  advanced 
the  mind,  it  is  indispensable.  Theories  may  be  only  for 
the  day,  but  facts  are  for  all  time  and  for  all  science. 
When  we  remember  that  the  sum  of  all  knowledge  is 
but  the  sum  of  ascertained  facts,  and  that  every  new 


2  ETHNOLOGICAL  INTRODUCTION. 

fact  brought  to  light,  preserved,  and  thrown  into  the 
general  fund,  is  so  much  added  to  the  world's  store  of 
knowledge, — when  we  consider  that,  broad  and  far  as  our 
theories  may  reach,  the  realm  of  definite,  tangible,  ascer 
tained  truth  is  still  of  so  little  extent,  the  impoi  tance 
of  every  never-so-insignificant  acquisition  is  manifest. 
Compare  any  fact  with  the  fancies  which  have  been 
prevalent  concerning  it,  and  consider,  I  will  not  say 
their  relative  brilliance,  but  their  relative  importance. 
Take  electricity,  how  many  explanations  have  been 
given  of  the  lightning  and  the  thunder,  yet  there  is  but 
one  fact;  the  atmosphere,  how  many  howling  demons 
have  directed  the  tempest,  how  many  smiling  deities 
moved  in  the  soft  breeze.  For  the  one  all-sufficient 
First  Cause,  how  many  myriads  of  gods  have  been  set 
up ;  for  every  phenomenon  how  many  causes  have  been 
invented  ;  with  every  truth  how  many  untruths  have 
contended,  with  every  fact  how  many  fancies.  The 
profound  investigations  of  latter-day  philosophers  are 
nothing  but  simple  and  laborious  inductions  from  ascer 
tained  facts,  facts  concerning  attraction,  polarity,  chemi 
cal  affinity  and  the  like,  for  the  explanation  of  which 
there  are  countless  hypotheses,  each  hypothesis  involving 
multitudes  of  speculations,  all  of  which  evaporate  as  the 
truth  slowly  crystallizes.  Speculation  is  valuable  to 
science  only  as  it  directs  the  mind  into  otherwise-undis- 
coverable  paths ;  but  when  the  truth  is  found,  there  is 
an  end  to  speculation. 

So  much  for  facts  in  general ;  let  us  now  look  for  a 
moment  at  the  particular  class  of  facts  of  which  this 
work  is  a  collection. 

The  tendency  of  philosophic  inquiry  is  more  and  more 
toward  the  origin  of  things.  In  the  earlier  stages  of 
intellectual  impulse,  the  mind  is  almost  wholly  absorbed 
in  ministering  to  the  necessities  of  the  present ;  next,  the 
mysterious  uncertainty  of  the  after  life  provokes  inquiry, 
and  contemplations  of  an  eternity  of  the  future  command 
attention ;  but  not  until  knowledge  is  well  advanced 


TENDENCY  OF  PHILOSOPHIC  INQUIRY.  3 

does  it  appear  that  there  is  likewise  an  eternity  of  the 
past  worthy  of  careful  scrutiny, — without  which  scrutiny, 
indeed,  the  eternity  of  the  future  must  forever  remain 
a  sealed  book.  Standing  as  we  do  between  these 
two  eternities,  our  view  limited  to  a  narrow  though 
gradually  widening  horizon,  as  nature  unveils  her  mys 
teries  to  our  inquiries,  an  infinity  spreads  out  in  either 
direction,  an  infinity  of  minuteness  no  less  than  an 
infinity  of  immensity ;  for  hitherto,  attempts  to  reach  the 
ultimate  of  molecules,  have  proved  as  futile  as  attempts 
to  reach  the  ultimate  of  masses.  Now  man,  the  noblest 
work  of  creation,  the  only  reasoning  creature,  standing 
alone  in  the  midst  of  this  vast  sea  of  undiscovered  truth,— 
ultimate  knowledge  ever  receding  from  his  grasp,  primal 
causes  only  thrown  farther  back  as  proximate  problems 
are  solved, — man,  in  the  study  of  mankind,  must  follow 
his  researches  in  both  of  these  directions,  backward  as 
well  as  forward,  must  indeed  derive  his  whole  knowl 
edge  of  what  man  is  and  will  be  from  what  he  has  been. 
Thus  it  is  that  the  study  of  mankind  in  its  minuteness 
assumes  the  grandest  proportions.  Viewed  in  this  light 
there  is  not  a  feature  of  primitive  humanity  without  sig 
nificance  ;  there  is  not  a  custom  or  characteristic  of  sav 
age  nations,  however  mean  or  revolting  to  us,  from  which 
important  lessons  may  not  be  drawn.  It  is  only  from 
the  study  of  barbarous  and  partially  cultivated  nations 
that  we  are  able  to  comprehend  man  as  a  progressive 
being,  and  to  recognize  the  successive  stages  through 
which  our  savage  ancestors  have  passed  on  their  way  to 
civilization.  With  the  natural  philosopher,  there  is  little 
thought  as  to  the  relative  importance  of  the  manifold 
works  of  creation.  The  tiny  insect  is  no  less  an  object 
of  his  patient  scrutiny,  than  the  wonderful  and  complex 
machinery  of  the  cosmos.  The  lower  races  of  men,  in 
the  study  of  humanity,  he  deems  of  as  essential  import 
ance  as  the  higher  ;  our  present  higher  races  being  but 
the  lower  types  of  generations  yet  to  come. 

Hence,  if  in  the   following   pages,   in   the  array  of 


4  ETHNOLOGICAL  INTRODUCTION. 

minute  facts  incident  to  the  successive  peoples  of  which 
we  speak,  some  of  them  appear  small  and  unworthy  of 
notice,  let  it  be  remembered  that  in  nature  there  is  no 
such  thing  as  insignificance ;  still  less  is  there  anything 
connected  with  man  unworthy  of  our  most  careful  study, 
or  any  peculiarity  of  savagism  irrelevant  to  civilization. 

Different  schools  of  naturalists  maintain  widely  differ 
ent  opinions  regarding  the  origin  of  mankind.  Existing 
theories  may  be  broadly  divided  into  three  categories; 
in  the  first  two  of  which  man  is  considered  as  a  special 
creation,  and  in  the  third  as  a  natural  development  from 
some  lower  type.  The  special-creation  school  is  divided 
on  the  question  of  unity  or  diversity  of  race.  The  first 
party  holds  by  the  time-honored  tradition,  that  all  the 
nations  of  the  earth  are  descended  from  a  single  human 
pair ;  the  second  affirms,  that  by  one  creative  act  were  pro 
duced  several  special  creations,  each  separate  creation  being 
the  origin  of  a  race,  and  each  race  primordially  adapted 
to  that  part  of  the  globe  which  it  now  inhabits.  The  third 
theory,  that  of  the  development  school,  denies  that  there 
ever  were  common  centres  of  origin  in  organic  creation ; 
but  claims  that  plants  and  animals  generate  spontane 
ously,  and  that  man  is  but  the  modification  of  some  pre 
existing  animal  form. 

The  first  hypothesis,  the  doctrine  of  the  monogenists, 
is  ably  supported  by  Latham,  Prichard,  and  many  other 
eminent  ethnologists  of  Europe,  and  is  the  favorite 
opinion  of  orthodox  thinkers  throughout  Christendom. 
The  human  race,  they  say,  having  sprung  from  a  single 
pair,  constitutes  but  one  stock,  though  subject  to  various 
modifications.  Anatomically,  there  is  no  difference  be 
tween  a  Negro  and  a  European.  The  color  of  the  skin, 
the  texture  of  the  hair,  the  convolutions  of  the  brain, 
and  all  other  peculiarities,  may  be  attributed  to  heat, 
moisture,  and  food.  Man,  though  capable  of  subduing 
the  world  to  himself,  and  of  making  his  home  under 
climates  and  circumstances  the  most  diverse,  is  none  the 


OKIGIN  OF  MAN.  5 

less  a  child  of  nature,  acted  upon  and  molded  by  those 
conditions  which  he  attempts  to  govern.  Climate,  peri 
odicities  of  nature,  material  surroundings,  habits  of 
thought  and  modes  of  life,  acting  through  a  long  series 
of  ages,  exercise  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  human 
physical  organization ;  and  yet  man  is  perfectly  created 
for  any  sphere  in  which  he  may  dwell ;  and  is  governed 
in  his  condition  by  choice  rather  than  by  coercion. 
Articulate  language,  which  forms  the  great  line  of  de 
marcation  between  the  human  and  the  brute  creation, 
may  be  traced  in  its  leading  characteristics  to  one  com 
mon  source.  The  differences  between  the  races  of  men 
are  not  specific  differences.  The  greater  part  of  the 
flora  and  fauna  of  America,  those  of  the  circum polar 
regions  excepted,  are  essentially  dissimilar  to  those  of 
the  old  world;  while  man  in  the  new  world,  though 
bearing  traces  of  high  antiquity,  is  specifically  identical 
with  all  the  races  of  the  earth.  It  is  well  known  that 
the  hybrids  of  plants  and  of  animals  do  not  possess  the 
power  of  reproduction,  while  in  the  intermixture  of  the 
races  of  men  no  such  sterility  of  progeny  can  be  found ; 
and  therefore,  as  there  are  no  human  hybrids,  there  are 
no  separate  human  races  or  species,  but  all  are  one  fam 
ily.  Besides  being  consistent  with  sound  reasoning,  this 
theory  can  bring  to  its  support  the  testimony  of  the 
sacred  writings,  and  an  internal  evidence  of  a  creation 
divine  and  spiritual,  which  is  sanctioned  by  tradition, 
and  confirmed  by  most  philosophic  minds.  Man, 
unlike  animals,  is  the  direct  offspring  of  the  Creator, 
and  as  such  he  alone  continues  to  derive  his  inherit 
ance  from  a  divine  source.  The  Hebraic  record,  con 
tinue  the  monogenists,  is  the  only  authentic  solution  of 
the  origin  of  all  things;  and  its  history  is  not  only  fully 
sustained  by  science,  but  it  is  upheld  by  the  traditions 
of  the  most  ancient  barbarous  nations,  whose  mythology 
strikingly  resembles  the  Mosaic  account  of  the  creation, 
the  deluge,  and  the  distribution  of  peoples.  The  Semitic 
family  alone  were  civilized  from  the  beginning.  A  pe- 


6  ETHNOLOGICAL  INTRODUCTION. 

culiar  people,  constantly  upheld  by  special  act  of  Provi 
dence  from  falling  into  paganism,  they  alone  possessed  a 
true  knowledge  of  the  mystery  of  creation.  A  universal 
necessity  for  some  form  of  worship,  a  belief  inherent  in 
all  mankind,  in  an  omnipotent  deity  and  a  life  beyond 
the  grave,  point  to  a  common  origin  and  prophesy  a 
common  destiny.  This  much  for  the  monogenists. 

The  second  hypothesis,  that  of  the  polygenists,  holds 
that  there  was  not  one  only,  but  several  independent 
creations,  each  giving  birth  to  the  essential,  unchangeable 
peculiarities  of  a  separate  race;  thus  constituting  a  di 
versity  of  species  with  primeval  adaptation  to  their 
geographical  distribution.  Morton,  Agassiz,  Gliddon, 
and  others  in  America,  stand  sponsors  for  this  theory. 
The  physiological  differences  of  race,  they  say,  which 
separate  mankind  into  classes,  do  not  result  from  climatic 
surroundings,  but  are  inherited  from  original  progenitors. 
They  point  to  marked  characteristics  in  various  peoples 
which  have  remained  unchanged  for  a  period  of  four 
thousand  years.  In  place  of  controverting  divine  reve 
lation,  they  claim  that  Mosaic  history  is  the  history  of  a 
single  race,  and  not  the  history  of  all  mankind ;  that  the 
record  itself  contains  an  implied  existence  of  other  races ; 
and  that  the  distribution  of  the  various  species  or  races 
of  men,  according  to  their  relative  organisms,  was  part 
of  the  creative  act,  and  of  no  less  importance  than  was 
the  act  of  creation. 

The  third  hypothesis,  derived  mainly  from  the  writ 
ings  of  Lamarck,  Darwin,  and  Huxley,  is  based  upon  the 
principle  of  evolution.  All  existing  species  are  develop 
ments  of  some  preexisting  form,  which  in  like  manner 
descended  by  true  generation  from  a  form  still  lower. 
Man,  say  they,  bears  no  impress  of  a  divine  original  that  is 
not  common  to  brutes;  he  is  but  an  animal,  more  perfectly 
developed  through  natural  and  sexual  selection.  Com 
mencing  with  the  spontaneous  generation  of  the  lowest 
types  of  vegetable  and  animal  life, — as  the  accumulation 
of  mold  upon  food,  the  swarming  of  maggots  in  meat, 


HYPOTHESES  CONCERNING  ORIGIN.  7 

the  infusorial  animalcules  in  water,  the  generation  of 
insect  life  in  decaying  vegetable  substances, — the  birth  of 
one  form  arising  out  of  the  decay  of  another,  the  slow 
and  gradual  unfolding  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  sphere, 
acting  through  a  long  succession  of  ages,  culminate  in  the 
grandeur  of  intellectual  manhood.  Thus  much  for  this 
life,  while  the  hope  of  a  like  continued  progress  is  enter 
tained  for  the  life  to  come.  While  the  tendency  of  variety 
in  organic  forms  is  to  decrease,  argue  these  latter-day 
naturalists,  individuals  increase  in  a  proportion  greater 
than  the  provisional  means  of  support.  A  predomi 
nating  species,  under  favorable  circumstances,  rapidly 
multiplies,  crowding  out  and  annihilating  opposing  spe 
cies.  There  is  therefore  a  constant  struggle  lor  existence 
in  nature,  in  which  the  strongest,  those  best  fitted  to  live 
and  improve  their  species,  prevail;  while  the  deformed 
and  ill-favored  are  destroyed.  In  courtship  and  sexual 
selection  the  war  for  precedence  continues.  Throughout 
nature  the  male  is  the  wooer ;  he  it  is  who  is  armed  for 
fight,  and  provided  with  musical  organs  and  ornamental 
appendages,  with  which  to  charm  the  fair  one.  The 
savage  arid  the  wild  beast  alike  secure  their  mate  over 
the  mangled  form  of  a  vanquished  rival.  In  this  man 
ner  the  more  highly  favored  of  either  sex  are  mated, 
and  natural  selections  made,  by  which,  better  ever  pro 
ducing  better,  the  species  in  its  constant  variation  is 
constantly  improved.  Many  remarkable  resemblances 
may  be  seen  between  man  and  the  inferior  animals.  In 
embryonic  development,  in  physical  structure,  in  material 
composition  and  the  function  of  organs,  man  and  animals 
are  strikingly  alike.  And,  in  the  possession  of  that 
immaterial  nature  which  more  widely  separates  the 
human  from  the  brute  creation,  the  '  reasonable  soul ' 
of  man  is  but  an  evolution  from  brute  instincts.  The 
difference  in  the  mental  faculties  of  man  and  ani 
mals  is  immense ;  but  the  high  culture  which  belongs  to 
man  has  been  slowly  developed,  and  there  is  plainly  a 
wider  separation  between  the  mental  power  of  the  lowest 


8  ETHNOLOGICAL  INTRODUCTION. 

zoophyte  and  the  highest  ape,  than  between  the  most 
intellectual  ape  and  the  least  intellectual  man.  Physi 
cally  and  mentally,  the  man-like  ape  and  the  ape-like 
man  sustain  to  each  other  a  near  relationship;  while 
between  the  mammal  and  the  mollusk  there  exists  the 
greatest  possible  dissimilarity.  Articulate  language,  it 
is  true,  acting  upon  the  brain,  and  in  turn  being  acted 
upon  to  the  improvement  of  both,  belongs  only  to  man ; 
yet  animals  are  not  devoid  of  expedients  for  express 
ing  feeling  and  emotion.  It  has  been  observed  that  no 
brute  ever  fashioned  a  tool  for  a  special  purpose;  but 
some  animals  crack  nuts  with  a  stone,  and  an  accident 
ally  splintered  flint  naturally  suggests  itself  as  the  first 
instrument  of  primeval  man.  The  chief  difficulty  lies 
in  the  high  state  of  moral  and  intellectual  power  which 
may  be  attained  by  man;  yet  this  same  progressive 
principle  is  likewise  found  in  brutes.  Nor  need  we 
blush  for  our  origin.  The  nations  now  most  civilized 
were  once  barbarians.  Our  ancestors  were  savages,  who, 
with  tangled  hair,  and  glaring  eyes,  and  blood-besmeared 
hands,  devoured  man  and  beast  alike.  Surely  a  re 
spectable  gorilla  lineage  stands  no  unfavorable  compari 
son. 

Between  the  first  and  the  last  of  these  three  rallying 
points,  a  whole  continent  of  debatable  land  is  spread, 
stretching  from  the  most  conservative  orthodoxy  to  the 
most  scientific  liberalism.  Numberless  arguments  may 
be  advanced  to  sustain  any  given  position ;  and  not  un- 
frequently  the  same  analogies  are  brought  forward  to 
prove  propositions  directly  oppugnant.  As  has  been  ob 
served,  each  school  ranks  among  its  followers  the  ablest 
men  of  science  of  the  day.  These  men  do  not  differ  in 
minor  particulars  only,  meeting  in  general  upon  one 
broad,  common  platform;  on  the  contrary,  they  find 
themselves  unable  to  agree  as  touching  any  one  thing, 
except  that  man  is,  and  that  he  is  surrounded  by  those 
climatic  influences  best  suited  to  his  organization.  Any 
one  of  these  theories,  if  substantiated,  is  the  death-blow 


PLANTS  AND  ANIMALS.  9 

of  the  others.  The  first  denies  any  diversity  of  species 
in  creation  and  all  immutability  of  race;  the  second 
denies  a  unity  of  species  and  the  possibility  of  change 
in  race ;  the  third  denies  all  special  acts  of  creation  and, 
like  the  first,  all  immutability  of  race. 

The  question  respecting  the  origin  of  animals  and 
plants  has  likewise  undergone  a  similar  flux  of  beliefs, 
but  with  different  result.  Whatever  the  conclusions 
may  be  with  regard  to  the  origin  of  man,  naturalists  of 
the  present  day  very  generally  agree,  that  there  was  no 
one  universal  centre  of  propagation  for  plants  and  ani 
mals;  but  that  the  same  conditions  of  soil,  moisture, 
heat,  and  geographical  situation,  always  produce  a  simi 
larity  of  species ;  or,  what  is  equivalent,  that  there  were 
many  primary  centres,  each  originating  species,  which 
spread  out  from  these  centres  and  covered  the  earth. 
This  doctrine  was  held  by  early  naturalists  to  be  irrecon 
cilable  with  the  Scripture  account  of  the  creation,  and 
was  therefore  denounced  as  heretical.  Linnceus  and  his 
contemporaries  drew  up  a  pleasing  picture,  assigning  the 
birth-place  of  all  forms  of  life  to  one  particular  fertile 
spot,  situated  in  a  genial  climate,  and  so  diversified  with 
lofty  mountains  and  declivities,  as  to  present  all  the 
various  temperatures  requisite  for  the  sustenance  of  the 
different  species  of  animal  and  vegetable  life.  The  most 
exuberant  types  of  flora  and  fauna  are  found  within  the 
tropical  regions,  decreasing  in  richness  and  profusion 
towards  either  pole;  while  man  in  his  greatest  perfection 
occupies  the  temperate  zone,  degenerating  in  harmony  of 
features,  in  physical  symmetry,  and  in  intellectual  vigor 
in  either  direction.  Within  this  temperate  zone  is  placed 
the  hypothetical  cradle  of  the  human  race,  varying  in 
locality  according  to  religion  and  tradition.  The  Cau 
casians  are  referred  for  their  origin  to  Mount  Caucasus, 
the  Mongolians  to  Mount  Altai,  and  the  A  means  to 
Mount  Atlas.  Three  primordial  centres  of  population 
have  been  assigned  to  the  three  sons  of  Noah, — Arabia, 
the  Semitic ;  India,  the  Japetic ;  and  Egypt,  the  Harmtie 


10  ETHNOLOGICAL  INTRODUCTION. 

centre.  Thibet,  and  the  mountains  surrounding  the  Gobi 
desert,  have  been  designated  as  the  point  from  which  a 
general  distribution  was  made ;  while  the  sacred  writings 
mention  four  rich  and  beautiful  valleys,  two  of  which  are 
watered  by  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  as  the  birth-place 
of  man.  It  was  formerly  believed  that  in  the  beginning, 
the  primeval  ocean  covered  the  remaining  portion  of  the 
globe,  and  that  from  this  central  spot  the  waters  receded, 
thereby  extending  the  limits  of  terrestrial  life. 

Admitting  the  unity  of  origin,  conjecture  points  with 
apparent  reason  to  the  regions  of  Armenia  and  of  Iran, 
in  western  Asia,  as  the  cradle  of  the  human  race.  De 
parting  from  this  geographical  centre,  in  the  directions 
of  the  extremities  of  the  continent,  the  race  at  first  de 
generated  in  proportion  to  distance.  Civilization  was  for 
many  ages  confined  within  these  central  limits,  until  by 
slow  degrees,  paths  were  marked  out  to  the  eastward  and 
to  the  westward,  terminating  the  one  upon  the  eastern 
coast  of  Asia,  and  the  other  upon  the  American  shores 
of  the  Pacific. 

Concerning  the  distribution  of  plants  and  animals, 
but  one  general  opinion  is  now  sustained  with  any  de 
gree  of  reason.  The  beautifully  varied  systems  of  vege 
tation  with  which  the  habitable  earth  is  clothed,  springing 
up  in  rich,  spontaneous  abundance ;  the  botanical  centres 
of  corresponding  latitudes  producing  resemblance  in  gen 
era  without  identity  of  species ;  their  inability  to  cross 
high  mountains  or  wide  seas,  or  to  pass  through  inhospi 
table  zones,  or  in  any  way  to  spread  far  from  the  original 
centre, — all  show  conclusively  the  impossibility  that  such 
a  multitude  of  animal  and  vegetable  tribes,  with  char 
acters  so  diverse,  could  have  derived  their  origin  from 
the  same  locality,  and  disappearing  entirely  from  their 
original  birth-place,  sprung  forth  in  some  remote  part  of 
the  globe.  Linnaeus,  and  many  others  of  his  time,  held 
that  all  telluric  tribes,  in  common  with  mankind,  sprang 
from  a  single  pair,  and  descended  from  the  stock  which 
was  preserved  by  Noah.  Subsequently  this  opinion  was 


PRIMORDIAL  CENTRES.  11 

modified,  giving  to  each  species  an  origin  in  some  certain 
spot  to  which  it  was  particularly  adapted  by  nature ;  and 
it  was  supposed  that  from  these  primary  centres,  through 
secondary  causes,  there  was  a  general  diffusion  through 
out  the  surrounding  regions. 

A  comparison  of  the  entomology  of  the  old  world  and 
the  new,  shows  that  the  genera  and  species  of  insects  are 
for  the  most  part  peculiar  to  the  localities  in  which  they 
are  found.  Birds  and  marine  animals,  although  unre 
stricted  in  their  movements,  seldom  wander  far  from 
specific  centres.  With  regard  to  wild  beasts,  and  the 
larger  animals,  insurmountable  difficulties  present  them 
selves  ;  so  that  we  may  infer  that  the  systems  of  animal 
life  are  indigenous  to  the  great  zoological  provinces 
where  they  are  found. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  harmony  which  exists  be 
tween  the  organism  of  man  and  the  methods  by  which 
nature  meets  his  requirements,  tends  conclusively  to 
show  that  the  world  in  its  variety  was  made  for  man, 
and  that  man  is  made  for  any  portion  of  the  earth  in 
which  he  may  be  found.  Whencesoever  he  comes,  or 
howsoever  he  reaches  his  dwelling-place,  he  always  finds  it 
prepared  for  him.  On  the  icy  banks  of  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
where  mercury  freezes  and  the  ground  never  softens,  the 
Eskimo,  wrapped  in  furs,  and  burrowing  in  the  earth, 
revels  in  grease  and  train-oil,  sustains  vitality  by  eating 
raw  flesh  and  whale-fat;  while  the  naked  inter-tropical 
man  luxuriates  in  life  under  a  burning  sun,  where  ether 
boils  and  reptiles  shrivel  upon  the  hot  stone  over  which 
they  attempt  to  crawl.  The  watery  fruit  and  shading 
vegetation  would  be  as  useless  to  the  one,  as  the  heating 
food  and  animal  clothing  would  be  to  the  other. 

The  capability  of  man  to  endure  all  climates,  his  om 
nivorous  habits,  and  his  powers  of  locomotion,  enable 
him  to  roam  at  will  over  the  earth.  He  was  endowed 
with  intelligence  wherewith  to  invent  methods  of  migra 
tion  and  means  of  protection  from  unfavorable  climatic 
influence,  and  with  capabilities  for  existing  in  almost 


12  ETHNOLOGICAL  INTRODUCTION. 

any  part  of  the  world ;  so  that,  in  the  economy  of  nature 
the  necessity  did  not  exist  with  regard  to  man  for  that 
diversity  of  creation  which  was  deemed  requisite  in  the 
case  of  plants  and  animals. 

The  classification  of  man  into  species  or  races,  so  as 
to  be  able  to  designate  by  his  organization  the  family  to 
which  he  belongs,  as  well  as  the  question  of  his  origin, 
has  been  the  subject  of  great  diversity  of  opinion,  from 
the  fact  that  the  various  forms  so  graduate  into  each 
other,  that  it  is  impossible  to  determine  which  is  species 
and  which  variety.  Attempts  have  indeed  been  made 
at  divisions  of  men  into  classes  according  to  their  pri 
meval  and  permanent  physiological  structure,  but  what 
uniformity  can  be  expected  from  such  a  classification 
among  naturalists  who  cannot  so  much  as  agree  what  is 
primeval  and  what  permanent  ? 

The  tests  applied  by  ethnologists  for  distinguishing  the 
race  to  which  an  individual  belongs,  are  the  color  of  the 
skin,  the  size  and  shape  of  the  skull, — determined  gen 
erally  by  the  facial  angle, — the  texture  of  the  hair,  and 
the  character  of  the  features.  The  structure  of  language, 
also,  has  an  important  bearing  upon  the  affinity  of  races ; 
and  is,  with  some  ethnologists,  the  primary  criterion  in 
the  classification  of  species.  The  facial  angle  is  deter 
mined  by  a  line  drawn  from  the  forehead  to  the 
front  of  the  upper  jaw,  intersected  by  a  horizontal  line 
passing  over  the  middle  of  the  ear.  The  facial  angle 
of  a  European  is  estimated  at  85°,  of  a  Negro  at  75°, 
and  of  the  ape  at  60°.  Representations  of  an  adult 
Troglodyte  measure  35°,  and  of  a  Satyr  30°.  Some 
writers  classify  according  to  one  or  several  of  these  tests, 
others  consider  them  all  in  arriving  at  their  conclusions. 

Thus,  Yirey  divides  the  human  family  into  twro 
parts:  those  with  a  facial  angle  of  from  eighty-five 
to  ninety  degrees, — embracing  the  Caucasian,  Mongo 
lian,  and  American;  and  those  with  a  facial  angle  of 
from  seventy -five  to  eighty -two  degrees, — including 
the  Malay,  Negro,  and  Hottentot.  Cuvier  and  Jaquinot 


SPECIFIC  CLASSIFICATIONS.  13 

make  three  classes,  placing  the  Malay  and  American 
among  the  subdivisions  of  the  Mongolian.  Kant  makes 
four  divisions  under  four  colors :  white,  black,  copper,  and 
olive.  Linnaeus  also  makes  four:  European,  whitish; 
American,  coppery;  Asiatic,  tawny;  and  African,  black. 
Buffon  makes  five  divisions  and  Blumenbach  live.  Blu- 
menbach's  classification  is  based  upon  cranial  admeasure 
ments,  complexion,  and  texture  of  the  hair.  His  divis 
ions  are  Caucasian  or  Aryan,  Mongolian,  Ethiopian, 
Malay,  and  American.  Lesson  makes  six  divisions  ac 
cording  to  colors :  white,  dusky,  orange,  yellow,  red, 
and  black.  Bory  de  St  "Vincent  arranges  fifteen  stocks 
under  three  classes  which  are  differenced  by  hair :  Euro 
pean  straight  hair,  American  straight  hair,  and  crisped 
or  curly  hair.  In  like  manner  Prof.  Zeune  designates 
his  divisions  under  three  types  of  crania  for  the  eastern 
hemisphere,  and  three  for  the  western,  namely,  high 
skulls,  broad  skulls,  and  long  skulls.  Hunter  classifies 
the  human  family  under  seven  species;  Agassiz  makes 
eight ;  Pickering,  eleven ;  Desmoulins,  sixteen ;  and 
Crawford,  sixty-three.  Dr  Latham,  considered  by  many 
the  chief  exponent  of  the  science  of  ethnology  in  En 
gland,  classifies  the  different  races  under  three  primary 
divisions,  namely:  Mongolidce,  Atlantidse,  and  Japetidse. 
Prichard  makes  three  principal  types  of  cranial  conforma 
tion,  which  he  denominates  respectively,  the  civilized 
races,  the  nomadic  or  wandering  races,  and  the  savage 
or  hunting  races.  Agassiz  designates  the  races  of  men 
according  to  the  zoological  provinces  which  they  respect 
ively  occupy.  Thus  the  Arctic  realm  is  inhabited  by 
Hyperboreans,  the  Asiatic  by  Mongols,  the  European 
by  white  men,  the  American  by  American  Indians,  the 
African  by  black  races,  and  the  East  Indian,  Australian 
and  Polynesian  by  their  respective  peoples. 

Now  when  we  consider  the  wide  differences  between 
naturalists,  not  only  as  to  what  constitutes  race  and 
species, — if  there  be  variety  of  species  in  the  human 
family, — but  also  in  the  assignment  of  peoples  and  indi- 


U  ETHNOLOGICAL  INTRODUCTION. 

viduals  to  their  respective  categories  under  the  direction 
of  the  given  tests ;  when  we  see  the  human  race  classi 
fied  under  from  one  to  sixty -three  distinct  species, 
according  to  individual  opinions;  and  when  we  see  that 
the  several  tests  which  govern  classification  are  by  no 
means  satisfactory,  and  that  those  who  have  made  this 
subject  the  study  of  their  lives,  cannot  agree  as  touching 
the  fundamental  characteristics  of  such  classification — 
we  cannot  but  conclude,  either  that  there  are  no  abso 
lute  lines  of  separation  between  the  various  members  of 
the  human  family,  or  that  thus  far  the  touchstone  by 
which  such  separation  is  to  be  made  remains  undis 
covered. 

The  color  of  the  human  skin,  for  example,  is  no  cer 
tain  guide  in  classification.  Microscopists  have  ascer 
tained  that  the  normal  colorations  of  the  skin  are  not  the 
results  of  organic  differences  in  race ;  that  complexions 
are  not  permanent  physical  characters,  but  are  sub 
ject  to  change.  Climate  is  a  cause  of  physical  differ 
ences,  and  frequently  in  a  single  tribe  may  be  found 
shades  of  color  extending  through  all  the  various  transi 
tions  from  black  to  white.  In  one  people,  part  occupying 
a  cold  mountainous  region,  and  part  a  heated  low 
land,  a  marked  difference  in  color  is  always  perceptible. 
Peculiarities  in  the  texture  of  the  hair  are  likewise  no 
proof  of  race.  The  hair  is  more  sensibly  affected  by 
the  action  of  the  climate  than  the  skin.  Every  degree 
of  color  and  crispation  may  be  found  in  the  Euro 
pean  family  alone;  and  even  among  the  frizzled  locks 
of  negroes  every  gradation  appears,  from  crisped  to 
flowing  hair.  The  growth  of  the  beard  may  be  cul 
tivated  or  retarded  according  to  the  caprice  of  the  indi 
vidual  ;  and  in  those  tribes  which  are  characterized  by  an 
absence  or  thinness  of  beard,  may  be  found  the  practice, 
continued  for  ages,  of  careMly  plucking  out  all  traces 
of  beard  at  the  age  of  puberty.  ISTo  physiological  de 
formities  have  been  discovered  which  prevent  any  people 
from  cultivating  a  beard  if  such  be  their  pleasure.  The 


ALL  TESTS  FALLACIOUS,  15 

conformation  of  the  cranium  is  often  peculiar  to  habits 
of  rearing  the  young,  and  may  be  modified  by  acci 
dental  or  artificial  causes.  The  most  eminent  scholars 
now  hold  the  opinion  that  the  size  and  shape  of  the  skull 
has  far  less  influence  upon  the  intelligence  of  the  indi 
vidual  than  the  quality  and  convolutions  of  the  brain. 
The  structure  of  language,  especially  when  offered  in 
evidence  supplementary  to  that  of  physical  science,  is 
most  important  in  establishing  a  relationship  between 
races.  But  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  languages 
are  acquired,  not  inherited ;  that  they  are  less  permanent 
than  living  organisms ;  that  they  are  constantly  changing, 
merging  into  each  other,  one  dialect  dying  out  and  an 
other  springing  into  existence;  that  in  the  migrations  of 
nomadic  tribes,  or  in  the  arrival  of  new  nations,  although 
languages  may  for  a  time  preserve  their  severalty,  they 
are  at  last  obliged,  from  necessity,  to  yield  rio  the  as 
similating  influences  which  constantly  surround  them, 
and  become  merged  into  the  dialects  of  neighboring 
clans.  And  on  the  other  hand,  a  counter  influence 
is  exercised  upon  the  absorbing  dialect.  The  dialectic 
fusion  of  two  communities  results  in  the  partial  disap 
pearance  of  both  languages,  so  that  a  constant  assimilation 
and  dissimilation  is  going  on.  a  The  value  of  language," 
says  Latham,  "  has  been  overrated;"  and  Whitney 
affirms  that  "  language  is  no  infallible  sign  of  race;" 
although  both  of  these  authors  give  to  language  the  first 
place  as  a  test  of  national  affinities.  Language  is  not  a 
physiological  characteristic,  but  an  acquisition;  and  as 
such  should  be  used  with  care  in  the  classification  of 
species. 

Science,  during  the  last  half  century,  has  unfolded 
many  important  secrets;  has  tamed  impetuous  elements, 
called  forth  power  and  life  from  the  hidden  recesses  of 
the  earth ;  has  aroused  the  slumbering  energies  of  both 
mental  and  material  force,  changed  the  currents  of 
thought,  emancipated  the  intellect  from  religious  tran 
scendentalism,  and  spread  out  to  the  broad  light  of  open 


16  ETHNOLOGICAL  INTRODUCTION. 

day  a  vast  sea  of  truth.  Old-time  beliefs  have  had  to 
give  place.  The  debris  of  one  exploded  dogma  is  scarcely 
cleared  away  before  we  are  startled  with  a  request  for 
the  yielding  up  of  another  long  and  dearly  cherished 
opinion.  And  in  the  attempt  to  read  the  book  of  hu 
manity  as  it  comes  fresh  from  the  impress  of  nature,  to 
trace  the  history  of  the  human  race,  by  means  of  moral 
and  physical  characteristics,  backward  through  all  its 
intricate  windings  to  its  source,  science  has  accomplished 
much;  but  the  attempt  to  solve  the  great  problem  of 
human  existence,  by  analogous  comparisons  of  man  with 
man,  and  man  with  animals,  has  so  far  been  vain  and 
futile  in  the  extreme. 

I  would  not  be  understood  as  attempting  captiously  to 
decry  the  noble  efforts  of  learned  men  to  solve  the  prob 
lems  of  nature.  For  who  can  tell  what  may  or  may 
not  be  found  out  by  inquiry?  Any  classification,  more 
over,  and  any  attempt  at  classification,  is  better  than 
none;  and  in  drawing  attention  to  the  uncertainty  of 
the  conclusions  arrived  at  by  science,  I  but  reiterate 
the  opinions  of  the  most  profound  thinkers  of  the  day. 
It  is  only  shallow  and  flippant  scientists,  so  called, 
who  arbitrarily  force  deductions  from  mere  postulates, 
and  with  one  sweeping  assertion  strive  to  annihilate  all 
history  and  tradition.  They  attempt  dogmatically  to  set 
up  a  reign  of  intellect  in  opposition  to  that  of  the  Author 
of  intellect.  Terms  of  vituperation  and  contempt  with 
which  a  certain  class  of  writers  interlard  their  sophisms, 
as  applied  to  those  holding  different  opinions,  are  alike 
an  offense  against  good  taste  and  sound  reasoning. 

Notwithstanding  all  these  failures  to  establish  rules 
by  which  mankind  may  be  divided  into  classes,  there 
yet  remains  the  stubborn  fact  that  differences  do  exist, 
as  palpable  as  the  difference  between  daylight  and 
darkness.  These  differences,  however,  are  so  played 
upon  by  change,  that  hitherto  the  scholar  has  been  un 
able  to  transfix  those  elements  which  appear  to  him 
permanent  and  characteristic.  For,  as  Draper  remarks, 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  INDIANS.  17 

"  the  permanence  of  organic  forms  is  altogether  depend 
ent  on  the  invariability  of  the  material  conditions  under 
which  they  live.  Any  variation  therein,  no  matter  how 
insignificant  it  might  be,  would  be  forthwith  followed  by 
a  corresponding  variation  in  form.  The  present  invari 
ability  of  the  world  of  organization  is  the  direct  conse 
quence  of  the  physical  equilibrium,  and  so  it  will  con 
tinue  as  long  as  the  mean  temperature,  the  annual  supply 
of  light,  the  composition  of  the  air,  the  distribution  of 
water,  oceanic  and  atmospheric  currents,  and  other  such 
agencies,  remain  unaltered ;  but  if  any  one  of  these,  or 
of  a  hundred  other  incidents  that  might  be  mentioned, 
should  suffer  modification,  in  an  instant  the  fanciful  doc 
trine  of  the  immutability  of  species  would  be  brought  to 
its  true  value." 

The  American  Indians,  their  origin  and  consanguinity, 
have,  from  the  days  of  Columbus  to  the  present  time 
proved  no  less  a  knotty  question.  Schoolmen  and  scien 
tists  count  their  theories  by  hundreds,  each  sustaining 
some  pet  conjecture,  with  a  logical  clearness  equaled 
only  by  the  facility  with  which  he  demolishes  all  the 
rest.  One  proves  their  origin  by  holy  writ;  another 
by  the  writings  of  ancient  philosophers ;  another  by  the 
sage  sayings  of  the  Fathers.  One  discovers  in  them 
Phoenician  merchants;  another,  the  ten  lost  tribes  of 
Israel.  They  are  tracked  with  equal  certainty  from 
Scandinavia,  from  Ireland,  from  Iceland,  from  Green 
land,  across  Bering  Strait,  across  the  northern  Pacific, 
the  southern  Pacific,  from,  the  Polynesian  Islands,  from 
Australia,  from  Africa.  Venturesome  Carthaginians  were 
thrown  upon  the  eastern  shore ;  Japanese  junks  on  the 
western.  The  breezes  that  wafted  hither  America' s  primo 
genitors  are  still  blowing,  and  the  ocean  currents  by  which 
they  came  cease  not  yet  to  flow.  The  finely  spun  webs  of 
logic  by  which  these  fancies  are  maintained  would  prove 
amusing,  did  not  the  profound  earnestness  of  their  re 
spective  advocates  render  them  ridiculous.  Acosta,  who 
studied  the  subject  for  nine  years  in  Peru,  concludes 

VOL.  I.    2 


18  ETHNOLOGICAL  INTBODUCTION. 

that  America  was  the  Ophir  of  Solomon.  Aristotle  re 
lates  that  the  Carthaginians  in  a  voyage  were  carried  to 
an  unknown  island ;  whereupon  Florian,  Gomara,  Oviedo, 
and  others,  are  satisfied  that  the  island  was  Espafiola. 
"  Who  are  these  that  fly  like  clouds,"  exclaims  Esaias, 
"  or  like  doves  to  their  windows  ?"  Scholastic  sages 
answer,  Columbus  is  the  columba  or  dove  here  prophesied. 
Alexo  Vanegas  shows  that  America  was  peopled  by  Car 
thaginians  ;  Anahuac  being  but  another  name  for  Anak. 
Besides,  both  nations  practiced  picture-writing;  both 
venerated  fire  and  water,  wore  skins  of  animals,  pierced 
the  ears,  ate  dogs,  drank  to  excess,  telegraphed  by  means 
of  fires  on  hills,  wore  all  their  finery  on  going  to  war, 
poisoned  their  arrows,  beat  drums  and  shouted  in  battle. 
Garcia  found  a  man  in  Peru  who  had  seen  a  rock  with 
something  very  like  Greek  letters  engraved  upon  it ;  six 
hundred  yeara  after  the  apotheosis  of  Hercules,  Coleo 
made  a  long  voyage;  Homer  knew  of  the  ocean;  the 
Athenians  waged  war  with  the  inhabitants  of  Atlantis ; 
hence  the  American  Indians  were  Greeks.  Lord  Kings- 
borough  proves  conclusively  that  these  same  American 
Indians  were  Jews:  because  their  "  symbol  of  inno 
cence  "  was  in  the  one  case  a  fawn  and  in  the  other  a 
lamb;  because  of  the  law  of  Moses,  "  considered  in  ref 
erence  to  the  custom  of  sacrificing  children,  which  ex 
isted  in  Mexico  and  Peru;"  because  "  the  fears  of  tumults 
of  the  people,  famine,  pestilence,  and  warlike  invasions, 
were  exactly  the  same  as  those  entertained  by  the  Jews 
if  they  failed  in  the  performance  of  any  of  their  ritual 
observances;"  because  "the  education  of  children  com 
menced  amongst  the  Mexicans,  as  with  the  Jews,  at  an 
exceedingly  early  age;"  because  "beating  with  a  stick 
was  a  very  common  punishment  amongst  the  Jews,"  as 
well  as  among  the  Mexicans;  because  the  priesthood  of 
both  nations  "was  hereditary  in  a  certain  family;"  be 
cause  both  were  inclined  to  pay  great  respect  to  lucky 
or  unlucky  omens,  such  as  the  screeching  of  the  owl. 
the  sneezing  of  a  person  in  company,"  etc.,  and  because 


OBIGIN  OF  THE  INDIANS.  19 

of  a  hundred  other  equally  sound  and  relevant  argu 
ments.  Analogous  reasoning  to  this  of  Lord  Kings- 
borough's  was  that  of  the  Merced  Indians  of  California. 
Shortly  after  the  discovery  of  the  Yosemite  Valley, 
tidings  reached  the  settlers  of  Mariposa  that  certain 
chiefs  had  united  with  intent  to  drop  down  from  their 
mountain  stronghold  and  annihilate  them.  To  show 
the  Indians  the  uselessness  of  warring  upon  white  men, 
these  chieftains  were  invited  to  visit  the  city  of  San 
Francisco,  where,  from  the  number  and  superiority  of 
the  people  that  they  would  there  behold,  they  should 
become  intimidated,  and  thereafter  maintain  peace.  But 
contrary  to  the  most  reasonable  expectations,  no  sooner  had 
the  dusky  delegates  returned  to  their  home  than  a  coun 
cil  was  called,  and  the  assembled  warriors  were  informed 
that  they  need  have  no  fear  of  these  strangers:  u  For," 
said  the  envoys,  ''the  people  of  the  great  city  of  San  Fran 
cisco  are  of  a  different  tribe  from  these  white  settlers  of 
Mariposa.  Their  manners,  their  customs,  their  language, 
their  dress,  are  all  different.  They  wear  black  coats  and 
high  hats,  and  are  not  able  to  walk  along  the  smoothest 
path  without  the  aid  of  a  stick." 

There  are  many  advocates  for  an  Asiatic  origin,  both 
among  ancient  and  modern  speculators.  Favorable 
winds  and  currents,  the  short  distance  between  islands, 
traditions,  both  Chinese  and  Indian,  refer  the  peopling  of 
America  to  that  quarter.  Similarity  in  color,  features, 
religion,  reckoning  of  time,  absence  of  a  heavy  beard, 
and  innumerable  other  comparisons,  are  drawn  by  en 
thusiastic  advocates,  to  support  a  Mongolian  origin.  The 
same  arguments,  in  whole  or  in  part,  are  used  to  prove 
that  America  was  peopled  by  Egyptians,  by  Ethiopians, 
by  French,  English,  Trojans,  Frisians,  Scythians;  and 
also  that  different  parts  were  settled  by  different  peoples. 
The  test  of  language  has  been  applied  with  equal  facility 
and  enthusiasm  to  Egyptian,  Jew,  Phoenician,  Cartha 
ginian,  Spaniard,  Chinese,  Japanese,  and  in  fact  to  nearly 
all  the  nations  of  the  earth.  A  complete  review  of 


20  ETHNOLOGICAL  INTRODUCTION. 

theories  and  opinions  concerning  the  origin  of  the  In 
dians,  I  propose  to  give  in  another  place ;  not  that  intrin 
sically  they  are  of  much  value,  except  as  showing  the 
different  fancies  of  difterent  men  and  times.  Fancies,  I 
say,  for  modern  scholars,  with  the  aid  of  all  the  new  rev 
elations  of  science,  do  not  appear  in  their  investigations 
to  arrive  one  whit  nearer  an  indubitable  conclusion. 

It  was  obvious  to  the  Europeans  wrhen  they  first 
beheld  the  natives  of  America,  that  these  were  unlike 
the  intellectual  white  -  skinned  race  of  Europe,  the  bar 
barous  blacks  of  Africa,  or  any  nation  or  people  which 
they  had  hitherto  encountered,  yet  were  strikingly  like 
each  other.  Into  whatsoever  part  of  the  newly  discov 
ered  lands  they  penetrated,  they  found  a  people  seeminglv 
one  in  color,  physiognomy,  customs,  and  in  mental  and 
social  traits.  Their  vestiges  of  antiquity  and  their  lan 
guages  presented  a  coincidence  which  was  generally 
observed  by  early  travelers.  Hence  physical  and  psy 
chological  comparisons  are  advanced  to  prove  ethno 
logical  resemblances  among  all  the  peoples  of  America, 
and  that  they  meanwhile  possess  common  peculiarities 
totally  distinct  from  the  nations  of  the  old  world. 
Morton  and  his  confreres,  the  originators  of  the  Amer 
ican  homogeneity  theory,  even  go  so  far  as  to  claim  for 
the  American  man  an  origin  as  indigenous  as  that  of 
the  fauna  and  flora.  They  classify  all  the  tribes  of 
America,  excepting  only  the  Eskimos  who  wandered  over 
from  Asia,  as  the  American  race,  and  divide  it  into  the 
American  family  and  the  Toltecan  family.  Blumenbach 
classifies  the  Americans  as  a  distinct  species.  The 
American  Mongolidae  of  Dr  Latham  are  divided  into 
Eskimos  and  American  Indians.  Dr  Morton  perceives 
the  same  characteristic  lineaments  in  the  face  of  the 
Fuegian  and  the  Mexican,  and  in  tribes  inhabiting  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  the  Mississippi  Yalley,  and  Florida. 
The  same  osteological  structure,  swarthy  color,  straight 
hair,  meagre  beard,  obliquely  cornered  eyes,  prominent 
cheek  bones,  and  thick  lips  are  common  to  them  all. 


INDIVIDUALITY  OF  RACE.  21 

Dr  Latham  describes  his  American  Mongolidae  as  exer 
cising  upon  the  world  a  material  rather  than  a  moral 
influence ;  giving  them  meanwhile  a  color,  neither  a  true 
white  nor  a  jet  black;  hair  straight  and  black,  rarely 
light,  sometimes  curly;  eyes  sometimes  oblique;  a  broad, 
flat  face  and  a  retreating  forehead.  Dr  Prichard  con 
siders  the  American  race,  psychologically,  as  neither 
superior  nor  inferior  to  other  primitive  races  of  the 
world.  Bory  de  St  Vincent  classifies  Americans  into 
five  species,  including  the  Eskimos.  The  Mexicans 
he  considers  as  cognate  with  the  Malays.  Humboldt 
characterizes  the  nations  of  America  as  one  race,  by 
their  straight  glossy  hair,  thin  beard,  swarthy  com 
plexion,  and  cranial  formation.  Schoolcraft  makes  four 
groups;  the  first  extending  across  the  northern  end  of 
the  continent ;  the  second,  tribes  living  east  of  the  Mis 
sissippi;  the  third,  those  between  the  Mississippi  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains;  and  the  fourth,  those  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  All  these  he  subdivides  into  thirty- 
seven  families;  but  so  far  as  those  on  the  Pacific  Coast 
are  concerned,  he  might  as  reasonably  have  made  of 
them  twice  or  half  the  number. 

All  writers  agree  in  giving  to  the  nations  of  America 
a  remote  antiquity ;  all  admit  that  there  exists  a  greater 
uniformity  between  them  than  is  to  be  found  in 
the  old  world;  many  deny  that  all  are  one  race. 
There  is  undoubtedly  a  prevailing  uniformity  in  those 
physical  characteristics  which  govern  classification ;  but 
this  uniformity  goes  as  far  to  prove  one  universal  race 
throughout  the  world,  as  it  does  to  prove  a  race  peculiar 
to  America.  Traditions,  ruins,  moral  and  physical  pecu 
liarities,  all  denote  for  Americans  a  remote  antiquity. 
The  action  of  a  climate  peculiar  to  America,  and  of 
natural  surroundings  common  to  all  the  people  of  the 
continent,  could  not  fail  to  produce  in  time  a  similarity 
of  physiological  structure. 

The  impression  of  a  New  World  individuality  of  race 
was  no  doubt  strengthened  in  the  eyes  of  the  Conquerors, 


22  ETHNOLOGICAL  INTRODUCTION. 

and  in  the  mind  of  the  train  of  writers  that  followed,  by 
the  fact,  that  the  newly  discovered  tribes  were  more  like 
each  other  than  were  any  other  peoples  they  had  ever 
before  seen ;  and  at  the  same  time  very  much  unlike  any 
nation  whatever  of  the  old  world.  And  so  any  really 
existing  physical  distinctions  among  the  American  stocks 
came  to  be  overlooked  or  undervalued.  Darwin,  on  the 
authority  of  Elphinstone,  observes  that  in  India,  "  al 
though  a  newly  arrived  European  cannot  at  first  distin 
guish  the  various  native  races,  yet  they  soon  appear  to 
him  entirely  dissimilar;  and  the  Hindoo  cannot  at  first 
perceive  any  difference  between  the  several  European 
nations." 

It  has  been  observed  by  Prof,  von  Martius  that  the  lit 
erary  and  architectural  remains  of  the  civilized  tribes  of 
America  indicate  a  higher  degree  of  intellectual  eleva 
tion  than  is  likely  to  be  found  in  a  nation  emerging 
from  barbarism.  In  their  sacerdotal  ordinances,  privi 
leged  orders,  regulated  despotisms,  codes  of  law,  and 
forms  of  government  are  found  clear  indications  of  a 
relapse  from  civilization  to  barbarism.  Chateaubriand, 
from  the  same  premises,  develops  a  directly  opposite 
conclusion,  and  perceives  in  all  this  high  antiquity  and 
civilization  only  a  praiseworthy  evolution  from  primeval 
barbarism. 

Thus  arguments  drawn  from  a  comparison  of  parallel 
traits  in  the  moral,  social,  or  physical  condition  of  man 
should  be  received  with  allowance,  for  man  has  much  in 
common  not  only  with  man,  but  with  animals.  Vari 
ations  in  bodily  structure  and  mental  faculties  are  gov 
erned  by  general  laws.  The  great  variety  of  climate 
which  characterizes  America  could  not  fail  to  produce 
various  habits  of  life.  The  half-torpid  Hyperborean, 
the  fierce  warrior-hunter  of  the  vast  interior  forests,  the 
sluggish,  swarthy  native  of  the  tropics,  and  the  intelli 
gent  Mexican  of  the  table-land,  slowly  developing  into 
civilization  under  the -refining  influences  of  arts  and 
letters, — all  1  these' indicate  _ variety  in  the  unity  of  the 


EACES  OF  THE  PACIFIC.  23 

American  race;  while  the  insulation  of  American  na 
tions,  and  the  general  characteristics  incident  to  peculiar 
physical  conditions  could  not  fail  to  produce  a  unity  in 
their  variety. 

The  races  of  the  Pacific  States  embrace  all  the  va 
rieties  of  species  known  as  American  under  any  of  the 
classifications  mentioned.  Thus,  in  the  five  divisions 
of  Blumenbach,  the  Eskimos  of  the  north  would  come 
under  the  fourth  division,  which  embraces  Malays  and 
Polynesians,  and  which  is  distinguished  by  a  high 
square  skull,  low  forehead,  short  broad  nose,  and  pro 
jecting  jaws.  To  his  fifth  class,  the  American,  which 
he  subdivides  into  the  American  family  and  the  Tol- 
tecan  family,  he  gives  a  small  skull  with  a  high  apex, 
flat  on  the  occiput,  high  cheek  bones,  receding  forehead, 
aquiline  nose,  large  mouth,  and  tumid  lips.  Morton, 
although  he  makes  twenty-two  divisions  in  all,  classifies 
Americans  in  the  same  manner.  The  Polar  family  he 
characterizes  as  brown  in  color,  short  in  stature,  of  thick, 
clumsy  proportions,  with  a  short  neck,  large  head,  flat 
face,  small  nose,  and  eyes  disposed  to  obliquity.  He 
perceives  an  identity  of  race  among  all  the  other  stocks 
from  Mount  St  Elias  to  Patagonia ;  though  he  designates 
the  semi-civilized  tribes  of  Mexico  and  Peru  as  the 
Toltecan  family,  and  the  savage  nations  as  the  Appala 
chian  branch  of  the  American  family.  Dr  Prichard 
makes  three  divisions  of  the  tribes  bordering  the  Pacific 
between  Mount  St  Elias  and  Cape  St  Lucas  :  the  tribes 
from  the  borders  of  the  Eskimos  southward  to  Van 
couver  Island  constitute  the  first  division;  the  tribes 
of  Oregon  and  Washington,  the  second ;  and  the  tribes 
of  Upper  and  Lower  California,  the  third.  Pickering 
assigns  the  limits  of  the  American,  Malay,  or  Toltecan 
family  to  California  and  western  Mexico.  He  is  of  the 
opinion  that  they  crossed  from  southeastern  Asia  by  way 
of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  and  landed  upon  this  con 
tinent  south  of  San  Francisco,  there  being  no  traces  of 
them  north  of  this  point;  while  the  Mongolians  found 


24  ETHNOLOGICAL  INTRODUCTION. 

their  way  from  northeastern  Asia  across  Bering  Strait. 
The  Californians,  therefore,  he  calls  Malays;  and  the 
inhabitants  of  Vancouver  Island,  British  Columbia, 
Washington,  and  Oregon,  he  classifies  as  Mongolians. 
Californians,  in  the  eyes  of  this  traveler,  differ  from 
their  northern  neighbors  in  complexion  and  physiog 
nomy.  The  only  physiological  test  that  Mr  Pickering 
was  able  to  apply  in  order  to  distinguish  the  Polynesian  in 
San  Francisco  from  the  native  Californian,  was  that 
the  hair  of  the  former  was  wavy,  while  that  of  the  latter 
was  straight.  Both  have  more  hair  than  the  Oregon- 
ian.  The  skin  of  the  Malay  of  the  Polynesian  Islands, 
and  that  of  the  Californian  are  alike,  soft  and  very 
dark.  Three  other  analogous  characteristics  were  dis 
covered  by  Mr  Pickering.  Both  have  an  open  coun 
tenance,  one  wife,  and  no  tomahawk !  On  the  other  hand, 
the  Mongolian  from  Asia,  and  the  Oregonian  are  of  a 
lighter  complexion,  and  exhibit  the  same  general  resem 
blances  that  are  seen  in  the  American  and  Asiatic  Eskimos. 
In  general  the  Toltecan  family  may  be  described  as  of 
good  stature,  well  proportioned,  rather  above  medium  size, 
of  a  light  copper  color ;  as  having  long  black  obliquely 
pointed  eyes,  regular  white  teeth,  glossy  black  hair,  thin 
beard,  prominent  cheek  bones,  thick  lips,  large  aquiline 
nose,  and  retreating  forehead.  A  gentle  expression  about 
the  mouth  is  blended  with  severity  and  melancholy  in 
the  upper  portion  of  the  face.  They  are  brave,  cruel 
in  war,  sanguinary  in  religion,  and  revengeful.  They 
are  intelligent ;  possess  minds  well  adapted  to  the  pursuit 
of  knowledge;  and,  at  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the 
Spaniards,  were  well  advanced  in  history,  architect 
ure,  mathematics,  and  astronomy.  They  constructed 
aqueducts,  extracted  metals,  carved  images  in  gold, 
silver,  and  copper;  they  could  spin,  weave,  and  dye; 
they  could  accurately  cut  precious  stones;  they  culti 
vated  corn  and  cotton;  built  large  cities,  constructing 
their  buildings  of  stone  and  lime;  made  roads  and 
erected  stupendous  tumuli. 


SAVAGE  HUMANITY.  25 

Certain  ethnological  zones  have  been  observed  by 
some,  stretching  across  the  continent  in  various  latitudes, 
broken  somewhat  by  intersecting  continental  elevations, 
but  following  for  the  most  part  isothermal  lines  which, 
on  coming  from  the  east,  bend  northward  as  the  softer 
air  of  the  Pacific  is  entered.  Thus  the  Eskimos  nearly 
surround  the  pole.  Next  come  the  Tinneh,  stretch 
ing  across  the  continent  from  the  east,  somewhat  irreg 
ularly,  but  their  course  marked  generally  by  thermic 
lines,  bending  northward  after  crossing  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  their  southern  boundary,  touching  the  Pa 
cific,  about  the  fifty-fifth  parallel.  The  Algonkin  family 
border  on  the  Tinneh,  commencing  at  the  mouth  of  the 
St  Lawrence  River,  and  extending  westward  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  Natural  causes  alone  prevent  the 
extension  of  these  belts  round  the  entire  earth.  In 
deed,  both  philologists  and  physiologists  trace  lines  of 
affinity  across  the  Pacific,  from  island  to  island,  from 
one  continent  to  the  other;  one  line,  as  we  have  seen, 
crossing  Bering  Strait,  another  following  the  Aleutian 
Archipelago,  and  a  third  striking  the  coast  south  of  San 
Francisco  Bay. 

It  is  common  for  those  unaccustomed  to  look  below 
the  surface  of  things,  to  regard  Indians  as  scarcely 
within  the  category  of  humanity.  Especially  is  this  the 
case  when  we,  maddened  by  some  treacherous  outrage, 
some  diabolic  act  of  cruelty,  hastily  pronounce  them 
incorrigibly  wicked,  inhumanly  malignant,  a  nest  of 
vipers,  the  extermination  of  which  is  a  righteous  act. 
All  of  which  may  be  true;  but,  judged  by  this  stand 
ard,  has  not  every  nation  on  earth  incurred  the  death 
penalty  ?  Human  nature  is  in  no  wise  changed  by  culture. 
The  European  is  but  a  white-washed  savage.  Civilized 
venom  is  no  less  virulent  than  savage  venom.  It  ill 
becomes  the  full  grown  man  to  scoff  at  the  ineffectual 
attempts  of  the  little  child,  and  to  attempt  the  cure  of 
its  faults  by  killing  it.  No  more  is  it  a  mark  of  benev 
olent  wisdom  in  those  favored  by  a  superior  intel~ 


26  FIKST  INTEKCOUKSE  WITH  EUROPEANS. 

ligence,  with  the  written  records  of  the  past  from  which 
to  draw  experience  and  learn  how  best  to  shape  their 
course  for  the  future,  to  cry  down  the  untaught  man  of 
the  wilderness,  deny  him  a  place  in  this  world  or  the 
next,  denounce  him  as  a  scourge,  an  outlaw,  and  seize 
upon  every  light  pretext  to  assist  him  oft'  the  stage  from 
which  his  doom  is  so  rapidly  removing  him.  We  view 
man  in  his  primitive  state  from  a  wrong  stand-point  at 
the  outset.  In  place  of  regarding  savages  as  of  one 
common  humanity  with  ourselves,  and  the  ancestors 
perhaps  of  peoples  higher  in  the  scale  of  being,  and 
more  intellectual  than  any  the  world  has  yet  seen,  we 
place  them  among  the  common  enemies  of  mankind,  and 
regard  them  more  in  the  light  of  wild  animals  than  of 
wild  men. 

And  let  not  him  who  seeks  a  deeper  insight  into  the 
mysteries  of  humanity  despise  beginnings,  things  crude 
and  small.  The  difference  betwreen  the  cultured  and  the 
primitive  man  lies  chiefly  in  the  fact  that  one  has  a  few 
centuries  the  start  of  the  other  in  the  race  of  progress. 
Before  condemning  the  barbarian,  let  us  first  examine 
his  code  of  ethics.  Let  us  draw  our  light  from  his 
light,  reason  after  his  fashion;  see  in  the  sky,  the  earth, 
the  sea,  the  same  fantastic  imagery  that  plays  upon  his 
fancy,  and  adapt  our  sense  of  right  and  wrong  to  his 
social  surroundings.  Just  as  human  nature  is  able  to 
appreciate  divine  nature  only  as  divine  nature  accords 
with  human  nature ;  so  the  intuitions  of  lower  orders  of 
beings  can  be  comprehended  only  by  bringing  into  play  our 
lower  faculties.  Nor  can  we  any  more  clearly  appreciate 
the  conceptions  of  beings  below  us  than  of  those  above 
us.  The  thoughts,  reasonings,  and  instincts  of  an  animal 
or  insect  are  as  much  a  mystery  to  the  human  intellect 
as  are  the  lofty  contemplations  of  an  archangel. 

THREE  hundred  and  thirty-six  years  were  occupied  in  the  discovery  of  the 
western  border  of  North  America.  From  the  time  when,  in  1501,  the  adven 
turous  notary  of  Triana,  Rodrigo  de  Bastidas,  approached  the  Isthmus  of 
Darien,  in  search  of  gold  and  pearls,  till  the  year  1837,  when  Messrs  Dease  and 


PACIFICATION  OF  TIEKKA  FIKME.  27 

Simpson,  by  order  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  completed  the  survey  of  the 
northern  extremity,  which  bounds  the  Arctic  Ocean,  the  intervening  territory 
was  discovered  at  intervals,  and  under  widely  different  circumstances.  Dur 
ing  that  time,  under  various  immediate  incentives,  but  with  the  broad  princi 
ple  of  avarice  underlying  all,  such  parts  of  this  territory  as  were  conceived 
to  be  of  sufficient  value  were  seized,  and  the  inhabitants  made  a  prey  to  the 
rapacity  of  the  invaders.  Thus  the  purpose  of  the  worthy  notary  Bastidas, 
the  first  Spaniard  who  visited  the  continent  of  North  America,  was  pacific 
barter  with  the  Indians ;  and  his  kind  treatment  was  rewarded  by  a  success 
ful  traffic.  Next  came  Columbus,  from  the  opposite  direction,  sailing  south 
ward  along  the  coast  of  Honduras  on  his  fourth  voyage,  in  1502.  His  was 
the  nobler  object  of  discovery.  He  was  striving  to  get  through  or  round 
this  tierra  firme  which,  standing  between  himself  and  his  theory,  persistently 
barred  his  progress  westward.  He  had  no  time  for  barter,  nor  any  incli 
nation  to  plant  settlements;  he  was  looking  for  a  strait  or  passage  through 
or  round  these  outer  confines  to  the  more  opulent  regions  of  India.  But, 
unsuccessful  in  his  laudable  effort,  he  at  length  yielded  to  the  clamorous 
cupidity  of  his  crew.  He  permitted  his  brother,  the  Adelautado,  to  land  and 
take  possession  of  the  country  for  the  king  of  Spain,  and,  in  the  year  follow 
ing,  to  attempt  a  settlement  at  Veragua. 

In  1506-8,  Juan  de  Solis  with  Piuzon  continued  the  search  of  Columbus, 
along  the  coast  of  Yucatan  and  Mexico,  for  a  passage  through  to  the  southern 
ocean.  The  disastrous  adventures  of  Alonzo  de  Ojeda,  Diego  de  Nicuesa,  and 
Juan  de  la  Cosa,  on  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  between  the  years  1507  and  1511, 
brought  into  more  intimate  contact  the  steel  weapons  of  the  chivalrous 
hidalgos  with  the  naked  bodies  of  the  savages.  Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa, 
after  a  toilsome  journey  across  the  Isthmus  in  1513,  was  rewarded  by  the 
first  view  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  of  which  he  took  possession  for  the  king 
of  Spain  on  the  twenty-fifth  of  September.  The  white  sails  of  Cordova 
Grijalva,  and  Garay,  descried  by  the  natives  of  Yucatan  and  Mexico  in 
1517-19,  were  quickly  followed  by  Cortes  and  his  keen-scented  band  of 
adventurers,  who,  received  by  the  unsuspecting  natives  as  gods,  would  have 
been  dismissed  by  them  as  fiends  had  not  the  invasion  culminated  in  the 
conquest  of  Mexico.  During  the  years  1522-24,  Cortes  made  expeditions  to 
Tehuantepec,  Panuco,  and  Central  America ;  Gil  Gouzales  and  Cristobal  de 
Olid  invaded  Nicaragua  and  Honduras.  Nuno  de  Guzman  in  1530,  with  a 
large  force,  took  possession  of  the  entire  northern  country  from  the  city  of 
Mexico  to  the  northern  boundary  of  Siualoa;  and  Cabeza  de  Vaca  crossed 
the  continent  from  Texas  to  Sinaloa  in  the  years  1528-36.  Journeys  to  the 
north  were  made  by  Cortes,  Ulloa,  Coronado,  Mendoza,  and  Cabrillo  between 
the  years  1536  and  1542.  Hundreds  of  Roman  Catholic  missionaries,  ready 
to  lay  down  their  lives  in  their  earnest  anxiety  for  the  souls  of  the  Indians, 
spread  out  into  the  wilderness  in  every  direction.  During  the  latter  part  of 
the  sixteenth  century  had  place, — the  expedition  of  Francisco  de  Ibarra  to 
Sinaloa  in  1556,  the  campaign  of  Hernando  de  Bazan  against  the  Indians 
of  Sinaloa  in  1570,  the  adventures  of  Oxenham  in  Darien  in  1575,  the  voy 
age  round  the  world  of  Sir  Francis  Drake,  touching  upon  the  Northwest 


28  FIEST  INTEBCOUKSE  WITH  EUROPEANS. 

Coast  in  1579;  the  expedition  of  Antonio  de  Espejo  to  New  Mexico  in  1583; 
Francisco  de  Gali's  return  from  Macao  to  Mexico,  by  way  of  the  Northwest 
Coast,  in  1584;  the  voyage  of  Maldonado  to  the  imaginary  Straits  of  Aiiiaii  in 
1588;  the  expedition  of  Castano  de  Sosa  to  New  Mexico  in  1590;  the  voyage  of 
Juan  de  Fuca  to  the  Straits  of  Anian  in  1592;  the  wreck  of  the  'San  Agustin ' 
upon  the  Northwest  Coast  in  1595 ;  the  voyage  of  Sebastian  Vizcaino  towards 
California  in  1596 ;  the  discoveries  of  Juan  de  Oiiate  in  New  Mexico  in  1599,  and 
many  others.  Intercourse  with  the  natives  was  extended  during  the  seven 
teenth  century  by  the  voyage  of  Sebastian  Vizcaino  from  Mexico  to  Cali 
fornia  in  1602;  by  the  expedition  of  Francisco  de  Ortega  to  Lower  California 
in  1631;  by  the  journey  of  Thomas  Gage  from  Mexico  to  Guatemala  in  1638; 
by  the  voyage  round  the  world  of  William  Dampier  in  1679;  by  the  reckless 
adventures  of  the  Buccaneers  from  1680  to  1690;  by  the  expedition  of  Isidor 
de  Otondo  into  Lower  California  in  1683;  by  the  expedition  of  Father  Kino 
to  Sonora  and  Arizona  in  1683;  by  the  expeditions  of  Kino,  Kappus,  Mange, 
Bernal,  Carrasco,  Salvatierra,  and  others  to  Sonora  and  Arizona  in  1694-9; 
and  by  the  occupation  of  Lower  California  by  the  Jesuits,  Salvatierra, 
Ugarte,  Kino,  and  Piccolo,  from  1697  to  1701.  Voyages  of  circumnavigation 
were  made  by  Dampier  in  1703-4;  by  Rogers  in  1708-11;  by  Shelvocke  in 
1719-22,  and  by  Anson  in  1740-4.  Frondac  made  a  voyage  from  China  to 
California  in  1709. 

The  first  voyage  through  Bering  Strait  is  supposed  to  have  been  made 
by  Semun  Deschneff  and  his  companions  in  the  year  1648,  and  purports  to 
have  explored  the  Asiatic  coast  from  the  river  Kolyma  to  the  south  of  the 
river  Anadir,  thus  proving  the  separation  of  the  continents  of  Asia  and  Amer 
ica.  In  1711,  a  Russian  Cossack,  named  Popoff,  was  sent  from  the  fort 
on  tho  Anadir  river  to  subdue  the  rebellious  Tschuktschi  of  Tschuk- 
tschi  Noss,  a  point  of  land  on  the  Asiatic  coast  near  to  the  American 
continent.  He  there  received  from  the  natives  the  first  intelligence  of  the 
proximity  of  the  continent  of  America  and  the  character  of  the  inhabitants ; 
an  account  of  which  will  be  given  in  another  place.  In  1741,  Vitus  Bering 
and  Alexei  Tschirikoff  sailed  in  company,  from  Petropaulovski,  for  the  oppo 
site  coast  of  America.  They  parted  company  during  a  storm,  the  latter 
reaching  the  coast  in  latitude  fifty-six,  and  the  former  landing  at  Cape  St 
Elias  in  latitude  sixty  degrees  north.  The  earliest  information  concerning 
the  Aleutian  Islanders  was  obtained  by  the  Russians  in  the  year  1745,  when 
Michael  Nevodtsikoff  sailed  from  the  Kamtchatka  river  in  pursuit  of  furs. 
A  Russian  commercial  company,  called  the  Promyschleniki,  was  formed,  and 
other  hunting  and  trading  voyages  followed.  Lasareff  visited  six  islands  of 
the  Andreanovski  group  in  1761;  and  the  year  following  was  made  the  dis 
covery  of  the  Alaskan  Peninsula,  supposed  to  be  an  island  until  after  the 
survey  of  the  coast  by  Captain  Cook.  Drusinin  made  a  hunting  expedition 
to  Unalaska  and  the  Fox  Islands  in  1763;  and,  during  the  same  year,  Stephen 
Glottoff  visited  the  island  of  Kadiak.  Korovin,  Solovieff,  Syiid,  Otseredin, 
Krenitzen,  and  other  Russian  fur-hunters  spent  the  years  1762-5  among  the 
Aleutian  Islands,  capturing  sea-otters,  seals,  and  foxes,  and  exchanging,  with 
the  natives,  beads  and  iron  utensils,  for  furs. 


OCCUPATION  OF  CALIFORNIA.  29 

A  grand  missionary  movement,  growing  out  of  the  jealous  rivalries  of  the 
two  great  orders  of  the  Catholic  Church,  led  to  the  original  occupation  of 
Upper  California  by  Spaniards.  The  work  of  Christianizing  Lower  Cali 
fornia  was  inaugurated  by  the  Jesuits,  under  Fathers  Salvatierra  and  Kino,  in 
1697.  When  the  Jesuits  were  expelled  from  Mexico  in  1767,  their  missions 
were  turned  over  to  the  Franciscans.  This  so  roused  the  jealousy  of  the 
Dominicans  that  they  immediately  appealed  to  Spain,  and  in  1769  obtained 
an  edict,  giving  them  -a  due  share  in  the  missions  of  Lower  California.  The 
Franciscans,  thinking  it  better  to  carry  their  efforts  into  new  fields  than  to 
C3ntend  for  predominance  at  home,  generously  offered  to  cede  the  whole  of 
Lower  California  to  the  Dominicans,  and  themselves  retire  to  the  wild  and 
distant  regions  of  Upper  California.  This  being  agreed  upon,  two  expedi 
tions  were  organized  to  proceed  northward  simultaneously,  one  by  water 
and  the  other  by  land.  In  January,  1769,  the  ship  '  San  Carlos,'  commanded 
by  Vicente  Vila,  was  dispatched  for  San  Diego,  followed  by  the  '  San  Antonio, ' 
under  Juan  Perez,  and  the  'San  Jose,'  which  was  unfortunately  lost.  The 
land  expedition  was  separated  into  two  divisions;  the  first  under  Rivera  y 
Moncada  departed  from  Mexico  in  March,  and  arrived  at  San  Diego  in  May; 
the  second  under  Gaspar  de  Portola  and  Father  Junfpero  Serra  reached 
San  Diego  in  July,  1769.  Portola  with  his  companions  immediately  set  out 
by  land  for  the  Bay  of  Monterey;  but,  unwittingly  passing  it  by,  they  con 
tinued  northward  until  barred  in  their  progress  by  the  magnificent  Bay  of 
San  Francisco.  Unable  to  find  the  harbor  of  Monterey,  they  returned  to 
San  Diego  in  January,  1770.  In  April,  Portola  made  a  second  and  more 
successful  attempt,  and  arrived  at  Monterey  in  May.  Meanwhile  Perez  and 
Junfpero  Serra  accomplished  the  voyage  by  sea,  sailing  in  the  '  San 
Carlos.'  In  1772,  Pedro  Fages  and  Juan  Crespi  proceeded  from  Monterey  to 
explore  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco.  They  were  followed  by  Rivera  y  Mon 
cada  in  1774,  and  Palou  and  Ezeta  in  1775;  and  in  1776,  Moraga  founded 
the  Mission  of  Dolores.  In  1775,  Bodega  y  Quadra  voyaged  up  the 
Californian  coast  to  the  fifty-eighth  parallel.  In  1776,  Dominguez  and  Es- 
calante  made  an  expedition  from  Santa  Fe  to  Monterey.  Menonville  jour 
neyed  to  Oajaca  in  New  Spain  in  1777.  In  1778,  Captain  Cook,  in  his 
third  voyage  round  the  world,  touched  along  the  Coast  from  Cape  Flattery 
to  Norton  Sound;  and  in  1779,  Bodega  y  Quadra,  Maurelle,  and'Arteaga 
voyaged  up  the  western  coast  to  Mount  St  Elias.  During  the  years  1785-8, 
voyages  of  circumnavigation  were  made  by  Dixon  and  Portlock,  and  by  La 
Perouse,  all  touching  upon  the  Northwest  Coast. 

French  Canadian  traders  were  the  first  to  penetrate  the  northern  interior 
west  of  Hudson  Bay.  Their  most  distant  station  was  on  the  Saskatchewan 
River,  two  thousand  miles  from  civilization,  in  the  heart  of  an  unknown 
wilderness  inhabited  by  savage  men  and  beasts.  These  coureurs  des  bois  or 
wood-rangers,  as  they  were  called,  were  admirably  adapted,  by  their  disposi 
tion  and  superior  address,  to  conciliate  the  Indians  and  form  settlements 
among  them.  Unrestrained,  however,  by  control,  they  committed  excesses 
which  the  French  government  could  check  only  by  prohibiting,  under  penalty 
of  death,  any  but  its  authorized  agents  from  trading  within  its  territories. 


30  FIRST  INTERCOURSE  WITH  EUROPEANS. 

British  merchants  at  New  York  soon  entered  into  competition  with  the  fur 
princes  of  Montreal.  But,  in  1670,  a  more  formidable  opposition  arose  in  the 
organization  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  by  Prince  Rupert  and  other 
noblemen,  under  a  charter  of  Charles  II.  which  granted  exclusive  right  to  all 
the  territory  drained  by  rivers  flowing  into  Hudson  Bay.  Notwithstanding 
constant  feuds  with  the  French  merchants  regarding  territorial  limits,  the 
company  prospered  from  the  beginning,  paying  annual  dividends  of  twenty- 
five  and  fifty  per  cent,  after  many  times  increasing  the  capital  stock.  In 
1676,  the  Canadians  formed  the  Compagnie  du  Nord,  in  order  the  more  suc 
cessfully  to  resist  encroachment.  Upon  the  loss  of  Canada  by  the  French  in 
1762,  hostilities  thickened  between  the  companies,  and  the  traffic  for  a  time 
fell  off.  In  1784,  the  famous  Northwest  Company  was  formed  by  Cana 
dian  merchants,  and  the  management  entrusted  to  the  Frobisher  brothers 
and  Simon  M'Tavish.  The  head-quarters  of  the  company  were  at  Montreal, 
but  annual  meetings  were  held,  with  lordly  state,  at  Fort  William,  on  the 
shore  of  Lake  Superior.  The  company  consisted  of  twenty-three  partners, 
and  employed  over  two  thousand  clerks  and  servants.  It  exercised  an  almost 
feudal  sway  over  a  wide  savage  domain,  and  maintained  a  formidable  com 
petition  with  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  with  which  they  were  for  two 
years  in  actual  war.  In  18  i3,  they  purchased,  from  the  partners  of  John 
Jacob  Astor,  the  settlement  of  Astoria  on  the  Columbia  River.  In  1821,  they 
united  with  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company;  and  the  charter  covering  the  entire 
region  occupied  by  both  was  renewed  by  act  of  Parliament.  In  1762,  some 
merchants  of  New  Orleans  organized  a  company  which  was  commissioned 
by  D'Abadie,  director-general  of  Louisiana,  under  the  name  of  Pierre  Li- 
gueste  Laclede,  Antoine  Maxan,  and  Company.  Their  first  post  occupied  the 
spot  upon  which  the  city  of  St  Louis  is  now  situated;  and,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  brothers  Chouteau,  they  penetrated  northwestward  beyond  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  In  1808,  the  Missouri  Fur  Company  was  formed  at  St  Louis, 
consisting  of  the  Chouteaus  and  others;  and  an  expedition  under  Major 
Henry  was  sent  across  the  Rocky  Moimtains,  which  established  the  first  post 
on  the  Columbia  River.  Between  the  years  1825  and  1830,  the  Rocky  Mount-' 
ain  Fur  Company  of  St  Louis  extended  their  operations  over  California  and 
Oregon,  but  at  a  loss  of  the  lives  of  nearly  one  half  of  their  employes. 
John  Jacob  Astor  embarked  in  the  fur  trade  at  New  York  in  1784,  purchasing 
at  that  time  in  Montreal.  In  1808,  he  obtained  a  charter  for  the  American  Fur 
Company,  which  was,  in  1811,  merged  into  the  Southwest  Company.  In  1809, 
Mr  Astor  conceived  the  project  of  establishing  a  transcontinental  line  of 
posts.  His  purpose  was  to  concentrate  the  fur  trade  of  the  United  States, 
and  establish  uninterrupted  communication  between  the  Pacific  and  the  At 
lantic.  He  made  proposals  of  association  to  the  Northwest  Company,  which 
were  not  only  rejected,  but  an  attempt  was  made  by  that  association  to  antici 
pate  Mr  Astor  in  his  operations,  by  making  a  settlement  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Columbia  River.  In  1810,  the  Pacific  Fur  Company  was  founded  by  Mr 
Astor,  and  an  expedition  dispatched  overland  by  way  of  St  Louis  and  the 
Missouri  River.  At  the  same  time  a  vessel  was  sent  round  Cape  Horn  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Columbia;  but,  their  adventure  in  that  quarter  proving 


THE  GKEAT  NOKTHWEST.  31 

unsuccessful,  the  company  was  dissolved,  and  the  operations  of  Mr  Astor 
were  thereafter  confined  to  the  territory  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Samuel  Hearne,  an  officer  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  was  the  first 
European  to  reach  the  Arctic  Ocean  through  the  interior  of  the  continent. 
He  descended  Coppermine  Eiver  to  its  mouth  in  the  year  1771 .  The  Upper 
Misinipi  Eiver  was  first  visited  by  Joseph  Frobisher  in  1775.  Three  years 
later,  one  Peter  Pond  penetrated  to  within  thirty  miles  of  Athabasca  Lake, 
and  established  a  trading  post  at  that  point.  Four  canoe-loads  of  merchan 
dise  were  exchanged  by  him  for  more  fine  furs  than  his  canoes  could  carry. 
Other  adventurous  traders  soon  followed ;  but  not  long  afterwards  the  inevi 
table  broils  which  always  attended  the  early  intercourse  of  Europeans  and 
Indians,  rose  to  such  a  height  that,  but  for  the  appearance  of  that  terrible 
scourge,  the  small -pox,  the  traders  would  have  been  extirpated.  The 
ravages  of  this  dire  disease  continued  to  depopulate  the  country  until 
1782,  when  traders  again  appeared  among  the  Knisteueaux  and  Tinneh. 
The  most  northern  division  of  the  Northwest  Company  was  at  that  time 
the  Athabascan  Lake  region,  where  Alexander  Mackenzie  was  the  man 
aging  partner.  His  winter  residence  was  at  Fort  Chipewyan,  on  Athabasca 
Lake.  The  Indians  who  traded  at  his  establishment  informed  him  of  the 
existence  of  a  large  river  flowing  to  the  westward  from  Slave  Lake.  Think 
ing  thereby  to  reach  the  Pacific  Ocean,  Mr  Mackenzie,  in  the  year  1789,  set 
out  upon  an  expedition  to  the  west ;  and,  descending  the  noble  stream  which 
bears  his  name,  found  himself,  contrary  to  his  expectations,  upon  the  shores 
of  the  Arctic  Sea.  In  1793,  he  made  a  journey  to  the  Pacific,  ascending 
Peace  River,  and  reaching  the  coast  in  latitude  about  fifty-two.  The  first 
expedition  organized  by  the  British  government  for  the  purpose  of  surveying 
the  northern  coast,  was  sent  out  under  Lieutenants  Franklin  and  Parry  in 
1819.  During  the  year  following,  Franklin  descended  Coppermine  River,  and 
subsequently,  in  1825,  he  made  a  journey  down  the  Mackenzie.  In  1808, 
D.  W.  Harmon,  a  partner  in  the  Northwest  Company,  crossed  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  at  about  the  fifty-sixth  parallel,  to  Fraser  and  Stuart  Lakes. 
The  accounts  of  the  natives  given  by  these  travelers  and  their  companions 
are  essentially  the  same,  and  later  voyagers  have  failed  to  throw  much  addi 
tional  light  upon  the  subject.  John  Meares,  in  1788,  visited  the  Straits  of 
Fuca,  Nootka  Sound,  and  Cook  Inlet;  and,  during  the  same  year,  two  ships, 
sent  out  by  Boston  merchants,  under  Robert  Gray  and  John  Kendrick, 
entered  Nootka  Sound.  Estevan  Martinez  and  Gonzalo  Haro,  sent  from 
Mexico  to  look  after  the  interest  of  Spain  in  these  regions,  explored  Prince 
"William  Sound,  and  visited  Kadiak.  During  the  same  year,  the  Russians 
established  a  trading  post  at  Copper  River.  In  1789,  Joseph  Billings  visited 
the  Aleutian  Islands,  and  the  Boston  vessels  explored  the  Eastern  coast  of 
Queen  Charlotte  Island.  In  1790,  Salvador  Hidalgo  was  sent  by  the  Mexican 
government  to  Nootka;  and  Monaldo  explored  the  Straits  of  Juan  de  Fuca. 
In  1791,  four  ships  belonging  to  Boston  merchants,  two  Spanish  ships,  one 
French  and  several  Russian  vessels  touched  upon  the  Northwest  Coast.  The 
Spanish  vessels  were  under  the  command  of  Alejandro  Malespina ;  Etienne  Mar- 
chand  was  the  commander  of  the  French  ship.  The  '  Sutil  y  Mexicana '  en- 


32  FIRST  INTEECOUESE  WITH  EUEOPEANS. 

tered  Nootka  Sound  in  1792;  and  during  the  same  year,  Vancouver  commenced 
his  explorations  along  the  coast  above  Cape  Flattery.  In  1803-4,  Baron  Von 
Humboldt  was  making  his  searching  investigations  in  Mexico;  while  the 
captive  New  Englander,  Jewett,  was  dancing  attendance  to  Maquina,  king 
of  the  Nootkas.  Lewis  and  Clark  traversed  the  continent  in  1805.  In  1806, 
a  Mr  Fraser  set  out  from  Canada,  and  crossed  the  Eocky  Mountains  near 
the  headwaters  of  the  river  which  bears  his  name.  He  descended  Fraser 
Eiver  to  the  lake  which  he  also  called  after  himself.  There  he  built  a  fort 
and  opened  trade  with  the  natives.  Kotzebue  visited  the  coast  in  1816;  and 
the  Eussian  expedition  under  Kramchenko,  Wasilieff,  and  Etolin,  in  1822. 
Captain  Morrel  explored  the  Californian  coast  from  San  Diego  to  San  Fran 
cisco  in  1825;  Captains  Beechey  and  Liitke,  the  Northwest  Coast  in  1826;  and 
Sir  Edward  Belcher  in  1837.  J.  K.  Townsend  made  an  excursion  west  of  the 
Eocky  Mountains  in  1834.  In  1837,  Dease  and  Simpson  made  an  open 
boat  voyage  from  the  Mackenzie  Eiver,  westward  to  Point  Barrow,  the  far 
thest  point  made  by  Beechey  from  the  opposite  direction,  thus  reaching  the 
Ultima  Thitle  of  northwestern  discovery.  Sir  George  Simpson  crossed  the 
continent  in  1841,  Fremont  in  1843,  and  Paul  Kane  in  1845.  Kushevaroff 
visited  the  coast  in  1838,  Laplace  in  1839,  Commodore  Wilkes  in  1841,  and 
Captain  Kellett  in  1849.  Following  the  discovery  of  gold,  the  country  was  del 
uged  by  adventurers.  In  1853-4,  commenced  the  series  of  explorations  for  a 
Pacific  railway.  The  necessities  of  the  natives  were  examined,  and  remnants 
of  disappearing  nations  were  collected  upon  reservations  under  government 
agents.  The  interior  of  Alaska  was  first  penetrated  by  the  employes  of  the 
Eussian-American  Fur  Company.  Malakoff  ascended  the  Yukon  in  1838; 
and,  in  1842,  Derabin  established  a  fort  upon  that  river.  In  1849,  W.  H. 
Hooper  made  a  boat  expedition  from  Kotzebue  Sound  to  the  Mackenzie 
Eiver;  and,  in  1866,  William  H.  Dall  and  Frederick  Whymper  ascended  the 
Yukon. 

I  have  here  given  a  few  only  of  the  original  sources  whence  my  informa 
tion  is  derived  concerning  the  Indians.  A  multitude  of  minor  voyages  and 
travels  have  been  performed  during  the  past  three  and  a  half  centuries,  and 
accounts  published  by  early  residents  among  the  natives,  the  bare  enumera 
tion  of  which  I  fear  would  prove  wearisome  to  the  reader.  Enough,  how 
ever,  has  been  given  to  show  the  immediate  causes  which  led  to  the  discovery 
and  occupation  of  the  several  parts  of  this  western  coast.  The  Spanish 
cavaliers  craved  from  the  Indians  of  the  Souih  their  lands  and  their  gold. 
The  Spanish  missionaries  demanded  from  the  Indians  of  Northern  Mexico 
and  California,  faith.  The  French,  English,  Canadian,  and  American  fur 
companies  sought  from  the  Indians  of  Oregon  and  New  Caledonia,  peltries. 
The  Eussians  compelled  the  natives  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  to  hunt  sea- 
animals.  The  filthy  raw-flesh-eating  Eskimos,  having  nothing  wherewith  to 
tempt  the  cupidity  of  the  superior  race,  retain  their  primitive  purity. 

We  observe  then  three  original  incentives  urging  on  civilized  white 
men  to  overspread  the  domain  of  the  Indian.  The  first  was  that  thirst 
for  gold,  which  characterized  the  fiery  hidalgos  from  Spain  in  their  con- 


CUPIDITY  AND  ZEAL.  33 

quests,  and  to  obtain  which  no  cmelty  was  too  severe  nor  any  sacrifice  of 
human  life  too  great;  as  though  of  all  the  gifts  vouchsafed  to  man,  material 
or  divine,  one  only  was  worth  possessing.  The  second,  following  closely 
in  the  footsteps  of  the  first,  and  oftentimes  constituting  a  part  of  it,  was 
religious  enthusiasm ;  a  zealous  interest  in  the  souls  of  the  natives  and  the 
form  in  which  they  worshiped.  The  third,  which  occupied  the  attention  of 
other  and  more  northern  Europeans,  grew  out  of  a  covetous  desire  for 
the  wild  man's  clothing;  to  secure  to  themselves  the  peltries  of  the  great 
hyperborean  regions  of  America.  From  the  south  of  Europe  the  Spaniards 
landed  in  tropical  North  America,  and  exterminated  the  natives.  From  the 
north  of  Europe  the  French,  English,  and  Russians  crossed  over  to  the 
northern  part  of  America;  and,  with  a  kinder  and  more  refined  Cruelty,  no 
less  effectually  succeeded  in  sweeping  them  from  the  face  of  the  earth  by  the 
introduction  of  the  poisonous  elements  of  a  debased  cultivation. 

Fortunately  for  the  Indians  of  the  north,  it  was  contrary  to  the  interests 
of  white  people  to  kill  them  in  order  to  obtain  the  skins  of  their  animals; 
for,  with  a  few  trinkets,  they  could  procure  what  otherwise  would  require 
long  and  severe  labor  to  obtain.  The  policy,  therefore,  of  the  great  fur- 
trading  companies  has  been  to  cherish  the  Indians  as  their  best  hunters,  to 
live  at  peace  '.vith  them,  to  heal  their  ancient  feuds,  and  to  withhold  from 
them  intoxicating  liquors.  The  condition  of  their  women,  who  were  considered 
by  the  natives  as  little  better  than  beasts,  has  been  changed  by  their  inter- 
social  relations  with  the  servants  of  the  trading  companies;  and  their  more 
barbarous  practices  discontinued.  It  was  the  almost  universal  custom  of  the 
employes  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  to  unite  to  themselves  native 
""/omen;  thus,  by  means  of  this  relationship,  the  condition  of  the  women  has 
been  raised,  while  the  men  manifest  a  kinder  feeling  towards  the  white  race 
who  thus  in  a  measure  become  one  with  them. 

The  efforts  of  early  missionaries  to  this  region  were  not  crowned  with  that 
success  which  attended  the  Spaniards  in  their  spiritual  warfare  upon  the  south 
ern  nations,  from  the  fact  that  no  attention  was  paid  to  the  temporal  necessi 
ties  of  the  natives.  It  has  long  since  been  demonstrated  impossible  to  reach 
the  heart  of  a  savage  through  abstract  ideas  of  morality  and  elevation  of  char 
acter.  A  religion,  in  order  to  find  favor  in  his  eyes,  must  first  meet  some 
of  his  material  requirements.  If  it  is  good,  it  will  clothe  him  better 
and  feed  him  better,  for  this  to  him  is  the  chiefest  good  in  life.  Intermix 
tures  of  civilized  with  savage  peoples  are  sure  to  result  in  the  total  disappear 
ance  of  refinement  on  the  one  side,  or  in  the  extinction  of  the  barbaric  race  on 
the  other.  The  downward  path  is  always  the  easiest.  Of  all  the  millions 
of  native  Americans  who  have  perished  under  the  withering  influences  of 
European  civilization,  there  is  not  a  single  instance  on  record,  of  a  tribe  or 
nation  having  been  reclaimed,  ecclesiastically  or  otherwise,  by  artifice  and 
argument.  Individual  savages  have  been  educated  with  a  fair  degree  of  suc 
cess.  But,  with  a  degree  of  certainty  far  greater,  no  sooner  is  the  white  man 
freed  from  the  social  restraint  of  civilized  companionship,  than  he  immedi 
ately  tends  towards  barbarism ;  and  not  unfrequently  becomes  so  fascinated 
with  his  new  life  as  to  prefer  it  to  any  other.  Social  development  is  inherent: 
VOL.  I.  3 


34  FIRST  INTERCOURSE  WITH  EUROPEANS. 

superinduced  culture  is  a  failure.  Left  alone,  the  nations  of  America  might 
have  unfolded  into  as  bright  a  civilization  as  that  of  Europe.  They  were 
already  well  advanced,  and  still  rapidly  advancing  towards  it,  when  they 
were  so  mercilessly  stricken  down.  But  for  a  stranger  to  re-create  the  heart 
or  head  of  a  red  man,  it  were  easier  to  change  the  color  of  his  skin. 


CHAPTER  III 


HYPERBOREANS. 

GENERAL  DIVISIONS— HYPERBOREAN  NATIONS— ASPECTS  OF  NATURE — VEGETA 
TION —  CLIMATE  —  ANIMALS —  THE  ESKIMOS — THEIR  COUNTRY — PHYSICAL 
CHARACTERISTICS  —  DRESS  —  DWELLINGS  —  FOOD  —  WEAPONS  —  BOOTS  — 
SLEDGES — SNOW-SHOES — GOVERNMENT — DOMESTIC  AFFAIRS — AMUSEMENTS 
— DISEASES — BURIAL — THE  KONIAGAS,  THEIR  PHYSICAL  AND  SOCIAL  CON 
DITION — THE  ALEUTS— THE  THLINKEETS— THE  TINNEH. 

I  shall  attempt  to  describe  the  physical  and  mental 
characteristics  of  the  Native  Races  of  the  Pacific  States 
under  seven  distinctive  groups;  namely,  I.  Hyperbo 
reans,  being  those  nations  whose  territory  lies  north  of 
the  fifty-fifth  parallel;  II.  Columbians,  who  dwell  be 
tween  the  fifty -fifth  and  forty -second  parallels,  and 
whose  lands  to  some  extent  are  drained  by  the  Columbia 
River  and  its  tributaries;  III.  Californians,  and  the  In 
habitants  of  the  Great  Basin;  IY.  New  Mexicans, 
including  the  nations  of  the  Colorado  River  and  northern 
Mexico;  V.  Wild  Tribes  of  Mexico;  VI.  Wild  Tribes  of 
Central  America;  VII.  Civilized  Nations  of  Mexico  and 
Central  America.  It  is  my  purpose,  without  any  attempt 
at  ethnological  classification,  or  further  comment  con 
cerning  races  and  stocks,  plainly  to  portray  such  customs 
and  characteristics  as  were  peculiar  to  each  people  at  the 
time  of  its  first  intercourse  with  European  strangers; 
leaving  scientists  to  make  their  own  deductions,  and 
draw  specific  lines  between  linguistic  and  physiological 
families,  as  they  may  deem  proper.  I  shall  endeavor  to 
picture  these  nations  in  their  aboriginal  condition,  as  seen 


86  HYPEKBOKEANS. 

by  the  first  invaders,  as  described^  by  those  who  beheld 
them  in  their  savage  grandeur,  and  before  they  were 
startled  from  their  lair  by  the  treacherous  voice  of  civilized 
friendship.  Now  they  are  gone. — those  dusky  denizens 
of  a  thousand  forests, — melted  like  hoar-frost  before  the 
rising  sun  of  a  superior  intelligence ;  and  it  is  only  from 
the  earliest  records,  from  the  narratives  of  eye  witnesses, 
many  of  them  rude  unlettered  men,  trappers,  sailors, 
and  soldiers,  that  we  are  able  to  know  them  as  they 
were.  Some  division  of  the  work  into  parts,  how 
ever  arbitrary  it  may  be,  is  indispensable.  In  deal 
ing  with  Mythology,  and  in  tracing  the  tortuous  course 
of  Language,  boundaries  will  be  dropped  and  beliefs 
and  tongues  will  be  followed  wherever  they  lead ;  but  in 
describing  Manners  and  Customs,  to  avoid  confusion, 
territorial  divisions  are  necessary. 

In  the  groupings  which  1  have  adopted,  one  cluster  of 
nations  follows  another  in  geographical  succession;  the 
dividing  line  not  being  more  distinct,  perhaps,  than  that 
which  distinguishes  some  national  divisions,  but  suffi 
ciently  marked,  in  mental  and  physical  peculiarities,  to 
entitle  each  group  to  a  separate  consideration. 

The  only  distinction  of  race  made  by  naturalists,  upon 
the  continents  of  both  North  and  South  America,  until 
a  comparatively  recent  period,  was  by  segregating  the 
first  of  the  above  named  groups  from  all  other  people  of 
both  continents,  and  calling  one  Mongolians  and  the 
other  Americans.  A  more  intimate  acquaintance  with 
the  nations  of  the  North  proves  conclusively  that  one 
of  the  boldest  types  of  the  American  Indian  proper,  the 
Tinneh,  lies  within  the  territory  of  this  first  group, 
conterminous  with  the  Mongolian  Eskimos,  and  crowding 
them  down  to  a  narrow  line  along  the  shore  of  the  Arctic 
Sea.  The  nations  of  the  second  group,  although  exhibit 
ing  multitudinous  variations  in  minor  traits,  are  essen 
tially  one  people.  Between  the  California  Diggers  of 
the  third  division  and  the  New  Mexican  Towns -people 
of  the  fourth,  there  is  more  diversity ;  and  a  still  greater 


GKOUPINGS  AND  SUBDIVISIONS.  37 

difference  between  the  savage  and  civilized  nations  of 
the  Mexican  table-land.  Any  classification  or  division 
of  the  subject  which  could  be  made  would  be  open  to 
criticism.  I  therefore  adopt  the  most  simple  practical 
plan,  one  which  will  present  the  subject  most  clearly  to 
the  general  reader,  and  leave  it  in  the  best  shape  for 
purposes  of  theorizing  and  generalization. 

In  the  first  or  HYPERBOREAN  group,  to  which  this  chap 
ter  is  devoted,  are  five  subdivisions,  as  follows:  The  Eski 
mos,  commonly  called  Western  Eskimos,  who  skirt  the 
shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  from  Mackenzie  River  to  Kotze- 
bue  Sound ;  the  Koniagas  or  Southern  Eskimos,  who,  com 
mencing  at  Kotzebue  Sound,  cross  the  Kaviak  Peninsula, 
border  on  Bering  Sea  from  Norton  Sound  southward, 
and  stretch  over  the  Alaskan1  Peninsula  and  Koniagan 

1  Of  late,  custom  gives  to  the  main  hind  of  Russian  America,  the  name  Alas 
ka;  to  the  peninsula,  Aliaska;  and  to  a  large  island  of  the  Aleutian  Archipelago, 
Unalashka.  The  word  of  which  the  present  name  Alaska  is  a  corruption,  is 
first  encountered  in  the  narrative  of  Betsevin,  who,  in  1761,  wintered  on  the 
peninsula,  supposing  it  to  be  an  island.  The  author  of  Neue  NachricMen  von 
denen  nenentd^kte.'i  Jnsuln,  writes,  page  53,  '  womit  man  nach  der  abgelegen- 
sten  Insul  Aldksu  oder  Alachsvhak  fiber  gieng.'  Again,  at  page  57,  in  giving 
a  description  of  the  animals  on  the  supposed  island  he  calls  it  'auf  der  Insul 
Alaska.'  'This,'  says  Coxe,  Russian  Discoveries,  p. 72,  '  is  probably  the  same 
island  which  is  laid  down  in  Krenitzin's  chart  under  the  name  of  Alaxa.' 
Unalaschka  is  given  by  the  author  of  Neae  Nachrlchten,  p.  ?4,  in  his  nar 
rative  of  the  voyage  of  Drusinin,  who  hunted  on  that  island  in  1703.  At  page 
115  he  again  mentions  the  'grosse  Insul  AUiksu.'  On  page  125,  in  Glottoff's 
log-book,  17(;4,  is  the  entry:  'Den28sten  May  der  Wind  Ostsiidost;  man  kam 
an  die  Insul  Alaska  oder  Alfiksu.'  Still  following  the  author  of  Neue  Xa<:l/- 
richten,  we  have  on  page  1GG,  in  an  account  of  the  voyages  of  Otserediii  and 
Popoff,  who  hunted  upon  the  Aleutian  Islands  in  17(59,  mention  of  a  report 
by  the  natives  '  that  beyond  Unimak  is  said  to  be  a  large  land  Alfischka,  the 
extent  of  which  the  islanders  do  not  know.'  On  Cook's  Atlas,  voyage  1778, 
the  peninsula  is  called  Alaska,  and  the  island  Oonalaska.  La  Perouse,  in  his 
atlas,  map  No.  15,  178G,  calls  the  peninsula  Alaska,  and  the  island  Ounalas/ca. 
The  Spaniards,  in  the  Atlas  para  el  Viaye  de  las  yoletas  tiidil  y  Mexicana, 
1792,  write  Alasca  for  the  peninsula,  and  for  the  island  Unalaska.  Sauer,  in 
his  account  of  Billings'  expedition,  1790,  calls  the  main  land  Alaska,  the 
peninsula  Alyaska,  and  the  island  Oonalashka.  Wrangell,  in  Baer's  titatis- 
tische  und  ethnoyraphische  Nachrichten,  p.  123,  writes  for  the  peninsula  Alaska 
and  for  the  island  Unalaschka.  Holmberg,  Ethnographische  tikizzen,  p.  78, 
calls  the  island  Unalaschka  and  the  peninsula  Aljaska.  Dall,  Alaska,  p.  529, 
says  that  the  peninsula  or  main  land  was  called  by  the  natives  Alayeksa, 
(ind  the  island  Nayun-alayelcsa,  'or  the  land  near  Alayeksa.'  Thus  we 
have,  from  which  to  choose,  the  orthography  of  the  earliest  voyagers  to  this 
coast — Russian,  English,  French,  Spanish,  German,  and  American.  The 
simple  word  Alaksu.  after  undergoing  many  contortions,  some  authors  writ 
ing  it  differently  on  different  pages  of  the  same  book,  has  at  length  become 
Alaska,  as  applied  to  the  main  laud;  Aliaska  for  the  peninsula,  and  Una- 


38  HYPEEBOEEANS. 

Islands  to  the  mouth  of  the  Atna  or  Copper  River, 
extending  back  into  the  interior  about  one  hundred  and 
fifty  miles ;  the  Aleuts,  or  people  of  the  Aleutian  Archi 
pelago  ;  the  IMinkeets,  who  inhabit  the  coast  and  islands 
between  the  rivers  Atna  and  Nass;  and  the  Tinneh, 
or  Athabascas,  occupying  the  territory  between  the 
above  described  boundaries  and  Hudson  Bay.  Each  of 
these  families  is  divided  into  nations  or  tribes ,  distin 
guished  one  from  another  by  slight  dialectic  or  other 
differences,  which  tribal  divisions  will  be  given  in  treat 
ing  of  the  several  nations  respectively. 

Let  us  first  cast  a  glance  over  this  broad  domain,  and 
mark  those  aspects  of  nature  which  exercise  so  powerful 
an  influence  upon  the  destinies  of  mankind.  Midway  be 
tween  Mount  St  Elias  and  the  Arctic  seaboard  rise  three 
mountain  chains.  One,  the  Rocky  Mountain  range,  cross 
ing  from  the  Yukon  to  the  Mackenzie  River,  deflects  south 
ward,  and  taking  up  its  mighty  line  of  march,  throws  a 
barrier  between  the  east  and  the  west,  which  extends 
throughout  the  entire  length  of  the  continent.  Between 
the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Pacific,  interposes  another 
called  in  Oregon  the  Cascade  Range,  and  in  California 
the  Sierra  Nevada;  while  from  the  same  starting-point, 
the  Alaskan  range  stretches  out  to  the  southwest  along 
the  Alaskan  Peninsula,  and  breaks  into  fragments  in  the 
Aleutian  Archipelago.  Three  noble  streams,  the  Macken 
zie,  the  Yukon,  and  the  Kuskoquim,  float  the  boats  of  the 
inland  Hyperboreans  and  supply  them  with  food ;  while 
from  the  heated  waters  of  Japan  comes  a  current  of  the 
sea,  bathing  the  icy  coasts  with  genial  warmth,  temper 
ing  the  air,  and  imparting  gladness  to  the  oily  watermen 
of  the  coast,  to  the  northernmost  limit  of  their  lands. 
The  northern  border  of  this  territory  is  treeless;  the 
southern  shore,  absorbing  more  warmth  and  moisture 
from  the  Japan  current,  is  fringed  with  dense  forests; 

lashka  as  the  name  of  the  island.  As  these  names  are  all  corruptions  from 
some  one  original  word,  whatever  that  may  be,  I  see  no  reason  for  giving 
the  error  three  different  forms.  I  therefore  write  Alaska  for  the  mainland 
and  peninsula,  and  Unalaska  for  the  island. 


MAN  AND  NATURE.  39 

while  the  interior,  interspersed  with  hills,  and  lakes, 
and  woods,  and  grassy  plains,  during  the  short  summer 
is  clothed  in  luxuriant  vegetation. 

Notwithstanding  the  frowning  aspect  of  nature,  ani 
mal  life  in  the  Arctic  regions  is  most  abundant.  The 
ocean  swarms  with  every  species  of  fish  and  sea-mam 
mal  ;  the  land  abounds  in  reindeer,  moose,  musk-oxen ;  in 
black,  grizzly,  and  Arctic  bears ;  in  wolves,  foxes,  beavers, 
mink,  ermine,  martin,  otters,  raccoons,  and  water- fowl. 
Immense  herds  of  buffalo  roam  over  the  bleak  grassy 
plains  of  the  eastern  Tinneh,  but  seldom  venture  far  to 
the  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Myriads  of  birds 
migrate  to  and  fro  between  their  breeding-places  in  the 
interior  of  Alaska,  the  open  Arctic  Sea,  and  the  warmer 
latitudes  of  the  south.  From  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  from 
the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  from  the  lakes  of  California, 
of  Oregon,  and  of  Washington  they  come,  fluttering  and 
feasting,  to  rear  their  young  during  the  sparkling  Arctic 
summer-day. 

The  whole  occupation  of  man  throughout  this  region, 
is  a  struggle  for  life.  So  long  as  the  organism  is  plenti 
fully  supplied  with  heat -producing  food,  all  is  well. 
Once  let  the  internal  fire  go  down,  and  all  is  ill.  Un 
like  the  inhabitants  of  equatorial  latitudes,  where,  Eden- 
like,  the  sheltering  tree  drops  food,  and  the  little 
nourishment  essential  to  life  may  be  obtained  by  only 
stretching  forth  the  hand  and  plucking  it,  the  Hyper 
borean  man  must  maintain  a  constant  warfare  with 
nature,  or  die.  His  daily  food  depends  upon  the  suc 
cess  of  his  daily  battle  with  beasts,  birds,  and  fishes, 
which  dispute  with  him  possession  of  sea  and  land. 
Unfortunate  in  his  search  for  game,  or  foiled  in  his 
attempt  at  capture,  he  must  fast.  The  associate  of 
beasts,  governed  by  the  same  emergencies,  preying 
upon  animals  as  animals  prey  upon  each  other,  the 
victim  supplying  all  the  necessities  of  the  victor,  oc 
cupying  territory  in  common,  both  alike  drawing  sup 
plies  directly  from  the  storehouse  of  nature, — primitive 


40  HYPERBOREANS. 

man  derives  his  very  quality  from  the  brute  with  which 
he  struggles.  The  idiosyncrasies  of  the  animal  fasten 
upon  him,  and  that  upon  which  he  feeds  becomes  a  part 
of  him. 

Thus,  in  a  nation  of  hunters  inhabiting  a  rigorous 
climate,  we  may  look  for  wiry,  keen-scented  men,  who 
in  their  war  upon  wild  beasts  put  forth  strength  and 
endurance  in  order  to  overtake  and  capture  the  strong; 
cunning  is  opposed  by  superior  cunning;  a  stealthy 
watchfulness  governs  every  movement,  while  the  intelli 
gence  of  the  man  contends  with  the  instincts  of  the  brute. 
Fishermen,  on  the  other  hand,  who  obtain  their  food 
with  comparatively  little  effort,  are  more  sluggish  in 
their  natures  and  less  noble  in  their  development.  In 
the  icy  regions  of  the  north,  the  animal  creation  supplies 
man  with  food,  clothing,  and  caloric;  with  all  the  requi 
sites  of  an  existence  under  circumstances  apparently  the 
most  adverse  to  comfort ;  and  when  he  digs  his  dwelling 
beneath  the  ground,  or  walls  out  the  piercing  winds  with 
snow,  his  ultimate  is  attained. 

The  chief  differences  in  tribes  occupying  the  interior 
.and  the  seaboard, — the  elevated,  treeless,  grassy  plains 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  the  humid  islands 
and  shores  of  the  great  Northwest, — grow  out  of  neces 
sities  arising  from  their  methods  of  procuring  food. 
Even  causes  so  slight  as  the  sheltering  bend  of  a  coast 
line;  the  guarding  of  a  shore  by  islands;  the  breaking 
•of  a  seaboard  by  inlets  and  covering  of  the  strand  with 
sea- weed  and  polyps,  requiring  only  the  labor  of  gather 
ing;  or  the  presence  of  a  bluff  coast  or  windy  prom 
ontory,  whose  occupants  are  obliged  to  put  forth  more 
vigorous  action  for  sustenance — all  govern  man  in  his 
•development.  Turn  now  to  the  most  northern  division 
of  our  most  northern  group. 

THE  ESKIMOS,  Esquimaux,  or  as  they  call  themselves, 
Innuitj  'the  people,'  from  inuk,  'man,'2  occupy  the 

2  The  name  is  said,  by  Charlevoix  'to  be  derived  from  the  language  of  the 
Abenaqiri,  a  tribe  of  Algonquins  in  Canada,  who  border  upon  them  and  call 


THE  ESKIMOS.  41 

Arctic  seaboard  from  eastern  Greenland  along  the  en 
tire  continent  of  America,  and  across  Bering3  Strait  to 
the  Asiatic  shore.  Formerly  the  inhabitants  of  our 
whole  Hyperborean  sea -coast,  from  the  Mackenzie  River 
to  Queen  Charlotte  Island  —  the  interior  being  en 
tirely  unknown — were  denominated  Eskimos,  and  were 
of  supposed  Asiatic  origin.4  The  tribes  of  southern 

them  "Esquimantsic."  '  'L'originedeleurnomn'est  pas  certain.  Toutefois 
il  y  a  bien  de  1'apparence  qu'il  vieiit  du  mot  Abenaqui,  esqnim  anisic  qui  veut 
dire  "maugeur  de  viande  erne."  :l  See  Prichard's  Physical  History  of  Man 
kind,  vol.  v.,  pp.  367,  373.  '  French  writers  call  them  Eskimaux.'  'English 
authors,  in  adopting  this  term,  have  most  generally  written  it  "Esquimaux," 
but  Dr.  Latham,  and  other  recent  ethnologists,  write  it  "Eskimos,"  after 
the  Danish  orthography.'  Richardson's  Polar  Regions,  p.  298.  '  Probably  of 
Canadian  origin,  and  the  word,  which  in  French  orthography  is  written  Es- 
quimatix,  was  probably  originally  Ceux  qui  miuux  (wiaulent).'  Richardson's 
Journal,  vol.  i.,  p.  340*  'Said  to  be  a  corruption  of  Eskunantik,  i.  e.  raw- 
fish-eaters,  a  nickname  given  them  by  their  former  neighbors,  the  Mohicans.' 
Seemann's  Voyage  of  the  Herald,  vol.  ii.,  p.  49.  Eskimo  is  derived  from  a 
word  indicating  sorcerer  or  Shaman.  '  The  northern  Tinneh  use  the  word 
Uskeenn.'  ball's  Alaska,  pp.  144,  531.  'Their  own  national  designation  is 
"  Keralit."  '  Morton's  Crania  Americana,  p.  52.  They  '  call  themselves  "In- 
nuit,"  which  signifies  "man."  "  Armstrong's  Narrative,  p.  191. 

3  It  is  not  without  reluctance  that  I  change  a  word  from  the  commonly 
accepted  orthography.     Names  of  places,  though  originating  in  error,  when 
once  established,  it  is  better  to  leave  unchanged.     Indian  namefc,  coming  to 
us  through  Russian,  German,  French,  or  Spanish  writers,  should  be  presented 
in  English  by  such  letters  as  will  best  produce  the  original  Indian  pronun 
ciation.      European   personal  names,  however,  no   matter  how  long,   nor 
how  commonly  they  may  have  been  erroneously  used,   should  be  immedi 
ately  corrected.     Every  man  who  can  spell  is  supposed  to  be  able  to  give  the 
correct  orthography  of  his  own  name,  and  his  spelling  should  in  every 
instance  be  followed,  when  it  can  be  ascertained.     Veit  Bering,  aiiglice  Vitus 
Behring,  was  of  a  Danish  family,  several  members  of  which  were  well  known  in 
literature  before  his  own  time.    In  Danish  writings,  as  well  as  among  the  biogra 
phies  of  Russian  admirals,  where  may  be  found  a  fac-simile  of  his  autograph, 
the  name  is  spelled  tiering.    It  is  so  given  by  Humboldt,  and  by  the  Diciionnuire 
de  la  Conversation.     The  author  of  the  Neue  Nachrichten  von  denen  iieuentdehten 
Jnsi.dn,  one  of  the  oldest  printed  works  on  Russian  discoveries  in  America; 
as  well  as  Miiller,  who  was  the  companion  of  Bering  for  many  years;  and 
Buschmaun,— all  write  tiering.     Baer  remarks:  'Ich  schreibe  ferner  Bering, 
obgleich  es  jetzt  fast  allgemein  geworden  ist,  Behring  zu  schreiben,  mid  auch 
die  Euglauder  und  Franzosen  sich  der  letztern  Schreibart  beqiiemt  haben. 
Bering  war  ein  Diine  und  seine  Familie  war  lange  vor  ihm  in  der  Literatur- 
Geschichte  bekannt.     Sie  hat  ihren  Nameii  auf  die  von  mir  angenommene 
"Weise  drucken  lassen.     Derselben  Schreibart  bediente  sich  auch  der  Historio- 
ra'apli  Miiller,   der  langere  Zeit  unter  seinen   Befehlen  gedient  hatte,  nnd 
Pallas.'     Stfitistische  und  ethnographische  Nachrichten,  p.  328.     There  is  no 
doubt  that  the  famous  navigator  wrote  his  name  Bering,  and  that  the  letter 
'  h  '  was  subsequently  inserted  to  give  the  Danish  sound  to  the  letter  'e.' 
To  accomplish  the  same  purpose,  perhaps,  Coxe,  Laugsdorff,  Beechey,  ancj 
others  write  Peering. 

4  '  Die  Kadjacker  im  Gegentheil  nahern  sich  mehr  den  Amerikanischen 
Stiimmen  und  gleichen  in  ihrem  Aeussern  gar  nicht  den  Eskimos  oder  den 


42  HYPERBOREANS. 

Alaska  were  then  found  to  differ  essentially  from  those 
of  the  northern  coast.  •  Under  the  name  Eskimos,  there 
fore,  I  include  only  the  Western  Eskimos  of  certain 
writers,  whose  southern  boundary  terminates  at  Kotzebue 
Sound.5 

Eskimo -land  is  thinly  peopled,  and  but  little  is 
known  of  tribal  divisions.  At  the  Coppermine  River, 
the  Eskimos  are  called  Naggeuktormutes,  or  deer -horns; 
at  the  eastern  outlet  of  the  Mackenzie,  their  tribal 
name  is  Kitteyarute ;  between  the  Mackenzie  River  and 
Barter  Reef,  they  go  by  the  name  of  Kangmali  Innuit; 
at  Point  Barrow  they  call  themselves  Nuwungmutes; 
while  on  the  Nunatok  River,  in  the  vicinity  of  Kotzebue 
Sound,  they  are  known  as  Nunatangmutes.  Their  vil 
lages,  consisting  of  five  or  six  families  each,6  are  scattered 
along  the  coast.  A  village  site  is  usually  selected  upon 
some  good  landing-place,  where  there  is  sufficient  depth 
of  water  to  float  a  whale.  Between  tribes  is  left  a  spot 
of  unoccupied  or  neutral  ground,  upon  which  small  parties 
meet  during  the  summer  for  purposes  of  trade.7 

The  Eskimos  are  essentially  a  peculiar  people.  Their 
character  and  their  condition,  the  one  of  necessity  grow 
ing  out  of  the  other,  are  peculiar.  First,  it  is  claimed 
for  them  that  they  are  the. anomalous  race  of  America— 
the  only  people  of  the  new  world  clearly  identical  with 
any  race  of  the  old.  Then  they  are  the  most  littoral  peo 
ple  in  the  world.  The  linear  extent  of  their  occupancy, 
all  of  it  a  narrow  seaboard  averaging  scarcely  one  hundred 

Asiatischen  Volkern,  wahrsclieinlich  liaben  sie  durch  die  Vermiscliung  mit 
den  Stammen  Arnerika's  ihre  urspriingliche  Asiatische  aussere  Gestalt  und 
Gesichtsbildung  verloreu  und  irar  die  Sprache  beibehalten.'  Baer,  Stat.  u. 
etlm.  Nadir.,  p.  124.  '  Us  ressemblent  beaucoup  aux  indigenes  des  iles 
Curiles,  dependantes  du  Japon.'  Laplace,  Circumnavigation  de  I'Artemise, 
vol.  vi.,  p.  45. 

5  '  The  tribes  crowded  together  on  the  shores  of  Beering's  Sea  within  a 
comparatively  small  extent  of  coast-line,  exhibit  a  greater  variety,  both  in 
personal  appearance  and  dialect,  than  that  which  exists  between  the  Western 
Eskimos  and  their  distant  countrymen  in  Labrador;  and  ethnologists  have 
found  some  difficulty  in  classifying  them  properly.'     Richardson's  Jour., 
vol.  i.,  p.  363. 

6  For  authorities,  see  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES,  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 

7  Collinson,  in  London  Geographical  Society  Journal,  vol.  xxv.  p.  201. 


ESKIMO  LAND.  43 

miles  in  width,  is  estimated  at  not  less  than  five  thou 
sand  miles.  Before  them  is  a  vast,  unknown,  icy  ocean, 
upon  which  they  scarcely  dare  venture  beyond  sight  of 
land ;  behind  them,  hostile  mountaineers  ever  ready  to 
dispute  encroachment.  Their  very  mother-earth,  upon 
whose  cold  bosom  they  have  been  borne,  age  after  age 
through  countless  generations,8  is  almost  impenetrable, 
thawless  ice.  Their  days  and  nights,  and  seasons  and 
years,  are  not  like  those  of  other  men.  Six  months  of 
day  succeed  six  months  of  night.  Three  months  of 
sunless  winter;  three  months  of  nightless  summer;  six 
months  of  glimmering  twilight. 

About  the  middle  of  October9  commences  the  long 
night  of  winter.  The  earth  and  sea  put  on  an  icy 
covering ;  beasts  and  birds  depart  for  regions  sheltered 
or  more  congenial ;  humanity  huddles  in  subterraneous 
dens ;  all  nature  sinks  into  repose.  The  little  heat  left 
by  the  retreating  sun  soon  radiates  out  into  the  deep 
blue  realms  of  space ;  the  temperature  sinks  rapidly  to 
forty  or  fifty  degrees  below  freezing;  the  air  is  hushed, 
the  ocean  calm,  the  sky  cloudless.  An  awful,  painful 
stillness  pervades  the  dreary  solitude.  Not  a  sound  is 
heard ;  the  distant  din  of  busy  man,  and  the  noiseless 
hum  of  the  wilderness  alike  are  wanting.  Whispers 
become  audible  at  a  considerable  distance,  and  an  insup 
portable  sense  of  loneliness  oppresses  the  inexperienced 
visitor.10  Occasionally  the  aurora  borealis  flashes  out  in 
prismatic  coruscations,  throwing  a  brilliant  arch  from 
east  to  west — now  in  variegated  oscillations,  graduating 
through  all  the  various  tints  of  blue,  and  green,  and  vio 
let,  and  crimson ;  darting,  flashing,  or  streaming  in  yellow 
columns,  upwards,  downwards ;  now  blazing  steadily,  now 

8  '  Im  nordwestlichsten.  Theile  von  Arnerika  fand  Franklin  den  Boden, 
Mitte  August,  shon  in  eiuer  Tiefe  von  16  Zoll  gefroren.     Richardson  sah  an 
einem  ostlicheren  Pvmkte  der  Kiiste,  in  71°  12'  Breite,  die  Eisschiclit  im 
Julius  aufgetliaut  bis  3  Fuss  unter  der  krautbedeckten  Oberflache.     Hwn- 
boldt,  Kosmos,  torn.  iv.  p.  47. 

9  Silliman's  Journal,  vol.  xvi.,  p.  130.     Seemann's   Voy.  Herald,  vol.  ii., 
p.  13.     Armstrong's  Nar,,  p.  289. 

i°  '  Characteristic  of  the  Arctic  regions.'    Silliman's  Jour.,  vol.  xvi.,  p.  143. 


44  HYPERBOREANS. 

in  wavy  undulations,  sometimes  up  to  the  very  zenith ; 
momentarily  lighting  up  in  majestic  grandeur  the 
cheerless  frozen  scenery,  but  only  to  fall  back  with 
exhausted  force,  leaving  a  denser  obscurity.  Nature's 
electric  lantern,  suspended  for  a  time  in  the  frosty 
vault  of  heaven;  —  munificent  nature's  fire -works; 
with  the  polar  owl,  the  polar  bear,  and  the  polar 
man,  spectators. 

In  January,  the  brilliancy  of  the  stars  is  dimmed 
perceptibly  at  noon;  in  February,  a  golden  tint  rests 
upon  the  horizon  at  the  same  hour;  in  March,  the 
incipient  dawn  broadens;  in  April,  the  dozing  Eski 
mo  rubs  his  eyes  and  crawls  forth;  in  May,  the  snow 
begins  to  melt,  the  impatient  grass  and  flowers  arrive 
as  it  departs.11  In  June,  the  summer  has  fairly  come. 
Under  the  incessant  rays  of  the  never  setting  sun,  the 
snow  speedily  disappears,  the  ice  breaks  up,  the  glacial 
earth  softens  for  a  depth  of  one,  two,  or  three  feet;  cir 
culation  is  restored  to  vegetation,12  which,  during  winter, 
had  been  stopped, — if  we  may  believe  Sir  John  Rich 
ardson,  even  the  largest  trees  freezing  to  the  heart.  Sea, 
and  plain,  and  rolling  steppe  lay  aside  their  seamless 
shroud  of  white,  and  a  brilliant  tint  of  emerald  over 
spreads  the  landscape.13  All  Nature,  with  one  re 
sounding  cry,  leaps  up  and  claps  her  hands  for  joy. 
Flocks  of  birds,  lured  from  their  winter  homes,  fill 
the  air  with  their  melody ;  myriads  of  wild  fowls  send 
forth  their  shrill  cries;  the  moose  and  the  reindeer  flock 
down  from  the  forests  ;14  from  the  resonant  sea  comes  the 

11  At  Kotzebue  Sound,  in  July,  Choris  writes:     '  Le  sol  etait  emaille  de 
fleurs  de  couleurs  variees,  clans  tous  les  eiidroitsou  la  neige  venait  de  foudre.' 

Voyage  Pittoresque,  pt.  ii.,  p.  8. 

12  '  In  der  Eiiiikle  der  Inseln  von  Neu-Sibirien  finden  grosse  Heerden  von 
Remithieren  und  zahllose  Lemminge  noch  hinlaugliche  Nahrung.'     Ilun>.- 
boldt,  Kosmos,  vol.  iv.,  p.  42. 

13  '  Thermometer  rises  as  high  as  61°  Fahr.     With  a  sun  shining  through 
out  the  twenty-four  hours  the  growth  of  plants  is  rapid  in  the  extreme.' 
Seernann's  Voy.  Herald,  vol.  ii.,  p.  15. 

11  '  During  the  period  of  incubation  of  the  aquatic  birds,  every  hole  and 
projecting  crag  on  the  sides  of  this  rock  is  occupied  by  them.  Its  shores 
resound  with  the  chorus  of  thousands  of  the  feathery  tribe.'  Beechey's  Voy., 
vol.  i.,  p.  349. 


PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS.  45 

noise  of  spouting  whales  and  barking  seals ;  and  this  so 
lately  dismal,  cheerless  region,  blooms  with  an  exhuber- 
ance  of  life  equaled  only  by  the  shortness  of  its  dura 
tion.  And  in  token  of  a  just  appreciation  of  the 
Creator's  goodness,  this  animated  medley — man,  and 
beasts,  and  birds,  and  fishes — rises  up,  divides,  falls  to, 
and  ends  in  eating  or  in  being  eaten. 

The  physical  characteristics  of  the  Eskimos  are:  a 
fair  complexion,  the  skin,  when  free  from  dirt  and  paint, 
being  almost  white;15  a  medium  stature,  well  propor 
tioned,  thick-set,  muscular,  robust,  active,16  with  small 
and  beautifully  shaped  hands  and  feet;17  a  pyramidal 

15  '  Their  complexion,  if  divested  of  its  usual  covering  of  dirt,  can  hardly 
be  called  dark.'     Seemann's    Voy.  Herald,  vol.  ii.,   p.  51.     'In  comparison 
with  other  Americans,  of  a  white  complexion.'     McCulloh's  Aboriginal  His 
tory  of  America,  p.  20.     '  White  Complexion,  not  Copper  coloured.'     Dobbs' 
Hudson's  lt(iy,  p.  50.     'Almost  as  white  as  Europeans.'     Kalm's  Travels, 
vol.  ii.,  p.  263.     'Not  darker  than  that  of  a  Portuguese.'    Lyon's  Journal, 
p.  224.     '  Scarcely  a  shade  darker  than  a  deep  brunette.'     Parry's  3rd  Voy- 
age,  p.  493.  .  '  Their  complexion  is  light.'     Ball's  Alaska,  p.  381.     'Eye-wit 
nesses  agree  in  their  superior  lightness  of  complexion  over  the  Chinooks.' 
Pickering's  Races  of  Man,   U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  p.  28.    At  Coppermine 
River  they  are  '  of  a  dirty  copper  color;  some  of  the  women,  however,  are  more 
fair  and  ruddy.'    Hearne's  Travels,  p.  166.     '  Considerably  fairer  than  the  In 
dian  tribes.'    Simpson's  Nar.,  p.  110.     At  Cape  Bathurst  'The  complexion  is 
swarthy,  chiefly,  I  think,   from  exposure  and  the  accumulation  of  dirt.' 
Armstrong's  Nar.,  p.  192.     'Shew  little  of  the  copper  -  colour  of  the  Red 
Indians.'    Richardson's  Pol.  Reg.,  p.  303.     ' From  exposure  to  weather  they 
become  dark  after  manhood.'     Richardson's  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  343. 

16  'Both  sexes  are  well  proportioned,  stout,  muscular,  and  active.'     See- 
mann's  Voy.  Herald,  vol.  ii.,  p.  50.     'A  stout,  well-looking  people.'     Simp 
son's  Nar.,  pp.  110,  114.     '  Below  the  mean  of  the  Caucasian  race.'     Dr. 
Hayes  in  Historic.  Magazine,  vol.  i.,  p.  6.     '  They  are  thick  set,  have  a  de 
cided  tendency  to  obesity,  and  are  seldom  more  than  five  feet  in  height.' 
Figuier's  Human  Race,p.  211.     At  Kotzebue  Sound,  'tallest  man  was  five  feet 
nine  inches;  tallest  woman,  five  feet  four  inches.'     BeecJiey's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p. 
360.     'Average  height  was  five  feet  four  and  a  half  inches.'    At  the  mouth 
of  the  Mackenzie  they  are  of  '  middle  stature,  strong  and  muscular.'    Arm 
strong's  Nar.,  pp.  149,  192.     Low,  broad-set,  not  well  made,  nor  strong. 
Hearne's  Trav.,  p.  166.     '  The  men  were  in  general  stout.'     Franklin's  Nar., 
vol.  i.,  p.  29.     'Of  a  middle  size,  robust  make,  and  healthy  appearance.' 
Kotzebue' s  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  209.     '  Men  vary  in  height  from  about  five  feet  to 
five  feet  ten  inches.'     Richardson's  Pol.  Reg.,  p.  304.     'Women  were  gen 
erally  short.'     'Their  figure  inclines  to  squat.'     Hooper's  Tuski,  p.  224. 

17  '  Tons  lea  individus  qui  appartiennent  a  la  famille  des  Eskimaux,  se 
distinguent  par  la  petitesse  de  leurs  pieds  et  de  leurs  mains,  et  la  grosseur 
enorme  de  leurs  tetes.'     De  Pauw.  Recherches  Phil.,  torn,  i.,  p.  262.     'The 
hands  and  feet  are  delicately  small  and  well  formed.'     Richardson's  Pol. 
Reg.,  p.  304.     '  Small  and  beautifully  made.'     Seemann's  Voy.  Herald,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  50.     At  Point  Barrow,  'their  hands,  notwithstanding  the  great  amount 
of  manual  labour  to  which  they  are  subject,  were  beautifully  small  and  well- 


46  HYPERBOREANS. 

head;18  a  broad  egg-shaped  face;  high  rounded  cheek 
bones;  flat  nose;  small  oblique  eyes;  large  mouth; 
teeth  regular,  but  well  worn  ;19  coarse  black  hair,  closely 
cut  upon  the  crown,  leaving  a  monk-like  ring  around 
the  edge,20  and  a  paucity  of  beard.21  The  men  fre- 

formed,  a  description  equally  applicable  to  their  feet.'  Armstrong's  Nar.,  p. 
101. 

18  '  The  head  is  of  good  size,  rather  flat  superiorly,  but  very  fully  devel 
oped  posteriorly,  evidencing  a  preponderance  of  the  animal  passions;  the 
forehead  was,  for  the  most  part,  low  and  receding;  in  a  few  it  was  somewhat 
vertical,  but  narrow.  Armstrong's  Nar.,  p.  193.  Their  cranial  character 
istics  '  are  the  strongly  developed  coronary  ridge,  the  obliquity  of  the 
zygoma,  and  its  greater  capacity  compared  with  the  Indian  cranium.  The 
former  is  essentially  pyramidal,  while  the  latter  more  nearly  approaches  a 
cubic  shape.'  Dall's  Alaska,  p.  376.  'Greatest  breadth  of  the  face  is  just 
below  the  eyes,  the  forehead  tapers  upwards,  ending  narrowly,  but  not 
acutely,  and  in  like  manner  the  chin  is  a  blunt  cone.'  Richardson's  Pol. 
Reg.,  p.  302.  Dr  Gall,  whose  observations  on  the  same  skulls  presented 
him  for  phrenological  observation  are  published  by  M.  Louis  Choris,  thus 
comments  upon  the  head  of  a  female  Eskimo  from  Kotzebue  Sound:  '  L'or- 
gane  de  1 'instinct  de  la  propagation  se  trouve  extremenient  developpe  pour 
une  tete  de  femme.'  He  finds  the  musical  and  intellectual  organs  poorly 
developed;  while  vanity  and  love  of  children  are  well  displayed.  '  En  gene 
ral,  '  sagely  concluded  the  doctor,  '  cette  tete  femme  pre'sentait  une  organiza 
tion  aussi  heureuse  que  celle  de  la  plupart  des  fernmes  d'Europe.'  Voy. 
Pitt.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  16. 

w  '  Large  fat  round  faces,  high  cheek  bones,  small  hazel  eyes,  eye 
brows  slanting  like  the  Chinese,  and  wide  mouths.'  Beechey's  Voy.,  vol.  i., 
p.  345.  '  Broad,  flat  faces,  high  cheek  bones.'  Dr  Hayes  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol. 
i.,  p.  6.  Their  'teeth  are  regular,  but,  from  the  nature  of  their  food,  and 
from  their  practice  of  preparing  hides  by  chewing,  are  worn  down  almost  to 
the  gums  at  an  early  age.'  Seemanris  Voy.  Herald,  vol.  ii.,  p.  51.  At 
Hudson  Strait,  broad,  flat,  pleasing  face;  small  and  generally  sore  eyes; 
given  to  bleeding  at  the  nose.  Franklin's  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  29.  '  Small  eyes 
and  very  high  cheek  bones.'  Kotzebue's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  209.  'La  face 
platte,  la  bouche  ronde,  le  nez  petit  sans  e'tre  ecrase,  le  blanc  de  1'oeil 
jaunatre,  1'iris noir  et  peu  brillant. '  De Pauw,  Recherclies  Phil.,  torn. i.,  p.  262. 
They  have  '  small,  wild-looking  eyes,  large  and  very  foul  teeth,  the  hair 
generally  black,  but  sometimes  fair,  and  always  in  extreme  disorder.' 
BrowneU's  2nd.  Races,  p.  467.  '  As  contrasted  with  the  other  native  Amer 
ican  races,  their  eyes  are  remarkable,  being  narrow  and  more  or  less  ob 
lique.'  Richardson's  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  343.  Expression  of  face  intelligent 
a  ad  good-natured.  Both  sexes  have  mostly  round,  flat  faces,  with  Mongo 
lian  cast.  Hooper's  Tuski,  p.  223. 

20  '  Allowed  to  hang  down  in  a  club  to  the  shoulder.'     Richardson's  Pol. 


old,  vol.  ii.,  p.  51.  A  fierce  expression  characterized  them  on  the  Mackenzie 
River,  which  '  was  increased  by  the  long  disheveled  hair  flowing  about  their 
shoulders.'  Armstrong's  Nar.,  p.  149.  At  Kotzebue  Sound  '  their  hair  was 
done  up  in  large  plaits  on  each  side  of  the  head.'  Beechey's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p. 
360.  At  Camden  Bay,  lofty  top-knots;  at  Point  Barrow,  none.  At  Copper 
mine  River  the  hair  is  worn  short,  unshaven  011  the  crown,  and  bound  with 
strips  of  deer-skin.  Simpson's  Nar.,  pp.  121,  157.  Some  of  the  men  have 


IMPROVEMENTS  UPON  NATUEE.  47 

quently  leave  the  hair  in  a  natural  state.  The  women 
of  Icy  Reef  introduce  false  hair  among  their  own,  wear 
ing  the  whole  in  two  immense  bows  at  the  back  of  the 
head.  At  Point  Barrow,  they  separate  the  hair  into  two 
parts  or  braids,  saturating  it  with  train-oil,  and  binding 
it  into  stiff  bunches  with  strips  of  skin.  Their  lower 
extremities  are  short,  so  that  in  a  sitting  posture  they 
look  taller  than  when  standing. 

Were  these  people  satisfied  with  what  nature  has 
done  for  them,  they  would  be  passably  good-looking. 
But  with  them  as  with  all  mankind,  no  matter  how  high 
the  degree  of  intelligence  and  refinement  attained,  art 
must  be  applied  to  improve  upon  nature.  The  few  fin 
ishing  touches  neglected  by  the  Creator,  man  is  ever 
ready  to  supply. 

Arrived  at  the  age  of  puberty,  the  great  work  of  im 
provement  begins.  Up  to  this  time  the  skin  has  been 
kept  saturated  in  grease  and  filth,  until  the  natural  color 
is  lost,  and  until  the  complexion  is  brought  down  to  the 
Eskimo  standard.  Now  pigments  of  various  dye  are  ap 
plied,  both  painted  outwardly  and  pricked  into  the  skin; 
holes  are  cut  in  the  face,  and  plugs  or  labrets  inserted. 
These  operations,  however,  attended  with  no  little  solem 
nity,  are  supposed  to  possess  some  significance  other  than 
that  of  mere  ornament.  Upon  the  occasion  of  piercing 
the  lip,  for  instance,  a  religious  feast  is  given. 

bare  crowns,  but  the  majority  wear  the  hair  flowing  naturally.  The  women 
cut  the  hair  short  in  front,  level  with  the  eyebrows.  At  Humphrey  Point  it 
is  twisted  with  some  false  hair  into  two  immense  bows  on  the  back  of  the 
head.  Hooper's  Tuski,  p.  225.  '  Their  hair  hangs  down  long,  but  is  cut 
quite  short  on  the.  crown  of  the  head.'  Kotzebue's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  210. 
Hair  cut  like  '  that  of  a  Capuchin  friar. '  Seemann's  Voy.  Herald,  vol.  ii.,  p.  51. 
21  Crantz  says  the  Greenlanders  root  it  out.  '  The  old  men  had  a  few 
gray  hairs  on  their  chins,  but  the  young  ones,  though  grown  up,  were  beard 
less.'  Beechey's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  332.  'The  possession  of  a  beard  is  very 
rare,  but  a  slight  moustache  is  not  infrequent.'  Seemann's  Voy.  Herald, 
vol.  ii.,  p.  51.  'As  the  men  grow  old,  they  have  more  hair  on  the  face  than 
Red  Indians.'  Richardson's  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  343.  '  Generally  an  absence  of 
beard  and  whiskers.'  Armstrong's  Nar.,  p.  193.  '  Beard  is  universally  want 
ing.'  Kotzebue's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  252.  'The  young  men  have  little  beard, 
but  some  of  the  old  ones  have  a  tolerable  shew  of  long  gray  hairs  on  the 
upper  lip  and  chin.'  Richardson's  Pol.  Reg.,  p.  303.  'All  have  beards.' 
Bell's  Geography,  vol.  v.,  p.  294.  Kirby  affirms  that  in  Alaska  '  many  of  them 
have  a  profusion  of  whiskers  and  beard.'  Smithsonian  Report,  1864,  p.  416. 


48  .       HYPERBOREANS. 

On  the  northern  coast  the  women  paint  the  eyebrows 
and  tattoo  the  chin;  while  the  men  only  pierce  the  lower 
lip  under  one  or  both  corners  of  the  mouth,  and  insert 
in  each  aperture  a  double-headed  sleeve-button  or  dumb 
bell-shaped  labret,  of  bone,  ivory,  shell,  stone,  glass,  or 
'wood.  The  incision  when  first  made  is  about  the  size 
of  a  quill,  but  as  the  aspirant  for  improved  beauty  grows 
older,  the  size  of  the  orifice  is  enlarged  until  it  reaches 
a  width  of  half  or  three  quarters  of  an  inch.22  In  tat 
tooing,  -the  color  is  applied  by  drawing  a  thread  under 
the  skin,  or  pricking  it  in  with  a  needle.  Different 
tribes,  and  different  ranks  of  the  same  tribe,  have  each 
their  peculiar  form  of  tattooing.  The  plebeian  female  of 
certain  bands  is  permitted  to  adorn  her  chin  with  but 
one  vertical  line  in  the  centre,  and  one  parallel  to  it  on 
either  side,  while  the  more  fortunate  noblesse  mark  two 
vertical  lines  from  each  corner  of  the  mouth.23  A  fem 
inine  cast  of  features,  as  is  common  with  other  branches  of 
the  Mongolian  race,  prevails  in  both  sexes.  Some  trav 
elers  discover  in  the  faces  of  the  men  a  characteristic 
expression  of  ferociousness,  and  in  those  of  the  women, 
an  extraordinary  display  of  wantonness.  A  thick  coat 
ing  of  filth  and  a  strong  odor  of  train-oil  are  inseparable 
from  an  Eskimo,  and  the  fashion  of  labrets  adds  in  no 
wise  to  his  comeliness.24 

22  «  The  lip  is  perforated  for  the  labret  as  the  boy  approaches  manhood, 
and  is  considered  an  important  era  in  his  life.'     Armstrong's  Nar.,  p.  194. 
'  Some  wore  but  one,  others  one  on  each  side  of  the  mouth.  '      Hooper's 
Titslci,  p.  224.     '  Lip  ornaments,  with  the  males,  appear  to  correspond  with 
the  tattooing  of  the  chins  of  the  females.'     Beechey's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  384. 

23  '  The  women  tattoo    their    faces  in  blue  lines  produced  by  making 
stitches  with  a  fine  needle  and  thread,  smeared  with  lampblack.  '    Richardson's 
Pol.  Keg.,  p.  305.     Between  Kotzebue  Sound  and  Icy  Cape,  'all  the  women 
were   tattooed  upon  the  chin  with  three  small  lines.'     They  blacken  'the 
edges  of  the  eyelids  with  plumbago,  rubbed  up  with  a  little  saliva  upon  a 
piece  of    slate.'     Beechey's   Voy.,   vol.   i.,  p.   360.     At  Point  Barrow,   the 
women  have  on  the  chin  'a  vertical  line  about  half  an  inch  broad  in  the 
uentre,  extending  from  the  lip,  with  a  parallel  but  narrower  one  on  either 
side  of  it,  a  little  apart.      Some  had  two  vertical  lines   protruding  from 
either  angle  of  the  mouth;  which  is  a  mark  of  their  high  position  in  the 
tribe.     Armstrong's   Nar.,  pp.  101,   149.     On  Bering  Isle,  men  as  well  as 
women  tattoo.     'Plusieurs  homines  avaient  le  visage  tatoueV     Choris.   Voy. 


Pitt.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  5. 

24  '  Give  a  particularly  disgusting  look  when  the  bones  are  taken  out, 


as 


ESKIMO  DKESS.  49 

For  covering  to  the  body,  the  Eskimos  employ  the 
skin  of  all  the  beasts  and  birds  that  come  within  their 
reach.  Skins  are  prepared  in  the  fur,25  and  cut  and 
sewed  with  neatness  and  skill.  Even  the  intestines  of 
seals  and  whales  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  water 
proof  overdresses.26  The  costume  for  both  sexes  consists 
of  long  stockings  or  drawers,  over  which  are  breeches 
extending  from  the  shoulders  to  below  the  knees;  and 
a  frock  or  jacket,  somewhat  shorter  than  the  breeches 
wkh  sleeves  and  hood.  This  garment  is  made  whole, 
there  being  no  openings  except  for  the  head  and  arms. 
The  frock  of  the  male  is  cut  at  the  bottom  nearly 
square,  while  that  of  the  female  reaches  a  little  lower, 
and  terminates  before  and  behind  in  a  point  or  scol 
lop.  The  tail  of  some  animal  graces  the  hinder  part  of 
the  male  frock;  the  woman's  has  a  large  hood,  in  which 
she  carries  her  infant,  Otherwise  both  sexes  dress 
alike;  and  as,  when  stripped  of  their  facial  decorations, 
their  physiognomies  are  alike,  they  are  not  unfre- 
quently  mistaken  one  for  the  other.27  They  have  boots 

the  saliva  continually  runs  over  the  chin.'  Kotzebue's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  227. 
At  Camden,  labrets  were  made  of  large  blue  beads,  glued  to  pieces  of  ivory. 
None  worn  at  Coppermine  River.  Simpson's  Nar.,  pp.  119,  347.  '  Many  of 
them  also  transfix  the  septum  of  the  nose  with  a  dentalium  shell  or  ivory 
needle.'  Richardson's  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  355. 

85  '  These  natives  almost  universally  use  a  very  unpleasant  liquid  for 
cleansing  purposes.  They  tan  and  soften  the  seal-skin  used  for  boot-soles 
with  it.'  IVhyniper's  Alaska,  p.  161.  '  Females  occasionally  wash  their  hair 
and  faces  with  their  own  urine,  the  odour  of  which  is  agreeable  to  both  sexes, 
and  they  are  well  acciistomed  to  it,  as  this  liquor  is  kept  in  tubs  in  the 
porches  of  their  huts  for  use  in  dressing  the  deer  and  seal  skins. '  Richard 
son's  Pol.  lletj.,  p.  304.  '  Show  much  skill  in  the  preparation  of  whale,  seal, 
and  deer-skins.'  Richardson's  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  357.  They  have  a  great 
antipathy  to  water.  '  Occasionally  they  wash  their  bodies  with  a  certain 
animal  fluid,  but  even  this  process  is  seldom  gone  through.'  Seemann's 
Voy.  Herald,  vol.  ii.,  p.  62. 

26  '  During  the  summer,  when  on  whaling  or  sealing  excursions,  a  coat  of 
the  gut  of  the  whale,  and  boots  of  seal  or  walrus  hide,  are  used  as  water 
proof  coverings.'  Seemann's  Voy.  Herald,  vol.  ii.,  p.  53.  At  Point  Barrow 
they  wear  'Kamleikas  or  water-proof  shirts,  made  of  the  entrails  of  seals.' 
Simpson's  Nar.,  p.  156*  Women  wear  close-fitting  breeches  of  seal-skin. 
Hooper's  Tuski,  p.  224.  '  They  are  on  the  whole  as  good  as  the  best  oil 
skins  in  England.'  Beechey's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  340. 

2'  The  dress  of  the  two  sexes  is  much  alike,  the  outer  shirt  or  jacket 
having  a  pointed  skirt  before  and  behind,  those  of  the  female  being  merely 
a  little  longer.  '  Pretty  much  the  same  for  both  sexes.'  Figuier's  Human 
Race,  p.  214. 

VOL.  I.    4 


50  HYPERBOREANS. 

of  walrus  or  seal  skin,  mittens  or  gloves  of  deer-skin, 
and  intestine  water-proofs  covering  the  entire  body. 
Several  kinds  of  fur  frequently  enter  into  the  composi 
tion  of  one  garment.  Thus  the  body  of  the  frock, 
generally  of  reindeer- skin,  may  be  of  bird,  bear,  seal, 
mink,  or  squirrel  skin;  while  the  hood  may  be  of  fox- 
skin,  the  lining  of  hare-skin,  the  fringe  of  wolverine- 
skin,  and  the  gloves  of  fawn-skin.28  Two  suits  are 
worn  during  the  coldest  weather;  the  inner  one  with 
the  fur  next  the  skin,  the  outer  suit  with  the  fur  out 
ward.29  Thus,  with  their  stomachs  well  filled  with  fat, 
•and  their  backs  covered  with  furs,  they  bid  defiance  to 
the  severest  Arctic  winter.30 

In  architecture,  the  Eskimo  is  fully  equal  to  the 
emergency;  building,  upon  a  soil  which  yields  him  little 
<or  no  material,  three  classes  of  dwellings.  Penetrating 
the  frozen  earth,  or  casting  around  him  a  frozen  wall, 
he  compels  the  very  elements  from '  which  he  seeks 
protection  to  protect  him.  For  his  yourt  or  winter 

28  '  They  have  besides  this  a  jacket  made  of  eider  drakes'  skins  sewed 
together,  which,  put  oil  underneath  their  other  dress,  is  a  tolerable  protec 
tion  against  a  distant  arrow,  and  is  worn  in  times  of  hostility.'     Beech- 
ey's    Voy.   vol.   i.,   p.   340.      Messrs    Dease  and  Simpson  found  those  of 
Point  Barrow  'well  clothed  in  seal  and  reindeer  skins.'     Loud.  Geog.  8oc. 
Jour.,  vol.  viii.,  p.  221.     '  The  finest  dresses  are  made  of  the  skins  of  unborn 
deer.'     Richardson's  Pol   Reg.,  p.  300.     '  The  half-developed  skin  of  a  fawn 
that  has  never  lived,  obtained  by  driving  the  doe  till  her  offspring  is  pre 
maturely  born.'     Whymper's  Alaska,   p.    160.     Eskimo  women  pay  much 
regard  to  their  toilet.     Richardson's  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  355. 

29  Their  dress  consists  of  two  suits.     Seemann's    Voy.   Herald,  vol.  ii., 
p.  52.     'Reindeer  skin— the  fur  next  the  body.'     Armstrong's  Nar.,  p.  149. 
4  Two  women,  dressed  like  men,  looked  frightfully  with  their  tattooed  faces.' 
Kotzebue's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  191.     Seal-skin  jackets,  bear-skin  trowsers,  and 
white-fox  skin  caps,  is  the  male  costume  at  Hudson  Strait.     The  female 
dress  is  the  same,  with  the  addition  of  a  hood  for  carrying  children.     Frank 
lin's  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p   29.     At  Camden  Bay,  reindeer-skin  jackets  and  water- 

Cof  boots.  Simpson's  Nar.,  p.  119.  At  Coppermine  River,  'women's 
ts  which  are  not  stiffened  out  with  whalebone,  and  the  tails  of  their 
jackets  are  not  over  one  foot  long.'  Hearne's  Travels,  p  166.  Deer-skin,  hair 
outside,  ornamented  with  white  fur.  Kirby  in  Smithsonian  Rept.,  1864,  p. 
416.  The  indoor  dress  of  the  eastern  Eskimo  is  of  reindeer-skin,  with  the 
fur  inside.  '  When  they  go  out,  another  entire  suit  with  the  fur  outside  is 
put  over  all,  and  a  pair  of  watertight  sealskin  moccasins,  with  similiar  mit 
tens  for  their  hands.'  Sillbnan's  Journal,  vol.  xvi.,  p.  146.  The  frock  at  Cop 
permine  River  has  a  tail  something  like  a  dress-coat.  Simpson's  Nar.,  p .  350. 

30  '  Some  of  them  are  even  half-naked,  as  a  summer  heat,  even  of  10J  is 
insupportable  to  them.'     Kotzebue's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  205. 


DWELLINGS  OF  THE  ESKIMOS.  51 

residence  he  digs  a  hole  of  the  required  dimensions, 
to  a  depth  of  about  six  feet.31  Within  this  excava 
tion  he  erects  a  frame,  either  of  wood  or  whalebone, 
lashing  his  timbers  with  thongs  instead  of  nailing  them. 
This  frame  is  carried  upward  to  a  distance  of  two  or  three 
feet  above  the  ground,32  when  it  is  covered  by  a  dome- 
shaped  roof  of  poles  or  whale-ribs  turfed  and  earthed 
over.33  In  the  centre  of  the  roof  is  left  a  hole  for  the 
admission  of  light  and  the  emission  of  smoke.  In  ab 
sence  of  fire,  a  translucent  covering  of  whale -intestine 
confines  the  warmth  of  putrifying  filth,  and  completes  the 
Eskimo's  sense  of  comfort,  To  gain  admittance  to  this 
snug  retreat,  without  exposing  the  inmates  to  the  storms 
without,  another  and  a  smaller  hole  is  dug  to  the  same 
depth,  a  short  distance  from  the  first.  From  one  to 
the  other,  an  underground  passage-way  is  then  opened, 
through  which  entrance  is  made  on  hands  and  knees. 
The  occupants  descend  by  means  of  a  ladder,  and  over  the 
entrance  a  shed  is  erected,  to  protect  it  from  the  snow.34 
Within  the  entrance  is  hung  a  deer-skin  door,  and  ante 
rooms  are  arranged  in  which  to  deposit  frozen  outer  gar 
ments  before  entering  the  heated  room.  Around  the 
sides  of  the  dwelling,  sleeping-places  are  marked  out ;  for 
bedsteads,  boards  are  placed  upon  logs  one  or  two  feet  in 
diameter,  and  covered  with  willow  branches  and  skins. 
A  little  heap  of  stones  in  the  centre  of  the  room,  under 
the  smoke -hole,  forms  the  fireplace.  In  the  corners  of 
the  room  are  stone  lamps,  which  answer  all  domestic 

31  '  Down  to  the  frozen  subsoil.'     Richardson's  Pol.  Peg.,  p.  310.     '  Some 
are  wholly  above  ground,  others  have  their  roof  scarcely  raised  above  it. ' 
Beechey's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  301. 

32  '  Formed  of  stakes  placed  upright  in  the  ground  about  six  feet  high, 
either  circular  or  oval  in  form,  from  which  others  inclined  so  as  to  form  a 
sloping  roof.'     Armstrong's  Nar.,  p.    149.       '  Half  underground,    with   the 
entrance  more  or  less  so.'     Dall's  Alaska,  p.  13.     'They  are  more  than 
half  underground,'  and  are  'about  twenty  feet  square  and  eight  feet  deep.' 
Seemann's  Voy.  Herald,  vol.  ii.,  p.  57. 

33  '  The  whole  building  is  covered  with  earth  to  the  thickness  of  a  foot  or 
more,  and  in  a  few  years  it  becomes  overgrown  with  grass,  looking  from  a 
short  distance  like  a  small  tumulus.'     Richardson^s  Pol.  Reg.,  p.  310. 

34  A  smaller  drift-wood  house  is  sometimes  built  with  a  side-door.     '  Light 
and  air  are  admitted  by  a  low  door  at  one  end.'     Richardson's  Nar.,  vol. 
i.,  p.  245. 


52  HYPERBOKEANS. 

purposes  in  the  absence  of  fire-wood.35  In  the  better  class 
of  buildings,  the  sides  and  floor  are  boarded.  Supplies 
are  kept  in  a  store  house  at  a  little  distance  from  the 
dwelling,  perched  upon  four  posts,  away  from  the  reach 
of  the  dogs,  and  a  frame  is  always  erected  on  which 
to  hang  furs  and  fish.  Several  years  are  sometimes 
occupied  in  building  a  hut.36 

Mark  how  nature  supplies  this  treeless  coast  with 
wood.  The  breaking-up  of  winter  in  the  mountains  of 
Alaska  is  indeed  a  breaking-up.  The  accumulated 
masses  of  ice  and  snow,  when  suddenly  loosened  by  the 
incessant  rays  of  the  never-setting  sun,  bear  away  all 
before  them.  Down  from  the  mountain -sides  comes 
the  avalanche,  uprooting  trees,  swelling  rivers,  hurry 
ing  with  its  burden  to  the  sea.  There,  casting  itself 
into  the  warm  ocean  current,  the  ice  soon  disappears, 
and  the  driftwood  which  accompanied  it  is  carried  north 
ward  and  thrown  back  upon  the  beach  by  the  October 
winds.  Thus  huge  forest-trees,  taken  up  bodily,  as  it 
were,  in  the  middle  of  a  continent,  and  carried  by  the 
currents  to  the  incredible  distance,  sometimes,  of  three 
thousand  miles,  are  deposited  all  along  the  Arctic  sea 
board,  laid  at  the  very  door  of  these  people,  a  people 
whose  store  of  this  world's  benefits  is  none  of  the  most 
abundant.37  True,  wood  is  not  an  absolute  necessity  with 
them,  as  many  of  their  houses  in  the  coldest  weather 

35  '  The  fire  in  the  centre  is  never  lit  merely  for  the  sake  of  warmth,  as 
the  lamps  are  sufficient  for  that  purpose.'      Seemann's    Voy.   Herald,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  58,      'They  have  no  fire-places;  but  a  stone  placed  in  the  centre 
serves  for  a  support  to  the  lamp,  by  which  the  little  cooking  that  is  required 
is  performed.'     Richardson's  JVar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  348. 

36  '  On  trouva  plusieurs  huttes  construites  en  bois,  moitie  dans  la  terre, 
moitie  en  dehors.'     Charts'  Voy.  Pitt.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  6.     At  Beaufort  Bay  are 
wooden  huts.     Simpson's  Nar.,  p.  177.     At  Toker  Point,  'built  of  drift-wood 
and  sods  of  turf  or  mud  '     Hooper's  Tuski,  p.  343.     At  Cape  Krusenstern  the 
houses  '  appeared  like  little  round  hills,  with  fences  of  whale-bone.'     Koize- 
bue's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  237.     '  They  construct  yourts  or  winter  residences  upon 
those  parts  of  the  shore  which  are  adapted  to  their  convenience,  such  as  the 
mouths  of  rivers,  the  entrances  of  inlets,  or  jutting  points  of  land,  but  always 
upon  low  ground.'     Beechey's  Voy.,  vol.  ii..  p,  300. 

37  '  I  was  surprised  at  the  vast  quantity  of  driftwood  accumulated  on  its 
shore,  several  acres  being  thickly  covered  with  it,  and  many  pieces  at  least 
sixty  feet  in  length.'    Armstrong's  Nar.,  p.  104. 


SNOW  HOUSES.  53 

have  no  fire;  only  oil -lamps  being  used  for  cooking 
and  heating.  Whale-ribs  supply  the  place  of  trees  for 
house  and  boat  timbers,  and  hides  are  commonly  used 
for  boards.  Yet  a  bountiful  supply  of  wood  during  their 
long,  cold,  dark  winter  comes  in  no  wise  amiss.38  Their 
summer  tents  are  made  of  seal  or  untanned  deer  skins 
with  the  hair  outward,  conical  or  bell-shaped,  and  without 
a  smoke -hole  as  no  fires  are  ever  kindled  within  them. 
The  wet  or  frozen  earth  is  covered  with  a  few  coarse 
skins  for  a  floor.39 

But  the  most  unique  system  of  architecture  in  America 
is  improvised  by  the  Eskimos  during  their  seal-hunting 
expeditions  upon  the  ice,  when  they  occupy  a  veritable 
crystal  palace  fit  for  an  Arctic  fairy.  On  the  frozen 
river  or  sea,  a  spot  is  chosen  free  from  irregu 
larities,  and  a  circle  of  ten  or  fifteen  feet  in  diam 
eter  drawn  on  the  snow.  The  snow  within  the 
circle  is  then  cut  into  slabs  from  three  to  four 
inches  in  thickness,  their  length  being  the  depth 
of  the  snow,  and  these  slabs  are  formed  into  a 
wall  enclosing  the  circle  and  carried  up  in  courses 
similar  to  those  of  brick  or  stone,  terminating  in  a 
dome -shaped  roof.  A  wedge -like  slab  keys  the  arch; 
and  this  principle  in  architecture  may  have  first  been 
known  to  the  Assyrians,  Egyptians,  Chinese  or  Es 
kimos.40  Loose  snow  is  then  thrown  into  the  crevices, 
which  quickly  congeals;  an  aperture  is  cut  in  the 
side  for  a  door;  and  if  the  thin  wall  is  not  sufficiently 

38  ' Eastern  Esquimaux  never  seem  to  think  of  fire  as  a  means  of  imparting 
warmth.'     Simpson's  Nar.,  p.  346. 

39  Their  houses  are   'moveable  tents,  constructed  of  poles  and  skins.' 
Brownell's  Ind.  Races,  p.  469.     'Neither  wind    nor  watertight.'     Beechey's 

Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  361.  At  Cape  Smythe,  Hooper  saw  seven  Eskimo  tents 
of  seal  skin.  Tuski,  p.  216.  'We  entered  a  small  tent  of  morse -skins, 
made  in  the  form  of  a  canoe.'  Kotzebw's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  226.  At  Cop 
permine  River  their  tents  in  summer  are  of  deer-skin  with  the  hair  on, 
and  circular,  flearne's  Travels,  p.  167.  At  St  Lawrence  Island,  Kotzebue 
saw  no  settled  dwellings,  '  only  several  small  tents  built  of  the  ribs  of  whales, 
and  covered  with  the  skin  of  the  morse.'  Voyage,  vol.  i.,  pp.  190-191. 

40  '  In  parallelograms,  and  so  adjusted  as  to  form  a  rotunda,   with  an 
arched  roof.'    Silliman's  Jour.,  vol.  xvi.,  p.  146.    Parry's  Voy.,  vol.  v.,  p. 
200.     Franklin's  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  44. 


54  HYPERBOREANS. 

translucent,  a  piece  of  ice  is  fitted  into  the  side 
for  a  window.  Seats,  tables,  couches,  and  even  fire 
places  are  made  with  frozen  snow,  and  covered  with 
reindeer  or  seal  skin.  Out -houses  connect  with  the 
main  room,  and  frequently  a  number  of  dwellings  are 
built  contiguously,  with  a  passage  from  one  to  another. 
These  houses  are  comfortable  and  durable,  resisting 
alike  the  wind  and  the  thaw  until  late  in  the  season. 
Care  must  be  taken  that  the  walls  are  not  so  thick  as  to 
make  them  too  warm,  and  so  cause  a  dripping  from  the 
interior.  A  square  block  of  snow  serves  as  a  stand  for 
the  stone  lamp  which  is  their  only  fire.41 

"  The  purity  of  the  material,"  says  Sir  John  Frank 
lin,  who  saw  them  build  an  edifice  of  this  kind  at 
Coppermine  River,  "  of  which  the  house  was  framed, 
the  elegance  of  its  construction,  and  the  translucency  of 
its  walls,  which  transmitted  a  very  pleasant  light,  gave 
it  an  appearance  far  superior  to  a  marble  building,  and 
one  might  survey  it  with  feelings  somewhat  akin  to 
those  produced  by  the  contemplation  of  a  Grecian  tem 
ple,  reared  by  Phidias;  both  are  triumphs  of  art,  inimi 
table  in  their  kind."42 

Eskimos,  fortunately,  have  not  a  dainty  palate.  Ev 
erything  which  sustains  life  is  food  for  them.  Their 
substantials  comprise  the  flesh  of  land  and  marine  ani 
mals,  fish  and  birds;  venison,  and  whale  and  seal 
blubber  being  chief.  Choice  dishes,  tempting  to  the 
appetite,  Arctic  epicurean  dishes,  Eskimo  nectar  and 
ambrosia,  are  daintily  prepared,  hospitably  placed  before 
strangers,  and  eaten  and  drunk  with  avidity.  Among 

41  '  These  houses  are  durable,  the  wind  has  little  effect  on  them,  and  they 
resist  the  thaw  until  the  sun  acquires  very  considerable  power.'     Eichard- 
son's  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  350. 

42  The  snow  houses  are  called  by  the  natives  igloo,  and  the  underground 
huts  yourts,  or  yurts,  and  their  tents  topeks.     Winter  residence,  'iglut.'  Eich- 
ardson's  Pol.  Reg.,  p.  310.     Beechey,  describing  the  same  kind  of  buildings, 
calls  them  'yourts.'    Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  366.     Tent  of  skins,  tie-poo-eet;  topak; 
toopek.    Tent,  too-pote.   Ibid.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  381.     'Yourts.'  Seemann'8  Voy. 
Herald,  vol.  ii.,  p.  59.     Tent,  topek.     Dall  says  Richardson  is  wrong,  and 
that  igloo  or  iglu  is  the  name  of  ice  houses.  Alaska,  p.  532.     House,  iglo. 
Tent,    tuppek.    Richardson's  Jour.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  378.     Snow  house,   eegloo. 
Franklin's  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  47. 


MIGKATIONS  FOE  FOOD.  55 

them  are :  a  bowl  of  coagulated  blood,  mashed  cranberries 
with  rancid  train-oil,  whortleberries  and  walrus-blubber, 
alternate  streaks  of  putrid  black  and  white  whale-fat; 
venison  steeped  in  seal -oil,  raw  deer's  liver  cut  in  small 
pieces  and  mixed  with  the  warm  half-digested  contents  of 
the  animal's  stomach ;  bowls  of  live  maggots,  a  draught  of 
warm  blood  from  a  newly  killed  animal.43  Fish  are  some 
times  eaten  alive.  Meats  are  kept  in  seal-skin  bags  for 
over  a  year,  decomposing  meanwhile,  but  never  becoming 
too  rancid  for  our  Eskimos.  Their  winter  store  of  oil 
they  secure  in  seal -skin  bags,  which  are  buried  in  the 
frozen  ground.  Charlevoix  remarks  that  they  are  the 
only  race  known  who  prefer  food  raw.  This,  however,  is 
not  the  case.  They  prefer  their  food  cooked,  but  do  not 
object  to  it  raw  or  rotten.  They  are  no  lovers  of  salt.44 
In  mid -winter,  while  the  land  is  enveloped  in  dark 
ness,  the  Eskimo  dozes  torpidly  in  his  den.  Early  in 
September  the  musk-oxen  and  reindeer  retreat  south 
ward,  and  the  fish  are  confined  beneath  the  frozen  cov 
ering  of  the  rivers.  It  is  during  the  short  summer, 
when  food  is  abundant,  that  they  who  would  not  perish 
must  lay  up  a  supply  for  the  winter.  When  spring 
opens,  and  the  rivers  are  cleared  of  ice,  the  natives  follow 
the  fish,  which  at  that  time  ascend  the  streams  to  spawn, 
and  spear  them  at  the  falls  and  rapids  that  impede  their 
progress.  Small  wooden  fish  are  sometimes  made  and 
thrown  into  holes  in  the  ice  for  a  decoy;  salmon  are 
taken  in  a  whalebone  seine.  At  this  season  also  rein 
deer  are  captured  on  their  way  to  the  coast,  whither 
they  resort  in  the  spring  to  drop  their  young.  Multi- 

43  They  are  so  fond  of  the  warm  blood  of  dying  animals  that  they  invented 
an  instrument  to  secure  it.  See  Seechey's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  344.  '  Whale- 
blubber,  their  great  delicacy,  is  sickening  and  dangerous  to  a  European 
stomach.'  Kotzebue's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  192. 

4*  Hearne  says  that  the  natives  on  the  Arctic  coast  of  British  America  are 
so  disgustingly  filthy  that  when  they  have  bleeding  at  the  nose  they  lick 
up  their  own  blood.  Travels,  p.  161.  'Salt  always  appeared  an  abom 
ination.'  'They  seldom  cook  their  food,  the  frost  apparently  acting  as  a 
substitute  for  fire.'  Collinson,  in  Lond.  Geoy.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xxv.,  p.  201. 
At  Kotzebue  Sound  they  '  seem  to  subsist  entirely  on  the  flesh  of  marine  ani 
mals,  which  they,  for  the  most  part,  eat  raw.'  Kotzebue's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  239. 


'56  HYPEBBOBEANS. 

tudes  of  geese,  ducks,  and  swans  visit  the  ocean  during 
the  same  period  to  breed.45 

August  and  September  are  the  months  for  whales. 
When  a  whale  is  discovered  rolling  on  the  water,  a 
boat  starts  out,  and  from  the  distance  of  a  few  feet  a 
weapon  is  plunged  into  its  blubbery  carcass.  The  har 
poons  are  so  constructed  that  when  this  blow  is  given, 
the  shaft  becomes  disengaged  from  the  barbed  ivory  point. 
To  this  point  a  seal-skin  buoy  or  bladder  is  attached  by 
means  of  a  cord.  The  blows  are  repeated ;  the  buoys  en 
cumber  the  monster  in  diving  or  swimming,  and  the  inge 
nious  Eskimo  is  soon  able  to  tow  the  carcass  to  the  shore. 
A  successful  chase  secures  an  abundance  of  food  for  the 
winter.46  Seals  are  caught  during  the  winter,  and  con 
siderable  skill  is  required  in  taking  them.  Being  a  warm 
blooded  respiratory  animal,  they  are  obliged  to  have 
air,  and  in  order  to  obtain  it,  while  the  surface  of  the 
water  is  undergoing  the  freezing  process,  they  keep  open 
a  breathing -hole  by  constantly  gnawing  away  the  ice. 
They  produce  their  young  in  March,  and  soon  afterward 
the  natives  abandon  their  villages  and  set  out  on  the 
ice  in  pursuit  of  them.  Seals,  like  whales,  are  also 
killed  with  a  harpoon  to  which  is  attached  a  bladder. 
The  seal,  when  struck,  may  draw  the  float  under  water 
for  a  time,  but  is  soon  obliged  to  rise  to  the  surface 
from  exhaustion  and  for  air,  when  he  is  again  attacked 
and  soon  obliged  to  yield. 

The  Eskimos  are  no  less  ingenious  in  catching  wild 
fowl,  which  they  accomplish  by  means  of  a  sling  or  net 
made  of  woven  sinews,  with  ivory  balls  attached.  They 
also  snare  birds  by  means  of  whalebone  nooses,  round 
which  fine  gravel  is  scattered  as  a  bait.  They  ma- 

45  '  During  the  two  summer  months  they  hunt  and  live  on  swans,  geese, 
and  ducks.'    Richardson's  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  346. 

46  '  Secures  winter  feasts  and  abundance  of  oil  for  the  lamps  of  a  whole 
village,  and  there  is  great  rejoicing.'    Richardson's  Pol.  Keg.,  p.  313.     '  The 
capture  of  the  seal  and  walrus  is  effected  in  the  same  manner.     Salmon  and 
other  fish  are  caught  in  nets.'     Seemann's  Voy.  Herald,  vol.  ii.,  p.  61.     'Six 
small  perforated  ivory  balls  attached  separately  to  cords  of  sinew  three  feet 
long.'    Dease  &  Simpson,  in  Lond.  (Jeog.  &oc.  Jour.,  vol.  viii.,  222. 


BEAR-  HUNTING .  57 

noeuvre  reindeer  to  near  the  edge  of  a  cliff,  and,  driving 
them  into  the  sea,  kill  them  from  canoes.  They  also 
waylay  them  at  the  narrow  passes,  and  capture  them  in 
great  numbers.  They  construct  large  reindeer  pounds, 
and  set  up  two  diverging  rows  of  turf  so  as  to  represent 
men ;  the  outer  extremities  of  the  line  being  sometimes 
two  miles  apart,  and  narrowing  to  a  small  enclosure. 
Into  this  trap  the  unsuspecting  animals  are  driven,  when 
they  are  easily  speared.47 

To  overcome  the  formidable  polar  bear  the  natives 
have  two  strategems.  One  is  by  imitating  the  seal,  upon 
which  the  bear  principally  feeds,  and  thereby  enticing  it 
within  gunshot.  Another  is  by  bending  a  piece  of  stiff 
whalebone,  encasing  it  in  a  ball  of  blubber,  and  freezing 
the  ball,  which  then  holds  firm  the  bent  whalebone. 
Armed  with  these  frozen  blubber  balls,  the  natives  ap 
proach  their  victim,  and,  with  a  discharge  of  arrows,  open 
the  engagement.  The  bear,  smarting  with  pain,  turns 
upon  his  tormentors,  who,  taking  to  their  heels,  drop 
now  and  then  a  blubber  ball.  Bruin,  as  fond  of  food 
as  of  revenge,  pauses  for  a  moment,  hastily  swallows 
one,  then  another,  and  another.  Soon  a  strange  sensa 
tion  is  felt  within.  The  thawing  blubber,  melted  by  the 
heat  of  the  animal's  stomach,  releases  the  pent-up  whale 
bone,  which,  springing  into  place,  plays  havoc  with  the 
intestines,  and  brings  the  bear  to  a  painful  and  ignomin 
ious  end.  To  vegetables,  the  natives  are  rather  indiffer 
ent;  berries,  acid  sorrel  leaves,  and  certain  roots,  are 
used  as  a  relish.  There  is  no  native  intoxicating  liquor, 
but  in  eating  they  get  gluttonously  stupid. 

Notwithstanding  his  long,  frigid,  biting  winter,  the 
Eskimo  never  suffers  from  the  cold  so  long  as  he  has  an 
abundance  of  food.  As  we  have  seen,  a  whale  or  a  moose 
supplies  him  with  food,  shelter,  and  raiment.  With  an 
internal  fire,  fed  by  his  oily  and  animal  food,  glow- 

47  Near  Smith  River,  a  low  piece  of  ground,  two  miles  broad  at  the  beach, 
was  found  enclosed  by  double  rows  of  turf  set  up  to  represent  men,  narrow 
ing  towards  a  lake,  into  which  reindeer  were  driven  and  killed.  Simpson's 
Nar.,  p.  135. 


58  HYPEEBOEEANS 

ing  in  his  stomach,  his  blood  at  fever  heat,  he  bur 
rows  comfortably  in  ice  and  snow  and  frozen  ground, 
without  necessity  for  wood  or  coal.48  Nor  are  those  pas 
sions  which  are  supposed  to  develop  most  fully  under  a 
milder  temperature,  wanting  in  the  half-frozen  Hyper 
borean.49  One  of  the  chief  difficulties  of  the  Eskimo 
during  the  winter  is  to  obtain  water,  and  the  women 
spend  a  large  portion  of  their  time  in  melting  snow  over 
oil-lamps.  In  the  Arctic  regions,  eating  snow  is  at 
tended,  with  serious  consequences.  Ice  or  snow,  touched 
to  the  lips  or  tongue,  blisters  like  caustic.  Fire  is  ob 
tained  by  striking  sparks  from  iron  pyrites  with  quartz. 
It  is  a  singular  fact  that  in  the  coldest  climate  inhabited 
by  man,  fire  is  less  used  than  anywhere  else  in  the  world, 
equatorial  regions  perhaps  excepted.  Caloric  for  the 
body  is  supplied  by  food  and  supplemented  by  furs. 
Snow  houses,  from  their  nature,  prohibit  the  use  of 
fire;  but  cooking  with  the  Eskimo  is  a  luxury,  not  a 
necessity.  He  well  understands  how  to  utilize  every 
part  of  the  animals  so  essential  to  his  existence.  With 
their  skins  he  clothes  himself,  makes  houses,  boats,  and 
oil-bags;  their  flesh  and  fat  he  eats.  He  even  devours 
the  contents  of  the  intestines,  and  with  the  skin  makes 
water-proof  clothing.  Knives,  arrow-points,  house,  boat, 
and  sledge  frames,  fish-hooks,  domestic  utensils,  ice-chisels, 
and  in  fact  almost  all  their  implements,  are  made  from  the 
horns  and  bones  of  the  deer,  whale,  and  seal.  Bow 
strings  are  made  of  the  sinews  of  musk-oxen,  and  ropes 
of  seal-skin.50  The  Eskimo's  arms  are  not  very  formidable. 

48  '  Ce  qu'il  y  a  encore  de  frappant  dans  la  complexion  de  ces  barbares, 
c'est  1'extreme  chaleur  de  leur  estomac  et  de  leur  sang;  ils  echauffent  telle- 
ment,  par  leur  haleine  ardente,  les  huttes  ou  ils  assemblent  en  hiver,  que  les 
Europeans,  s'y  senteiit  etouffes,  comme  dans  une  etuve  dont  la  clialeur  est 
trop  graduee :  aussi  ne  font-ils  janiais  de  feu  dans  leur  habitation  en  aucuue 
saison,  et  ils  ignorent  1'usage  des  cheminees,  sous  le  climat  le  plus  froid  du 
globe.'     De  Pauw.  Recherches  Phil.,  torn,  i.,  p.  261. 

49  'The  voluptuousness  and  Polygamy  of  the  North  American  Indians, 
under  a  temperature  of  almost  perpetual  winter,  is  far  greater  than  that  of 
the  most  sensual  tropical  nations.'     Martin's  British  Colonies,  vol.  iii.,  p.  524. 

50  '  The  .seal  is  perhaps  their  most  useful  animal,  not  merely  furnishing 
oil  and  blubber,  but  the  skin  used  for  their  canoes,  thongs,  nets,  lassoes,  and 
boot  soles.'     Whymper's  Alaska,  p.  161^ 


SLEDGES,  SNOW-SHOES,  AND  BOATS.  59 

Backed  by  his  ingenuity,  they  nevertheless  prove  suffi 
cient  for  practical  purposes;  and  while  his  neighbor 
possesses  none  better,  all  are  on  an  equal  footing  in 
war.  Their  most  powerful  as  well  as  most  artistic 
weapon  is  the  bow.  It  is  made  of  beech  or  spruce, 
in  three  pieces  curving  in  opposite  directions  and  in 
geniously  bound  by  twisted  sinews,  so  as  to  give  the 
greatest  possible  strength.  Richardson  affirms  that 
u  in  the  hands  of  a  native  hunter  it  will  propel  an 
arrow  with  sufficient  force  to  pierce  the  heart  of  a 
musk-ox,  or  break  the  leg  of  a  reindeer."  Arrows,  as 
well  as  spears,  lances,  and  darts,  are  of  white  spruce, 
and  pointed  with  bone,  ivory,  flint,  and  slate.51  East 
of  the  Mackenzie,  copper  enters  largely  into  the  com 
position  of  Eskimo  utensils.52  Before  the  introduction 
of  iron  by  Europeans,  stone  hatchets  were  common.53 

The  Hyperboreans  surpass  all  American  nations  in  their 
facilities  for  locomotion,  both  upon  land  and  water.  In 
their  skin  boats,  the  natives  of  the  Alaskan  seaboard  from 
Point  Barrow  to  Mount  St  Elias,  made  long  voyages, 
crossing  the  strait  and  sea  of  Bering,  and  held  commercial 
intercourse  with  the  people  of  Asia.  Sixty  miles  is  an 
ordinary  day's  journey  for  sledges,  while  Indians  on 
snow-shoes  have  been  known  to  run  down  and  cap 
ture  deer.  Throughout  this  entire  border,  including 
the  Aleutian  Islands,  boats  are  made  wholly  of  the 
skins  of  seals  or  sea-lions,  excepting  the  frame  of  wood 

51  They  have  'two  sorts  of  bows;  arrows  pointed  with  iron,  flint,"  and 
bone,  or  blunt  for  birds;  a  dart  with  throwing-board  for  seals;  a  spear 
headed  with  iron  or  copper,  the  handle  about  six  feet  long;  and  formidable 
iron  knives,  equally  adapted  for  throwing,  cutting,  or  stabbing.'  Simpson's 
Nar.,  p.  123.  They  ascended  the  Mackenzie  in  former  times  as  far  as 
the  Ramparts,  to  obtain  flinty  slate  for  lance  and  arrow  points.  Richard 
son's  Jour.,  vol.  i.,  p.  213.  At  St.  Lawrence  Island,  they  are  armed  with  a 
knife  two  feet  long  Kotzebm's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  193,  211.  One  weapon  was 
'a  walrus  tooth  fixed  to  the  end  of  a  wooden  staff.'  Beechey's  Voy.,  vol.  i., 
p.  343. 

M  At  the  Coppermine  River,  arrows  are  pointed  with  slate  or  copper;  hatch 
ets  also  are  made  of  a  thick  lump  of  copper.  Hearne's  Travels,  pp.  161-9. 

53  «  The  old  ivory  knives  and  flint  axes  are  now  superseded,  the  Russians 
having  introduced  the  common  European  sheath-knife  and  hatchet.  The 
board  for  throwing  darts  is  in  use,  and  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Polynesians.' 
Seeniann's  Voy.  Herald,  vol.  ii.,  p.  53. 


60  HYPEKBOBEANS. 

or  whale-ribs.  In  the  interior,  as  well  as  on  the  coast 
immediately  below  Mount  St  Elias,  skin  boats  disap^ 
pear,  and  canoes  or  wooden  boats  are  used. 

Two  kinds  of  skin  boats  are  employed  by  the  natives 
of  the  Alaskan  coast,  a  large  and  a  small  one.  The 
former  is  called  by  the  natives  oomiaJc,  and  by  the  Rus 
sians  baidar.  This  is  a  large,  flat-bottomed,  open  boat; 
the  skeleton  of  wood^or  whale-ribs,  fastened  with  seal 
skin  thongs  or  whale's  sinews,  and  covered  with  oiled 
seal  or  sea-lion  skins,  which  are  first  sewed  together 
and  then  stretched  over  the  frame.  The  baidar  is 
usually  about^  thirty  feet  in  length,  six  feet  in  extreme 
breadth,  and  three  feet  in  depth.  It  is  propelled  by 
oars,  and  will  carry^  fifteen  or  twenty  persons,  but  its 
capacity  is  greatly  increased  by  lashing  inflated  seal 
skins  to  the. outside.  In  storms  at  sea,  two  or  three 
baidars  are  sometimes  tied  together.5*  The  small  boat 
is  called  by  the  natives  Jcyak,  and  by  the  Russians  bai 
dar  Jca.  It  is  constructed  of  the  same  material  and  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  baidar,  except  that  it  is  entirely 
covered  with  skins,  top  as  well  as  bottom,  save  one  hole 
left  in  the  deck,  which  is  filled  by  the  navigator.  After 

54  The  'baydare  is  a  large  open  boat,  quite  flat,  made  of  sea-lions'  skins,' 
and  is  used  also  for  a  tent.  At  Lantscheff  Island  it  was  '  a  large  and  prob 
ably  leathern  boat,  with  black  sails.'  Kotzebue's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  202,  216. 
'  The  kaiyaks  are  impelled  by  a  double-bladed  paddle,  used  with  or  without 
a  central  rest,  and  the  umiaks  with  oars.'  Can  'propel  their  kaiyaks  at  the 
rate  of  seven  miles  an  hour. '  Richardson's  Jour .,  vol.  i.,  pp.  238,  358.  At  Hud 
son  Strait  they  have  canoes  of  seal-skin,  like  those  of  Greenland.  Franklin's 
'Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  29.  Not  a  drop  of  water  can  penetrate  the  opening  into  the 
canoe.  Mutter's  Voy.,  p.  46.  The  kyak  is  like  an  English  wager-boat. 
They  are  'much  stronger  than  their  lightness  would  lead  one  to  suppose.' 
Hooper's  Tuski,  pp.  226,  228.  Oomiaks  or  family  canoes  of  skin;  float  in  six 
inches  of  water,  Simpson's  Nar.,p.  148.  'With  these  boats  they  make  long  voy 
ages,  frequently  visiting  St.  Lawrence  Island.'  Dall's  Alaska,  p.  380.  '  Frame 
work  of  wood — when  this  cannot  be  procured  whalebone  is  substituted. '  Arm 
strong's  Nar.,  p.  98.  Mackenzie  saw  boats  put  together  with  whalebone;  'sewed 
in  some  parts,  and  tied  in  others.'  Voyages,  p.  67.  They  also  use  a  sail.  '  On 
decouvrit  au  loin,  dans  la  baie,  un  bateau  qui  allait  a  la  voile;  elle  etait  en 
cuir.'  Choris,  Voy.  Pitt.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  6.  They  'are  the  best  means  yet  discov 
ered  by  mankind  to  go  from  place  to  place.'  Langsdorff's  Voy.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  43. 
4  It  is  wonderful  what  long  voyages  they  make  in  these  slight  boats.'  Camp 
bell's  Voy.,  p.  114.  '  The  skin,  when  soaked  with  water,  is  translucent;  and 
a  stranger  placing  his  foot  upon  the  flat  yielding  surface  at  the  bottom  of 
the  boat  fancies  it  a  frail  security.'  JJeecliey's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  346. 


DOGS  AND  SLEDS.  61 

taking  his  seat,  and  thereby  filling  this  hole,  the  occu 
pant  puts  on  a  water-proof  over-dress,  the  bottom  of 
which  is  so  secured  round  the  rim  of  the  hole  that  not 
a  drop  of  water  can  penetrate  it.  This  dress  is  pro 
vided  with  sleeves  and  a  hood.  It  is  securely  fastened 
at  the  wrists  and  neck,  and  when  the  hood  is  drawn  over 
the  head,  the  boatman  may  bid  defiance  to  the  water. 
The  baidarka  is  about  sixteen  feet  in  length,  and  two 
feet  in  width  at  the  middle,  tapering  to  a  point  at  either 
end.55  It  is  light  and  strong,  and  when  skillfully  han 
dled  is  considered  very  safe.  The  native  of  Norton 
Sound  will  twirl  his  kyak  completely  over,  turn  an 
aquatic  somersault,  and  by  the  aid  of  his  double-bladed 
paddle  come  up  safely  on  the  other  side,  without  even 
losing  his  seat.  So  highly  were  these  boats  esteemed 
by  the  Russians,  that  they  were  at  once  universally 
adopted  by  them  in  navigating  these  waters.  They 
were  unable  to  invent  any  improvement  in  either  of 
them,  although  they  made  a  baidarka  with  two  and 
three  seats,  which  they  employed  in  addition  to  the 
one-seated  kyak.  The  Kadiak  baidarka  is  a  little 
shorter  and  wider  than  the  Aleutian.50 

Sleds,  sledges,  dogs,  and  Arctic  land-boats  play  an 
important  part  in  Eskimo  economy.  The  Eskimo  sled 
is  framed  of  spruce,  birch,  or  whalebone,  strongly  bound 
with  thongs,  and  the  runners  shod  with  smooth  strips  of 

55  The  '  kajak  is  shaped  like  a  weaver's  shuttle.'     Richardson's  Pol.  Keg., 
p.  308.     'The  paddle  is  ill  the  hands  of  an  Eskimo,  what  the  balancing  pole 
is  to  a  tight-rope  dancer.'     tieemann's  Voy.  Herald,  vol.  ii.,  p.  56. 

56  '  The  Koltshaiien  construct  birch-bark  canoes ;  but  oil  the  coast  skin 
boats  or  baidars,  like  the  Eskimo  kaiyaks  and  umiaks,  are  employed.'     Rich 
ardson's  Jour.,  vol.  i.,  p.  405.     If  by  accident  a  hole  should  be  made,  it  is 
stopped  with  a  piece  of  the  flesh  of  the  sea-dog,  or  fat  of  the  whale,  which 
they  always  carry  with  them.  LanysdorflFs  Voy.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  43.     They  strike 
'  the  water  with  a  quick,  regular  motion,  first  on  one  side,  and  then  on  the 
other.'     Cook's  Third   Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  516.     'Wiegeii  nie  iiber^O  Pfund, 
wild  haben  ein  diiimes  mit  Leder  iiberzogues  Gerippe.'     Neue  Nachrichten, 
p.  152.     'The  Aleutians  put  to  sea  with  them  in  all  weathers.'  Kotzebue's  New 

Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  40.  At  the  Shumagin  Islands  they  '  are  generally  about 
twelve  feet  in  length,  sharp  at  each  end,  and  about  twenty  inches  broad.' 
Hearts'  Voy..  p.  x.  They  are  as  transparent  as  oiled  paper.  At  Unalaska 
they  are  so  light  that  they  can  be  carried  in  one  hand.  Sauert  Billing's  Voy., 
p.  157,  159. 


62  HYPERBOKEANS. 

whale's  jaw-bone.  This  sled  is  heavy,  and  fit  only  for 
traveling  over  ice  or  frozen  snow.  Indian  sleds  of  the 
interior  are  lighter,  the  runners  being  of  thin  flexible 
boards  better  adapted  to  the  inequalities  of  the  ground. 
Sledges,  such  as  are  used  by  the  voyagers  of  Hudson 
Bay,  are  of  totally  different  construction.  Three  boards, 
each  about  one  foot  in  width  and  twelve  feet  in  length, 
thinned,  and  curved  into  a  semicircle  at  one  end,  are 
placed  side  by  side  and  firmly  lashed  together  with 
thongs.  A  leathern  bag  or  blanket  of  the  full  size  of 
the  sled  is  provided,  in  which  the  load  is  placed  and 
lashed  down  with  strings.57  Sleds  and  sledges  are 
drawn  by  dogs,  and  they  will  carry  a  load  of  from  a 
quarter  to  half  a  ton,  or  about  one  hundred  pounds 
to  each  dog.  The  dogs  of  Alaska  are  scarcely  up  to 
the  average  of  Arctic  canine  nobility.58  They  are  of 
various  colors,  hairy,  short-legged,  with  large  bushy 
tails  curved  over  the  back ;  they  are  wolfish,  suspicious, 
yet  powerful,  sagacious,  and  docile,  patiently  performing 
an  incredible  amount  of  ill-requited  labor.  Dogs  are 
harnessed  to  the  sledge,  sometimes  by  separate  thongs  at 
unequal  distances,  sometimes  in  pairs  to  a  single  line. 
They  are*  guided  by  the  voice  accompanied  by  a  whip, 
and  to  the  best  trained  and  most  sagacious  is  given  the 
longest  tether,  that  he  may  act  as  leader.  An  eastern 
dog  will  carry  on  his  back  a  weight  of  thirty  pounds. 
The  dogs  of  the  northern  coast  are  larger  and  stronger 


w  '  They  average  twelve  feet  in  length,  two  feet  six  inches  in  height,  two 
feet  broad,  and  have  the  fore  part  turned  tip  in  a  gentle  curve.'  '  The  floor 
resembles  a  grating  without  cross-bars,  and  is  almost  a  foot  from  the  level  of 
the  snow.'  Seemann's  Voy.  Herald,  vol.  ii.,  p.  56.  At  Saritscheff  Island  'I 
particularly  remarked  two  very  neat  sledges  made  of  morse  and  whalebones.' 
Kotzebue's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  201.  '  To  make  the  runners  glide  smoothly,  a 
coating  of  ice  is  given  to  them.'  Richardson's  Pol.  Jtey.,  p.  309.  At  Norton 
Sound  Captain  Cook  found  sledges  ten  feet  long  and  twenty  inches  in  width. 
A  rail-work  on  each  side,  and  shod  with  bone;  'neatly  put  together;  some 
with  wooden  pins,  but  mostly  with  thongs  or  lashings  of  whale-bone. '  Third 
Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  442,  443.  Mackenzie  describes  the  sledges  of  British  Amer 
ica,  Voyages,  pp.  67,  68. 

58  'About  the  size  of  those  of  Newfoundland,  with  shorter  legs.'  Dall's 
Alaska,  p.  25.  'Neither  plentiful  nor  of  a  good  class.'  Whywper's  Alaska, 
p.  171. 


PKOPEKTY.  63 

than  those  of  the  interior.  Eskimo  dogs  are  used  in 
hunting  reindeer  and  musk-oxen,  as  well  as  in  drawing 
sledges.59  Those  at  Cape  Prince  of  Wales  appear  to  be 
of  the  same  species  as  those  used  upon  the  Asiatic  coast 
for  drawing  sledges. 

Snow-shoes,  or  foot-sledges,  are  differently  made  ac 
cording  to  the  locality.  In  traveling  over  soft  snow 
they  are  indispensable.  They  consist  of  an  open  light 
wooden  frame,  made  of  two  smooth  pieces  of  wood  each 
about  two  inches  wide  and  an  inch  thick;  the  inner 
part  sometimes  straight,  and  the  outer  curved  out  to 
about  one  foot  in  the  widest  part.  They  are  from  two 
to  six  feet  in  length,  some  oval  and  turned  up  in  front, 
running  to  a  point  behind;  others  flat,  and  pointed  at 
both  ends,  the  space  within  the  frame  being  filled  with  a 
network  of  twisted  deer-sinews  or  fine  seal-skin.60  The 
Hudson  Bay  snow-shoe  is  only  two  and  a  half  feet  in 
length.  The  Kutchin  shoe  is  smaller  than  that  of  the 
Eskimo. 

The  merchantable  wealth  of  the  Eskimos  consists  of 
peltries,  such  as  wolf,  deer,  badger,  polar-bear,  otter,  hare, 
musk-rat,  Arctic-fox,  and  seal  skins ;  red  ochre,  plumbago, 
and  iron  pyrites;  oil,  ivory,  whalebone;  in  short,  all  parts 
of  all  species  of  beasts,  birds,  and  fishes  that  they  can  se 
cure  and  convert  into  an  exchangeable  shape.61  The  arti 
cles  they  most  covet  are  tobacco,  iron,  and  beads.  They 
are  not  particularly  given  to  strong  drink.  On  the  shore 
of  Bering  Strait  the  natives  have  constant  commercial 

59  The  dog  will  hunt  bear  and  reindeer,  but  is  afraid  of  its  near  relative, 
the  wolf.     Browmll's  2nd.  Races,  p.  474. 

60  '  An  average  length  is  four  and  a  half  feet.'     Whymper's  Alaska,  p.  183. 
'  The  Iniiuit  snowshoe  is  small  and  nearly  flat,'  'seldom  over  thirty  inches 
long.'     'They  are  always  rights  and  lefts.'     Ingalik  larger;  Kutchin  same 
style  ;    Hudson  Bay,  thirty  inches  in  length.    JJalVs  Alaska,  pp.  190,  191. 
'  They  are  from  two  to  three  feet  long,  a  foot  broad,  and  slightly  turned  up  in 
front.'     tieemann's  Voy.  Herald,  vol.  ii.,  p.  60. 

61  '  Blue  beads,  cutlery,  tobacco,  and  buttons,  were  the  articles  in  request.' 
Beechey's   Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  352.     At  Hudson  Strait  they  have  a  custom  of 
licking  with  the  tongue  each  article  purchased,  as  a  finish  to  the  bargain. 
Franklin's  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  27.     'Articles  of  Russian  manufacture  find  their 
way  from  tribe  to  tribe  along  the  American  coast,  eastward  to  Repulse  Bay.' 
Richardson's  Pol  Reg.,  p.  317. 


64  HYPERBOREANS. 

intercourse  with  Asia.  They  cross  easily  in  their 
boats,  carefully  eluding  the  vigilance  of  the  fur  com 
pany.  They  frequently  meet  at  the  Gwosdeff  Islands, 
where  the  Tschuktschi  bring  tobacco,  iron,  tame-rein 
deer  skins,  and  walrus-ivory;  the  Eskimos  giving  in 
exchange  wolf  and  wolverine  skins,  wooden  dishes,  seal 
skins  and  other  peltries.  The  Eskimos  of  the  American 
coast  carry  on  quite  an  extensive  trade  with  the  Indians 
of  the  interior,6'2  exchanging  with  them  Asiatic  merchan 
dise  for  peltries.  They  are  sharp  at  bargains,  avaricious, 
totally  devoid  of  conscience  in  their  dealings;  will  sell 
their  property  thrice  if  possible,  and,  if  caught,  laugh  it 
off  as  a  joke.  The  rights  of  property  are  scrupulously 
respected  among  themselves,  but  to  steal  from  strangers, 
which  they  practice  on  every  occasion  with  considerable 
dexterity,  is  considered  rather  a  mark  of  merit  than 
otherwise.  A  successful  thief,  when  a  stranger  is  the 
victim,  receives  the  applause  of  the  entire  tribe.63  Cap 
tain  Kotzebue  thus  describes  the  manner  of  trading 
with  the  Russo- Indians  of  the  south  and  of  Asia. 

"  The  stranger  first  comes,  and  lays  some  goods  on 
the  shore  and  then  retires;  the  American  then  comes, 
looks  at  the  things,  puts  as  many  things  near  them  as 
he  thinks  proper  to  give,  and  then  also  goes  away. 
Upon  this  the  stranger  approaches,  and  examines  what 
is  offered  him;  if  he  is  satisfied  with  it,  he  takes  the 
skins  and  leaves  the  goods  instead ;  but  if  not,  then  he 
lets  all  the  things  lie,  retires  a  second  time,  and  expects 

62  Are  very  anxious  to  barter  arrows,  seal-skin  boots,  and  ivory  orna 
ments  for  tobacco,  beads,  and  particularly  for  iron.  Hooper's  Tuski,  p.  217. 
Some  of  their  implements  at  Coppermine  River  are:  stone  kettles,  wood 
en  dishes,  scoops  and  spoons  made  of  buffalo  or  musk-ox  horns.  Uearne's 
Travels,  p.  1G8.  At  Point  Barrow  were  ivory  implements  with  carved  figures 
of  sea-animals,  ivory  dishes,  and  a  '  fine  whalebone  net.'  Also  'knives  and 
other  implements,  formed  of  native  copper '  at  Coppermine  River.  Simpson's 
.Nar.,  pp.  147,  156,  264.  At  Point  Barrow  they  '  have  unquestionably  an  in 
direct  trade  with  the  Russians.'  Simpson's  Nar.,  161. 

C3  'They  are  very  expert  traders,  haggle  obstinately,  always  consult  to 
gether,  and  are  infinitely  happy  when  they  fancy  they  have  cheated  anybody. ' 
Kotzebue 's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  2 11.  'A  thieving,  cunning  race. '  Armstrong's  Nar., 
p.  110.  They  respect  each  other's  property,  'but  they  steal  without  scruple 
from  strangers.'  liichardsoris  Jour.,  vol.  i.,  p.  352. 


SOCIAL  ECONOMY.  65 

an  addition  from  the  buyer."  If  they  cannot  agree, 
each  retires  with  his  goods. 

Their  government,  if  it  can  be  called  a  government, 
is  patriarchal.  Now  and  then  some  ancient  or  able 
man  gains  an  ascendency  in  the  tribe,  and  over 
awes  his  fellows.  Some  tribes  even  acknowledge  an 
hereditary  chief,  but  his  authority  is  nominal.  He  can 
neither  exact  tribute,  nor  govern  the  movements  of  the 
people.  His  power  seems  to  be  exercised  only  in  treat 
ing  with  other  tribes.  Slavery  in  any  form  is  unknown 
among  them.  Caste  has  been  mentioned  in  connection 
with  tattooing,  but,  as  a  rule,  social  distinctions  do  not 
exist.64 

The  home  of  the  Eskimo  is  a  model  of  filth  and  free- 
ness.  Coyness  is  not  one  of  their  vices,  nor  is  modesty 
ranked  among  their  virtues.  The  latitude  of  innocency 
characterizes  all  their  social  relations ;  they  refuse  to  do 
nothing  in  public  that  they  would  do  in  private.  Female 
chastity  is  little  regarded.  The  Kutchins,  it  is  said,  are 
jealous,  but  treat  their  wives  kindly;  the  New  Cale 
donians  are  jealous,  and  treat  them  cruelly;  but  the 
philosophic  Eskimos  are  neither  jealous  nor  unkind. 
Indeed,  so  far  are  they  from  espionage  or  meanness  in 
marital  affairs,  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  hospitable  host 
to  place  at  the  disposal  of  his  guest  not  only  the  house 
and  its  contents,  but  his  wife  also.65  The  lot  of  the 

6*  '  They  have  a  chief  (Nalegak)  ill  name,  but  do  not  recognize  his  authority. ' 
Dr  Hayes  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  i.,  p.  6.  Government,  '  a  combination  of  the  mon 
archical  and  republican;'  'every  one  is  on  a  perfect  level  with  the  rest.' 
Seemann's  Voy.  Herald,  vol.  ii.,  p.  59,  60.  '  Chiefs  are  respected  principally  as 
senior  men.'  Franklin's  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  41.  At  Kotzebue  Sound,  a  robust 
young  man  was  taken  to  be  chief,  as  all  his  commands  were  punctually 
obeyed.  Xotzcbue's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  235.  Quarrels  '  are  settled  by  boxing, 
the  parties  sitting  down  and  striking  blows  alternately,  until  one  of  them 
gives  in.'  Richardson's  Pol.  Reg.,  p.  326.  Every  man  governs  his  own 
family.  Brownell's  2nd.  Races,  p.  475.  They  'have  a  strong  respect  for 
their  territorial  rights,  and  maintain  them  with  firmness.'  Richardson's 
Jour.,  vol.  i.,  p.  351. 

65  They  are  '  horribly  filthy  in  person  and  habits.'  Hooper's  Tuski,  p.  224. 
*  A  husband  will  readily  traffic  with  the  virtue  of  a  wife  for  purposes  of  gain .' 
Armstrong's  Nar.,  p.  195.  '  More  than  once  a  wife  was  proffered  by  her 
husband.'  Richardson's  Jour.,  vol.  i.,  p.  356.  As  against  the  above  testimony, 
Seemann  affirms :  '  After  the  marriage  ceremony  has  been  performed  infi- 
VOL.  I.  5 


66  HYPEKBOKEANS. 

women  is  but  little  better  than  slavery.  All  the  work, 
except  the  nobler  occupations  of  hunting,  fishing,  and 
fighting,  falls  to  them.  The  lesson  of  female  inferi 
ority  is  at  an  early  age  instilled  into  the  mind  of 
youth.  Nevertheless,  the  Eskimo  mother  is  remark 
ably  affectionate,  and  fulfills  her  low  destiny  with  pa 
tient  kindness.  Polygamy  is  common ;  every  man  being 
entitled  to  as  many  wives  as  he  can  get  and  main 
tain.  On  the  other  hand,  if  women  are  scarce,  the  men 
as  easily  adapt  themselves  to  circumstances,  and  two 
of  them  marry  one  woman.  Marriages  are  celebrated 
.as  follows :  after  gaining  the  consent  of  the  mother,  the 
lover  presents  a  suit  of  clothes  to  the  lady,  who  arrays 
herself  therein  and  thenceforth  is  his  wife.06  Dancing, 
accompanied  by  singing  and  violent  gesticulation,  is  their 
chief  amusement.  In  all  the  nations  of  the  north,  every 
well-regulated  village  aspiring  to  any  degree  of  respect 
ability  has  its  public  or  town  house,  which  among  the 
Eskimos  is  called  the  Casine  or  Kashim.  It  consists  of 
one  large  subterranean  room,  better  built  than  the  com 
mon  dwellings,  and  occupying  a  central  position,  where 
the  people  congregate  on  feast-days.67  This  house  is 
also  used  as  a  public  work-shop,  where  are  manufact 
ured  boats,  sledges,  and  snow-shoes.  A  large  portion 
of  the  winter  is  devoted  to  dancing.  Feasting  and  vis 
iting  commence  in  November.  On  festive  occasions,  a 
dim  light  and  a  strong  odor  are  thrown  over  the  scene 

deli ty  is  rare.'  Voy.  Herald,  vol.  ii.,  p.  66.  'These  people  are  in  the  habit 
of  collecting  certain  fluids  for  the  purposes  of  tanning;  and  that,  judging 
from  what  took  place  in  the  tent,  in  the  most  open  manner,  in  the  presence 
of  all  the  family.'  Beechey's  Voy.,  vol.i.,  p.  407. 

66  'Two  men  sometimes  marry  the  same  woman.'     Seemann's  Voy.  Her 
ald,  vol.  ii.,  p.  66.     '  As  soon  as  a  girl  is  born,  the  young  lad  who  wishes  to 
have  her  for  a  wife  goes  to  her  father's  tent,  and  proffers  himself.     If  ac 
cepted,  a  promise  is  given  which  is  considered  binding,  and  the  girl  is 
delivered  to  her  betrothed  husband  at  the  proper  age.'     Franklin's  Nar., 
vol.   ii.,   p.   41.     Women    '  carry  their  infants  between  their  reindeer-skin 
jackets  and  their  naked  backs.'    Simpson's  JVar.,  p.  121.     'All  the  drudgery 
falls  upon  the  women;    even  the  boys  would  transfer  their  loads  to  their 
sisters.'     Collinson,  in  Land.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xxv.,  p.  201. 

67  The  'Kashim  is  generally  built  by  the  joint  labour  of  the  community.' 
Richardson's  Pol.  Reg.,  p.  311. 


AMUSEMENTS.  67 

by  means  of  blubber-lamps.  The  dancers,  who  are 
usually  young  men,  strip  themselves  to  the  waist,  or 
even  appear  in  puris  naturalibus,  and  go  through  num 
berless  burlesque  imitations  of  birds  and  beasts,  their 
gestures  being  accompanied  by  tambourine  and  songs. 
Sometimes  they  are  fantastically  arrayed  in  seal  or 
deer  skin  pantaloons,  decked  with  dog  or  wolf  tails 
behind,  and  wear  feathers  or  a  colored  handkerchief  on 
the  head.  The  ancients,  seated  upon  benches  which  en 
circle  the  room,  smoke,  and  smile  approbation.  The 
women  attend  with  fish  and  berries  in  large  wooden 
bowls;  and,  upon  the  opening  of  the  performance,  they 
are  at  once  relieved  of  their  contributions  by  the  actors, 
who  elevate  the  provisions  successively  to  the  four  cardi 
nal  points  and  once  to  the  skies  above,  when  all  partake 
of  the  feast.  Then  comes  another  dance.  A  monotonous 
refrain,  accompanied  by  the  beating  of  an  instrument 
made  of  seal-intestines  stretched  over  a  circular  frame, 
brings  upon  the  ground  one  boy  after  another,  until 
about  twenty  form  a  circle.  A  series  of  pantomimes  then 
commences,  portraying  love,  jealousy,  hatred,  and  friend 
ship.  During  intervals  in  the  exercises,  presents  are 
distributed  to  strangers.  In  their  national  dance,  one 
girl  after  another  comes  in  turn  to  the  centre,  while  the 
others  join  hands  and  dance  and  sing,  not  unmusically, 
about  her.  The  most  extravagant  motions  win  the 
greatest  applause.68 

Among  other  customs  of  the  Eskimo  may  be  men 
tioned  the  following.  Their  salutations  are  made  by 
rubbing  noses  together.  No  matter  how  oily  the  skin, 
nor  how  rank  the  odor,  he  who  would  avoid  offense 

68  '  Their  dance  is  of  the  rudest  kind,  and  consists  merely  in  violent 
motion  of  the  arms  and  legs.'  Seemann's  Voy.  Herald,  vol.  ii.,  p.  63.  They 
make  '  the  most  comical  motions  with  the  whole  body,  without  stirring  from 
their  place.'  Kotzebue's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  192.  Their  song  consisted  of  the 
words:  'Hi,  Yangah  yangah;  ha  ha,  yangah — with  variety  only  in  the  inflec 
tion  of  voice.'  Hooper's  Tuski,  p.  225.  When  heated  by  the  dance,  even 
the  women  were  stripped  to  their  breeches.  Simpson's  Nar.,  p.  158.  'An 
old  man,  all  but  naked,  jumped  into  the  ring,  and  was  beginning  some  in 
decent  gesticulations,  when  his  appearance  not  meeting  with  our  approba 
tion  he  withdrew.'  Heechey's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  396. 


68  HYPEEBOEEANS. 

must  submit  his  nose  to  the  nose  of  his  Hyperborean 
brother,69  and  his  face  to  the  caressing  hand  of  his  polar 
friend.  To  convey  intimations  of  friendship  at  a  distance, 
they  extend  their  arms,  and  rub  and  pat  their  breast. 
Upon  the  approach  of  visitors  they  form  a  circle,  and  sit 
like  Turks,  smoking  their  pipes.  Men,  women,  and  chil 
dren  are  inordinately  fond  of  tobacco.  They  swallow 
the  smoke  and  revel  in  a  temporary  elysium.  They  are 
called  brave,  simple,  kind,  intelligent,  happy,  hospitable, 
respectful  to  the  aged.  They  are  also  called  cruel,  un 
grateful,  treacherous,  cunning,  dolorously  complaining, 
miserable.70  They  are  great  mimics,  and,  in  order  to 
terrify  strangers,  they  accustom  themselves  to  the  most 
extraordinary  contortions  of  features  and  body.  As  a 
measure  of  intellectual  capacity,  it  is  claimed  for 
them  that  they  divide  time  into  days,  lunar  months, 
seasons,  and  years ;  that  they  estimate  accurately  by  the 
sun  or  stars  the  time  of  day  or  night;  that  they  can 
count  several  hundred  and  draw  maps.  They  also 
make  rude  drawings  on  bone,  representing  dances,  deer- 
hunting,  animals,  and  all  the  various  pursuits  followed 
by  them  from  the  cradle  to  the  grave. 

But  few  diseases  are  common  to  them,  and  a  deformed 
person  is  scarcely  ever  seen.  Cutaneous  eruptions,  re 
sulting  from  their  antipathy  to  water,  and  ophthalmia, 
arising  from  the  smoke  of  their  closed  huts  and  the  glare 
of  sun-light  upon  snow  and  water,  constitute  their  chief 
disorders.71  For  protection  to  their  eyes  in  hunting  and 

69  '  C'etait  la  plus  grande  marque  d'amitie  qn'ils  pouvaieiit  nous  donner.' 
Choris,  Voy.  Pitt.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  5.  '  They  came  up  to  me  one  after  the  other — 
each  of  them  embraced  me,  rubbed  his  nose  hard  against  mine,  and  ended 
his  caresses  by  spitting  in  his  hands  and  wiping  them  several  times  over  my 
face.'  Kolzebue's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  192,  195. 

TO  '  Their  personal  bravery  is  conspicuous,  and  they  are  the  only  nation 
on  the  North  American  Continent  who  oppose  their  enemies  face  to  face  in 
open  fight.'  Richardson's  Jour.,  vol.  i.,  p.  244.  '  Simple,  kind  people;  very 

rr,  very  filthy,  and  to  us  looking  exceedingly  wretched.'     McClare's  Dis. 
W.  Passage,  in  Land.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xxiv.,  p.  242.     '  More  bold  and 
crafty  than  the  Indians;  but  they  use  their  women  much  better.'     BelVs 
Geog.,  vol.  v.,  p.  294. 

'i  '  Their  diseases  are  few.'  Seemanris  Voy.  Herald,  vol.  ii.,  p.  67.  'Dis 
eases  are  quite  as  prevalent  among  them  as  among  civilized  people.'  Doll's 


THE  KONIAGAS.  69 

fishing,  they  make  goggles  by  cutting  a  slit  in  a  piece  of 
soft  wood,  and  adjusting  it  to  the  face. 

The  Eskimos  do  not,  as  a  rule,  bury  their  dead ;  but 
double  the  body  up,  and  place  it  on  the  side  in  a  plank 
box,  which  is  elevated  three  or  four  feet  from  the 
ground,  and  supported  by  four  posts.  The  grave-box  is 
often  covered  with  painted  figures  of  birds,  fishes,  and 
animals.  Sometimes  it  is  wrapped  in  skins,  placed  upon 
an  elevated  frame,  and  covered  with  planks,  or  trunks  of 
trees,  so  as  to  protect  it  from  wild  beasts.  Upon  the 
frame  or  in  the  grave-box  are  deposited  the  arms, 
clothing,  and  sometimes  the  domestic  utensils  of  the 
deceased.  Frequent  mention  is  made  by  travelers  of 
burial  places  where  the  bodies  lie  exposed,  with  their 
heads  placed  towards  the  north.72 

THE  KONIAGAS  derive  their  name  from  the  inhabit 
ants  of  the  island  of  Kadiak,  who,  when  first  discovered, 
called  themselves  Kanagist.™  They  were  confounded 

Alaska,  p.  195.  *  Ophthalmia  was  very  general  with  them.'  Beechey's  Voy., 
vol.  i.,  p.  345.  'There  is  seldom  any  mortality  except  amongst  the  old 
people  and  very  young  children.'  Armstrong's  Nar.,  p.  197. 

72  At  Point  Barrow,  bodies  were  found  in  great  numbers  scattered  over  the 
ground  in  their  ordinary  seal-skin  dress;  a  few  covered  with  pieces  of  wood, 
the  heads  all  turned  north-east  towards  the  extremity  of  the  point.     Simp 
son's  Nar.,  p.  155.     '  They  lay  their  dead  on  the  ground,  with  their  heads  all 
turned  to  the  north.'     '  The  bodies  lay  exposed  in  the  most  horrible  and  dis 
gusting  manner.'  Dease  and  Simpson,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  viii.,  p. 
221,  222.     « Their  position  with  regard  to  the  points  of  the  compass  is  not 
taken  into  consideration.'  Setmann's  Voy.  Herald,  vol.  ii.,  p.  G7.     '  There  are 
many  more  graves  than  present  inhabitants  of  the  village,  and  the  story  is 
that  the  whole  coast  was  once  much  more  densely  populated.'    DalVs  Alaska, 
p.  19.     Hooper,  on  coming  to  a  burial  place  not  far  from  Point  Barrow, 
'  conjectured  that  the  corpses  had  been  buried  in  an  upright  position,  with 
their  heads  at  or  above  the  surface.'     Tuski,  p.  221. 

73  Kadiak  '  is  a  derivative,  according  to  some  authors,  from  the  Russian 
Kadia,  a  large  tub;  more  probably,  however,  it  is  a  corruption  of  Kaniag, 
the  ancient  Innuit  name.'     Dall's  Alaska,  p.  532.     Holmberg  thinks  that  the 
word  Kadiak  arose  from  Jfikchtak,  which  in  the  language  of  the  Koniagas 
means  a  large  island.     '  Der  Name  Kadjak  ist  offenbar  eine  Verdrehung  von 
Kikchtak,  welches  Wort  in  der  Sprache  der  Konjagen  "grosse  Insel"  be- 
deutet  und  daher  auch  als  Benennung  der  grossten  Insel  dieser  Gruppe 
diente.'     Ethnographixche  Skizzen  ilber  die  Volker  des  Kussischen  Amerika,  p. 
75.     'A  la  division  Koniagi  appartient  la  partie  la  plus  septentrionale  de 
1' Alaska,  et  1'ile  de  Kodiak,  que  les  Russes  appellent  vulgairement  Kichtak, 
quoique,  dans  la  langue  des  naturels,  le  mot  Kightak  ne  designe  en  general 
qti'une  lie.'     Humboldt,  Essai  Pol.,  torn,  i.,  p.  347.     Coxe  affirms  that  the 
natives  'call  themselves  Kanagist.'   Russian  Dis.,  p.  135.    And  Sauer  says, 


70  HYPERBOEEANS. 

by  early  Russian  writers  with  the  Aleuts.  English 
ethnologists  sometimes  call  them  Southern  Eskimos. 
From  Kadiak  they  extend  along  the  coast  in  both  di 
rections;  northward  across  the  Alaskan  Peninsula  to 
Kotzebue  Sound,  and  eastward  to  Prince  William  Sound. 
The  Koniagan  family  is  divided  into  nations  as  fol 
lows:  the  Koniayas  proper,  who  inhabit  the  Konia 
gan  Archipelago;  the  Chuyatshes™  who  occupy  the 
islands  and  shores  of  Prince  William  Sound ;  the  Ayley- 
mutes,  of  Bristol  Bay ;  the  Keyataiymutes,  who  live  upon 
the  river  Nushagak  and  the  coast  as  far  as  Cape  New- 
enham ;  the  Ayidmutes,  dwelling  upon  the  coast  between 
the  Kuskoquim  and  Kishunak  rivers;  the  Kuskoguiy- 
mutes™  occupying  the  banks  of  the  river  Kuskoquim; 
the  Mageniutes,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cape  RomanzofF; 
the  Kwichpay  mutes,  Kwichluay  mutes,  and  Pashtoliks,  on 
the  Kwichpak,  Kwickluak,  and  Pashtolik  rivers;  the 
Chnaymutes,  near  Pashtolik  Bay ;  the  Anlyymutes,  of  Go- 
lovnin  Bay,  and  the  Kaviaks  and  Malemutes,  of  Norton 
Sound.76  "  All  of  these  people,"  says  Baron  von  Wran- 
gell,  "  speak  one  language  and  belong  to  one  stock." 

The  most  populous  district  is  the  Kuskoquim  Yalley.77 
The  small  islands  in  the  vicinity  of  Kadiak  were  once 
Well  peopled ;  but  as  the  Russians  depopulated  them,  and 
hunters  became  scarce,  the  natives  were  not  allowed  to 
scatter,  but  were  forced  to  congregate  in  towns.78  Sche- 
likoff,  the  first  settler  on  Kadiak,  reported,  in  that  and 
contiguous  isles,  thirty  thousand  natives.  Thirty  years 
later,  Saritsheff  visited  the  island  and  found  but  three 

'  the  natives  call  themselves  Soo-oo-it.'  Billing's  Ex.,  p.  175.  'Man  verstand 
von  ihnen,  das  sie  sich  selbst  Kanagist  nennen.'  Neue  Nachr.,  p.  114. 

74  Tschugatsches,  Tschugatsi  or  Tschjatzi.    Latham,  Native  Races,  p.  290, 
says  the  name  is  Athabascan,  and  signifies  '  men  of  the  sea. ' 

75  Kuskoqidgmiites,  Kuskokwimen,  Kuskokwigmjuten,  Kusckockwagemuten, 
Kuschkukchwakmuten,  or  Kuskutcheioak. 

76  The  termination  mute,  mut,  meut,  muten,  or  mjuten,  signifies  people  or 
village.     It  is  added  to  the  tribal  name  sometimes  as  a  substantive  as  well  as 
in  an  adjective  sense. 

77  '  Herr  Wassiljew  schatzt  ihre  Zahl  auf  mindestens  7000  Seelen  beiderlei 
Geschlechts  und  jeglichen  Alters.'    Baer,  Mat.  u.  Ethn.,  p.  127. 

i*  'Es  waren  wohl  einst  alle  diese  Inseln  bewohnt.'  Holmberg,  Ethn. 
Skiz.,  p.  76. 


LAND  OF  THE  KONIAGAS.  71 

thousand.  The  Chugatshes  not  long  since  lived  upon 
the  island  of  Kadiak,  but,  in  consequence  of  dissensions 
with  their  neighbors,  they  were  obliged  to  emigrate  and 
take  up  their  residence  on  the  main  land.  They  de 
rived  their  manners  originally  from  the  northern  nations ; 
but,  after  having  been  driven  from  their  ancient  posses 
sions,  they  made  raids  upon  southern  nations,  carried 
off  their  women,  and,  from  the  connections  thus  formed, 
underwent  a  marked  change.  They  now  resemble  the 
southern  rather  than  the  northern  tribes.  The  Kadiaks, 
Chugatshes,  Kuskoquims,  and  adjacent  tribes,  according 
to  their  own  traditions,  came  from  the  north,  while 
the  Unalaskas  believe  themselves  to  have  originated  in 
the  west.  The  Kaviaks  intermingle  to  a  considerable 
extent  with  the  Malemutes,  and  the  two  are  often  taken 
for  one  people ;  but  their  dialects  are  quite  distinct. 

The  country  of  the  Koniagas  is  a  rugged  wilderness, 
into  many  parts  of  which  no  white  man  has  ever  pene 
trated.  Mountainous  forests,  glacial  canons,  down  which 
flow  innumerable  torrents,  hills  interspersed  with  lakes 
and  marshy  plains;  ice-clad  in  winter,  covered  with 
luxuriant  vegetation  in  summer.  Some  sheltered  inlets 
absorb  an  undue  proportion  of  oceanic  warmth.  Thus 
the  name  Aglegmutes  signifies  the  inhabitants  of  a 
warm  climate. 

Travelers  report  chiefs  among  the  Koniagas  seven 
feet  in  height,  but  in  general  they  are  of  medium 
stature.79  Their  complexion  may  be  a  shade  darker 

79  The  Male  mutes  are  'a  race  of  tall  and  stout  people.'  Wliymper's 
Alaska,  p.  159.  '  Die  Kuskokwimer  sind,  mittlerer  Statur,  schlank, 
riistig  und  oft  rait  grosser  Sttirke  begabt.'  Baer.  Stat.  u.  Ethn.,  p.  135. 
Dixon's  Voy.,  p.  186.  '  Bisweilen  fallen  sogar  riesige  Gestalten  atif,  wie 
ich  z.  B.  eineu  Hauptling  in  der  igatschen  Bucht  zu  sehen  Gelegen- 
heit  liatte,  dessen  Lange  6%  Fuss  betrug.'  Holmberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  80. 
The  chief  at  Prince  William  Sound  was  a  man  of  low  stature,  '  with  a 
long  beard,  and  seemed  about  sixty  years  of  age.'  Porilock's  Voy.,  p.  237. 
A  strong,  raw-boned  race.  Meares'  Voy.,  p.  32.  At  Cook's  Inlet  they 
seemed  to  be  of  the  same  nation  as  those  of  Pr.  Wm  Sd  ,  but  entirely  differ 
ent  from  those  at  Nootka,  in  persons  and  language.  Cook's  Third  Voy.,  vol 
ii.,  p.  400.  They  are  of  '  middle  size  and  well  proportioned. '  Dixon's  Voy., 
p.  68.  '  They  emigrated  in  recent  times  from  the  Island  of  Kadyak,  and 
they  claim,  as  their  hereditary  possessions,  the  coast  lying  between  Bristol 


72  HYPERBOKEANS. 

than  that  of  the  Eskimos  of  the  northern  coast,  but  it  is 
still  very  light.80  The  Chugatshes  are  remarkable  for 
their  large  heads,  short  necks,  broad  faces,  and  small 
eyes.  Holrnberg  claims  for  the  Koniagas  a  peculiar 
formation  of  the  skull;  the  back,  as  he  says,  being  not 
arched  but  flat.  They  pierce  the  septum  of  the  nose  and 
the  under  lip,  and  in  the  apertures  wear  ornaments  of 
various  materials;  the  most  highly  prized  being  of  shell 
or  of  amber.  It  is  said  that  at  times  amber  is  thrown 
up  in  large  quantities  by  the  ocean,  on  the  south  side  of 
Kadiak,  generally  after  a  heavy  earthquake,  and  that 
at  such  times  it  forms  an  important  article  of  commerce 
with  the  natives.  The  more  the  female  chin  is  rid 
dled  with  holes,  the  greater  the  respectability.  Two 
ornaments  are  usually  worn,  but  by  very  aristocratic 
ladies  as  many  as  six.81  Their  favorite  colors  in  face- 
painting  are  red  and  blue,  though  black  and  leaden 
colors  are  common.82  Young  Kadiak  wives  secure  the 
affectionate  admiration  of  their  husbands  by  tattooing 
the  breast  and  adorning  the  face  with  black  lines;  while 
the  Kuskoquim  women  sew  into  their  chin  two  parallel 
blue  lines.  The  hair  is  worn  long  by  men  as  well  as 
women.  On  state  occasions,  it  is  elaborately  dressed; 
first  saturated  in  train-oil,  then  powdered  with  red  clay 
or  oxide  of  iron,  and  finished  off  with  a  shower  of  white 
feathers.  Both  sexes  wear  beads  wherever  they  can 
find  a  place  for  them,  round  the  neck,  wrists,  and  ankles, 

Bay  and  Beering's  Straits.'  Richardson? s  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  364.  'Die  Tschu- 
gatschen  sind  Ankommlinge  von  cler  Insel  Kadjack,  die  wahrend  innerer 
Zwistigkeiten  von  dort  vertrieben.'  Baer,  Stat.  u.  Ethn.,  p.  116. 

80  Achkugmjuten,  'BewohnerderwarmenGegend.'  Holmberg,  Ethn.Skiz., 
p.  5.     '  Copper  complexion.'  Lisiansky's  Voy,,  p.  194. 

81  '  They  bore  their  under  lip,  where  they  hang  fine  bones  of  beasts  and 
birds.'   Staehlin's  North.  Arch.,  p.  33.     '  Setzen  sich  auch  —  Zahne  von  Vogel 
oder  Thierknochen  in  Kiinstliche  Oeffnungen  der  Unterlippe  und  unter  der 
Nase  ein.'     Neue  Nachr.,  p.  113. 

82  The  people  of  Kadiak,  according  to  Langsdorff,  are  similar  to  those  of 
Unalaska,  the  men  being  a  little  taller.     They  differ  from  the  Fox  Islanders. 
Voy.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  62.      'Die  Insulaner  waren  hier  von  den  Einwohnern, 
der  vorhin  entdeckten  iibrigen  Fuchsinsuln,  in  Kleidung  und  Sprache  ziem- 
lich  verschieden.'    Neue  Nachr.,   p.  113.      'Us  ressemblent  beaucoup  aux 
indigenes  des  iles  Curiles,  dependantes  du  Japon.'     Laplace,  Circumnav., 
vol.  vi.,  p.  45. 


KADIAK  AND  KUSKOQUIM  DKESS.  73 

besides  making  a  multitude  of  holes  for  them  in  the 
ears,  nose,  and  chin.  Into  these  holes  they  will  also 
insert  buttons,  nails,  or  any  European  trinket  which 
falls  into  their  possession.83 

The  aboriginal  dress  of  a  wealthy  Kadiak  was  a  bird- 
skin  parka,  or  shirt,  fringed  at  the  top  and  bottom,  with 
long  wide  sleeves  out  of  which  the  wearer  slipped  his 
arms  in  an  emergency.  This  garment  was  neatly  sewed 
with  bird-bone  needles,  and  a  hundred  skins  were  some 
times  used  in  the  making  of  a  single  parka.  It  was 
worn  with  the  feathers  outside  during  the  day,  and  in 
side  during  the  night.  Round  the  waist  was  fastened 
an  embroidered  girdle,  and  over  all,  in  wet  weather,  was 
worn  an  intestine  water-proof  coat.  The  Kadiak  breeches 
and  stockings  were  of  otter  or  other  skins,  and  the  boots, 
when  any  were  worn,  were  of  seal-neck  leather,  with 
whale-skin  soles.  The  Russians  in  a  measure  prohib 
ited  the  use  of  furs  among  the  natives,  compelling  them 
to  purchase  wroolen  goods  from  the  company,  and  deliver 
up  all  their  peltries.  The  parkas  and  stockings  of  the 
Kuskoquims  are  of  reindeer-skin,  covered  with  em 
broidery,  and  trimmed  with  valuable  furs.  They  also 
make  stockings  of  swamp  grass,  and  cloaks  of  sturgeon- 
skin.  The  Malemute  and  Kaviak  dress  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  northern  Eskimo.84 

83  « They  wore  strings  of  beads  suspended  from  apertures  in  the  lower 
lip.'  Lisiansky's   Voy.,  p.  195.     'Their  ears  are  full  of  holes,  from  which 
hang  pendants  of  bone  or  shell.'    Meares'   Voy.,  p.  xxxii.     '  Elles  portent 
des   perles    ordinairement  en  verre  bleu,  suspendues  au-dessous   du   nez 
a  un  fil  passe  dans  la  cloison  nasale.'  D'Orbiyny,  Voy.,  p.  573.     '  Upon  the 
whole,  I  have  nowhere  seen  savages  who  take  more  pains  than  these  peo 
ple  do  to  ornament,  or  rather  to  disfigure  their  persons.'     At  Prince  Wil 
liam  Sound  they  are  so  fond  of  ornament  '  that  they  stick  any  thing  in  their 
perforated  lip;  one  man  appearing  with  two  of  our  iron  nails  projecting  from 
it  like  prongs :  and  another  endeavouring  to  put  a  large  brass  button  into  it. ' 
Cook's  Third  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  370.     They  slit  the  under  lip,  and  have  orna 
ments  of  glass  beads  and  muscle-shells  in  nostrils  and  ears;  tattoo  chin  and 
neck.   LrmysdorfTs   Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  63.     '  Die  Frauen  machen  Einschnitte 
in  die  Lippen.     Der  Nasenknorpel  ist  ebenfalls  durchstochen.'  Baer,  Stat.  u. 
Ethn.,  p.  135. 

84  The  Kadiaks  dress  like  the  Aleuts,  but  their  principal  garment  they  call 
Kon&gen;  Lanysdorff' s  Voy.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  63.      Like  the  Unalaskas,  the  neck 
being  more   exposed,  fewer  ornamentations.   Sauer,  Billing's   Voy.,  p.  177. 
'  Consists  wholly  of  the  skins  of  animals  and  birds.'     Portlock's  Voy.,  p. 


74  HYPEKBOKEANS. 

The  ChugatsheSj  men,  women,  and  children,  dress 
alike  in  a  close  fur  frock,  or  robe,  reaching  sometimes 
to  the  knees,  but  generally  to  the  ankles.  Their  feet 
and  legs  are  commonly  bare,  notwithstanding  the  high 
latitude  in  which  they  live;  but  they  sometimes  wear 
skin  stockings  and  mittens.  They  make  a  truncated 
conic  hat  of  straw  or  wood,  in  whimsical  representation 
of  the  head  of  some  fish  or  bird,  and  garnished  with 
colors.85 

The  Koniagas  build  two  kinds  of  houses ;  one  a  large, 
winter  village  residence,  called  by  the  Russians  barabara, 
and  the  other  a  summer  hunting-hut,  placed  usually  upon 
the  banks  of  a  stream  whence  they  draw  food.  Their 
winter  houses  are  very  large,  accommodating  three  or  four 
families  each.  They  are  constructed  by  digging  a  square 
space  of  the  required  area  to  a  depth  of  two  feet,  placing 
a  post,  four  feet  high  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  at 
every  corner,  and  roofing  the  space  over  to  constitute  a 
main  hall,  where  eating  is  done,  filth  deposited,  and 
boats  built.  The  sides  are  of  planks,  and  the  roof  of 
boards,  poles,  or  whale-ribs,  thickly  covered  with  grass. 
In  the  roof  is  a  smoke-hole,  and  on  the  eastern  side  a 
door-hole  about  three  feet  square,  through  which  en 
trance  is  made  on  hands  and  knees,  and  which  is  pro 
tected  by  a  seal  or  other  skin.  Under  the  opening  in 
the  roof,  a  hole  is  dug  for  fire ;  and  round  the  sides  of 
the  room,  tomb-like  excavations  are  made,  or  boards  put 
up,  for  sleeping-places,  where  the  occupant  reposes  on  his 
back  with  his  knees  drawn  up  to  the  chin.  Adjoining 

249.  A  coat  peculiar  to  Norton  Sound  appeared  'to  be  made  of  reeds 
sewed  very  closely  together.'  Dixon's  Voy.,  p.  191.  '  Nahen  ihre  Parken 
(Winter-Kleider)  aus  Vogelhauten  und  ihre  Kamleien  ( Sommer-Kleider)  aus 
den  Gedarmen  von  Wallfischen  und  Robben.'  J3aer,  Stat.  u.  Ethn.,  p.  117.  At 
Norton  Sound  'principally  of  deer-skins.'  Cook's  Third  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p. 
484.  'Ihre  Kleider  sind  aus  schwarzen  und  andern  Fuchsbalgen,  Biber, 
Vogelhauten,  aucli  jungen  Rennthier  and  Jewraschkenfellen,  alles  mit  Seh- 
nen  geniiht.'  Neue  Nachr.,  p.  113.  'The  dress  of  both  sexes  consists  of 
parkas  and  camleykas,  both  of  which  nearly  resemble  in  form  a  carter's 
frock.'  Lisiansky's  Voy.,  p.  194. 

M  'Una  tunica  entera  de  pieles  que  les  abriga  bastantemente.'  Bodega  y 
Qnadm  JVau.,  MS.  p.  66.  'By  the  use  of  such  a  girdle,  it  should  seem  that 
they  sometimes  go  naked.'  Cook's  Third  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  437. 


DWELLINGS  AND  FOOD  OF  THE  KONIAGAS.  75 

rooms  are  sometimes  made,  with  low  underground  passages 
leading  off  from  the  main  hall.  The  walls  are  adorned 
with  implements  of  the  chase  and  bags  of  winter  food ; 
the  latter  of  which,  being  in  every  stage  of  decay,  emits  an 
odor  most  offensive  to  unhabituated  nostrils.  The  ground 
is  carpeted  with  straw.  When  the  smoke-hole  is  covered 
by  an  intestine  window,  the  dwellings  of  the  Koniagas 
are  exceedingly  warm,  and  neither  fire  nor  clothing  is  re 
quired.80  The  kashwij  or  public  house  of  the  Koniagas, 
is  built  like  their  dwellings,  and  is  capable  of  accommo 
dating  three  or  four  hundred  people.87  Huts  are  built  by 
earthing  over  sticks  placed  in  roof-shape ;  also  by  erect 
ing  a  frame  of  poles,  and  covering  it  with  bark  or  skins. 
The  Koniagas  will  eat  any  digestible  substance  in 
nature  except  pork ;  from  which  fact  Lord  Kingsborough 
could  prove  incontestably  a  Jewish  origin.  I  should 
rather  give  them  swinish  affinities,  and  see  in  this  sin 
gularity  a  hesitancy  to  feed  upon  the  only  animal,  except 
themselves,  which  eats  with  equal  avidity  bear's  excre 
ments,  carrion  birds,  maggoty  fish,  and  rotten  sea-ani 
mals.88  When  a  whale  is  taken,  it  is  literally  stripped 
of  everything  to  the  bare  bones,  and  these  also  are 
used  for  building  huts  and  boats.89  These  people  can  dis- 

86  « Plastered  over  with  mud,  which  gives  it  an  appearance  not  very  unlike 
a  dung  hill.'   Lisiansky's   Voy.,  p.  214.     Sea-dog  skin  closes  the  opening. 
Langsdorff's   Voy.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  62.      The  Kuskoquims  have   'huttes  qu'ils 
appellent  barabores  pour  1'ete.'  U'Orbigny,  Voy.,  p.  574.     '  Mit  Erde  uud  Gras 
bedeckt,  so  dass  man  mit  Recht  die  Wohnuugen  der  Konjagen  Erdhutteu 
nennen  kann.'  Holtnberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  97.      'A  door  fronting  the  east.' 
8auer,  Billing's  Voy.,  p.' 175.    At  Norton  Sound  'they  consist  simply  of  a 
sloping  roof,  without  any  side-walls.'     Cook's  Third  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  484. 
Build  temporary  huts  of  sticks  and  bark.     Portlock's  Voy.,  p.  253. 

87  '  In  dem  Kashim  versammelt  sich  die  mannliche  Bevolkerung  des 
ganzen  Dorfes  zur  Berathschlagung  iiber  wichtige  Augelegenheiten,  iiber 
Krieg  und  Frieden,  etc.'    Baer,  Mat.  u.  Ethn.,  p.  129. 

88  '  Le  poisson  est  la  principale  nourriture.'    D'Orbigny,    Voy.,  p.  574. 
'  Berries  mixed  with  rancid  whale  oil.'     'The  fat  of  the  whale  is  the  prime 
delicacy.'  Lisiansky's  Voy.,  pp.  178,  195.     * Meistentheils  niihren  sie  sich  mit 
rohen  und  trocknen  Fischen,  die  sie  theils  in  der  See  mit  knilchernen  Angel- 
haken,  theils  in  denen  Bachen  mit  Sacknetzen,  die  sie  aus  Sehnen  flechten, 
einfangen.'   Neue  Nachr.,  p.  114.     They  generally  eat  their  food  raw,  but 
sometimes  they  boil  it  in  water  heated  with  hot  stones.   Meares'  Voy.,  p.  xxxv. 
The  method  of  catching  wild  geese,  is  to  chase  and  knock  them  down  im 
mediately  after  they  have  shed  their  large  wing-feathers ;  at  which  time  they 
are  not  able  to  fly.  Portlock's  Voy.,  p.  265. 

89  '  Ich  hatte  auf  der  Insel  Afognak  Gelegenheit  dem  Zerschneiden  eines 


76  HYPEKBOEEANS. 

pose  of  enormous  quantities  of  food;  or,  if  necessary, 
they  can  go  a  long  time  without  eating.90  Before  the 
introduction  of  intoxicating  drinks  by  white  men,  they 
made  a  fermented  liquor  from  the  juice  of  raspberries 
and  blueberries.  Tobacco  is  in  general  use,  but  chew 
ing  and  snuffing  are  more  frequent  than  smoking.  Sal 
mon  are  very  plentiful  in  the  vicinity  of  Kadiak,  and 
form  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  diet.  During  their 
periodical  ascension  of  the  rivers,  they  are  taken  in 
great  quantities  by  means  of  a  pole  pointed  with  bone  or 
iron.  Salmon  are  also  taken  in  nets  made  of  whale- 
sinews.  Codfish  are  caught  with  a  bone  hook.  Whales 
approach  the  coast  of  Kadiak  in  June,  when  the  inhab 
itants  pursue  them  in  baidarkas.  Their  whale-lance  is 
about  six  feet  in  length,  and  pointed  with  a  stone  upon 
which  is  engraved  the  owner's  mark.  This  point  sep 
arates  from  the  handle  and  is  left  in  the  whale's  flesh, 
so  that  when  the  body  is  thrown  dead  upon  the  beach, 
the  whaler  proves  his  property  by  his  lance-point. 
Many  superstitions  are  mentioned  in  connection  with 
the  whale-fishery.  When  a  whaler  dies,  the  body  is 
cut  into  small  pieces  and  distributed  among  his  fellow- 
craftsmen,  each  of  whom,  after  rubbing  the  point  of  his 
lance  upon  it,  dries  and  preserves  his  piece  as  a  sort  of 
talisman.  Or  the  body  is  placed  in  a  distant  cave,  where, 
before  setting  out  upon  a  chase,  the  whalers  all  congre 
gate,  take  it  out,  carry  it  to  a  stream,  immerse  it  and 
then  drink  of  the  water.  During  the  season,  whalers 
bear  a  charmed  existence.  No  one  may  eat  out  of  the 
same  dish  with  them,  nor  even  approach  them.  When 
the  season  is  over,  they  hide  their  weapons  in  the 
mountains. 

In  May,  the  Koniagas  set  out  in  two-oared  baidarkas 

Wallfisches  zuzusehenund  versicliere,  dass  nach  Verlauf  von  kaum  2  Stunden 
nur  die  blanken  Knochen-auf  dem  Ufer  lagen.'  Hoimberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  91. 
90  The  Kadiaks  'pass  their  time  in  hunting,  festivals,  and  abstinence. 
The  first  takes  place  in  tlte  summer;  the  second  begins  in  the  month  of  De 
cember,  and  continues  as  long  as  any  provisions  remain;  and  then  follows 
the  period  of  famine,  which  lasts  till  the  re-appearance  of  fish  in  the  rivers. 
During  the  period  last  mentioned,  many  have  nothing  but  shell-fish  to  sub 
sist  on,  and  some  die  for  want.'  Lisiansky's  V'oy.,  pp.  209,  210. 


THE  KUSKOKWIGMUTES  AND  MALEMUTES.  77 

for  distant  islands,  in  search  of  sea-otter.  As  success 
requires  a  smooth  sea,  they  can  only  hunt  them  during 
the  months  of  May  and  June,  taking  them  in  the  man 
ner  following.  Fifty  or  one  hundred  boats  proceed 
slowly  through  the  water,  so  closely  together  that  it  is 
impossible  for  an  otter  to  escape  between  them.  As  soon 
as  the  animal  is  discovered,  the  signal  is  given,  the 
area  within  which  he  must  necessarily  rise  to  the  surface 
for  air,  is  surrounded  by  a  dozen  boats,  and  when  he 
appears  upon  the  surface  he  is  filled  with  arrows.  Seals 
are  hunted  with  spears  ten  or  twelve  feet  in  length,  upon 
the  end  of  which  is  fastened  an  inflated  bladder,  in  order 
to  float  the  animal  when  dead. 

The  Kuskokwigmutes  are  less  nomadic  than  their 
neighbors;  being  housed  in  permanent  settlements  dur 
ing  the  winter,  although  in  summer  they  are  obliged  to 
scatter  in  various  directions  in  quest  of  food.  Every 
morning  before  break  of  day,  during  the  hunting-season, 
a  boy  lights  the  oil-lamps  in  all  the  huts  of  the  village, 
when  the  women  rise  and  prepare  the  food.  The  men, 
excepting  old  men  and  boys,  all  sleep  in  the  kashim, 
whither  they  retire  at  sunset.  In  the  morning  they 
are  aroused  by  the  appearance  of  the  shaman,  arrayed 
in  his  sacerdotal  robes,  and  beating  his  sacred  drum. 
After  morning  worship,  the  women  carry  breakfast  to 
their  husbands  in  the  kashim.  At  day-break  the  men 
depart  for  their  hunting  or  fishing,  and  when  they  re 
turn,  immediately  repair  to  the  kashim,  leaving  the 
women  to  unload  and  take  care  of  the  products  of  the 
day's  work.  During  the  hunting-season  the  men  visit 
their  wives  only  during  the  night,  returning  to  the 
kashim  before  daylight. 

The  Malemutes  leave  their  villages  upon  the  coast 
regularly  in  February,  and,  with  their  families,  resort  to 
the  mountains,  where  they  follow  the  deer  until  snow 
melts,  and  then  return  to  catch  water-fowl  and  her 
ring,  and  gather  eggs  upon  the  cliffs  and  promontories  of 
the  coast  and  islands.  In  July  is  their  salmon  feast. 
The  fawns  of  reindeer  are  caught  upon  the  hills  by  the 


78  HYPERBOREANS. 

women  in  August,  either  by  chasing  them  down  or 
by  snaring  them.  Deer  are  stalked ,  noosed  in  snares, 
or  driven  into  enclosures,  where  they  are  easily 
killed.  At  Kadiak,  hunting  begins  in  February,  and  in 
April  they  visit  the  smaller  islands  for  sea-otter,  seals, 
sea-lions,  and  eggs.  Their  whale  and  other  fisheries 
commence  in  June  and  continue  till  October,  at  which 
time  they  abandon  work  and  give  themselves  up  to 
festivities.  The  seal  is  highly  prized  by  them  for  its 
skin,  blubber,  and  oil.  One  method  of  catching  seals 
illustrates  their  ingenuity.  Taking  an  air-tight  seal 
skin,  they  blow  it  up  like  a  bladder,  fasten  to  it  a  long 
line,  and,  concealing  themselves  behind  the  rocks,  they 
throw  their  imitation  seal  among  the  live  ones  and  draw 
it  slowly  to  the  shore.  The  others  follow,  and  are 
speared  or  killed  with  bow  and  arrows.  Blueberries  and 
huckleberries  are  gathered  in  quantities  and  dried  for 
winter  use;  they  are  eaten  mixed  with  seal-oil.  The 
Koniagas  are  also  very  fond  of  raw  reindeer-fat.  They 
hunt  with  guns,  and  snare  grouse,  marten,  and  hares. 
A  small  white  fish  is  taken  in  great  quantities  from 
holes  in  the  ice.  They  are  so  abundant  and  so  easily 
caught  that  the  natives  break  off  the  barbs  from  their 
fish-hooks  in  order  to  facilitate  their  operations. 

The  white  polar  bear  does  not  wander  south  of  the 
sixty-fifth  parallel,  and  is  only  found  near  Bering  Strait. 
Some  were  found  on  St  Matthew  Island,  in  Bering  Sea, 
but  were  supposed  to  have  been  conveyed  thither  upon 
floating  ice.  The  natives  approach  the  grizzly  bear  with 
great  caution.  When  a  lair  is  discovered,  the  opening 
is  measured,  and  a  timber  barricade  constructed,  with  an 
aperture  through  which  the  bear  may  put  his  head.  The 
Indians  then  quietly  approach  and  secure  their  timbers 
against  the  opening  of  the  den  with  stones,  and  throw  a 
fire-brand  into  the  den  to  arouse  the  animal,  who  there 
upon  puts  his  his  head  out  through  the  hole  and  meets 
with  a  reception  which  brings  him  to  an  untimely  end.91 

si  '  Wild  animals  which  they  hunt,  and  especially  wild  sheep,  the  flesh  of 


WAE,  IMPLEMENTS,  AND  GOVEKNMENT.        79 

In  former  times,  the  Koniagas  went  to  war  behind  a 
huge  wooden  shield  a  foot  thick  and  twelve  feet  in 
width.  It  was  made  of  three  thicknesses  of  larch- wood, 
bound  together  with  willows,  and  with  it  they  covered 
thirty  or  forty  lancers.92  They  poisoned  their  arrow  and 
lance  points  with  a  preparation  of  aconite,  by  drying  and 
pulverizing  the  root,  mixing  the  powder  with  water,  and, 
when  it  fermented,  applying  it  to  their  weapons.93  They 
made  arrow-points  of  copper,  obtaining  a  supply  from 
the  Kenai  of  Copper  River  j94  and  the  wood  was  as  finely 
finished  as  if  turned  in  a  lathe. 

The  boats  of  the  Koniagas  are  similar  to  those  of  the 
north,  except  that  the  bow  and  stem  are  not  alike,  the 
Dne  turning  up  to  a  point  and  the  other  cut  off  square.95 
Needles  made  of  birds'  bones,  and  thread  from  whale- 
sinews,  in  the  hands  of  a  Kadiak  woman,  produced 
work,  "many  specimens  of  which,"  says  Lisiansky, 
"  would  do  credit  to  our  best  seamstresses.  "9(i  They 
produced  fire  by  revolving  with  a  bow-string  a  hard  dry 
stick  upon  a  soft  dry  board,  one  end  of  the  stick  being 
held  in  a  mouth-piece  of  bone  or  ivory.  Their  imple- 

whichis  excellent.'  Lisiansky's  Voy.,  p.  188.  They  eat  the  larger  sort  of  fern, 
root  baked,  and  a  substance  which  seemed  the  inner  bark  of  the  pine.  Cook's 
Third  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  374.  'Die  Eingebornen  essen  diese  Wurzeln  (Lagat) 
roh  und  gekocht;  aus  der  Wurzel,  nachdem  sie  in  Mehl  verwandelt  ist,  backt 
man,  mit  einer  geringen  Beimischung  von  Weizenmehl,  siissliche,  diinne 
Kuchen.'  Sagoskin,  Tayebuch,  in  Denkschr.  d.  russ.  Geocj.  Gesell.,  p.  343. 

92  '  Ihre  holzerne  Schilde  nennen  sie  Kujaki.'     Neu'e  Nachr.,  p.  114. 

93  '  Selecting  the  roots  of  such  plants  as  grow  alone,  these  roots  are  dried 
and  pounded,  or  grated.'  Saner,  Bill'my's  Ex.,  p.  178. 

9*  '  Die  Pfeilspitzen  sind  aus  Eisen  oder  Kupfer,  ersteres  erhalten  sie  von 
den  Kenayern,  letzteres  von  den  Tutnen.'  Baer,  Mat.  u.  Ethn.,  p.  118.  '  De 
pedernal  en  forma  de  arpon,  cortado  con  tanta  delicadeza  como  pudiera  hacer- 
lo  el  mas  habil  lapidario.'  Bodeaa  y  Quadra,  Nau.,  MS.  p.  66. 

95  At  Prince  William  Sound  Cook  found  the  canoes  not  of  wood,  as  at 
Nootka.     At  Bristol  Bay  they  were  of  skin,  but  broader.  Third  Voy.,  vol.  ii., 
pp.  371,  437.     'Die  kadjakschen  Baidarken  unterscheiden  sich  in' der  Form 
ein  wenig  von  denen  der  andern  Bewohner  der  amerikanischen  Kiiste,  von 
denen  der  Aleuten  aber  namentlich  darin,  das  sie  kiirzer  und  breiter  sind.' 
llolmbert/,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  99.     At  Prince  William  Sound,   '  formada  la  canoa 
en  esqueleto  la  forran  por  fuera  con  pieles  de  animales.'    Bodega  y  Quadra, 
Nav.,  MS.  p.  65.     '  Qii'on  se  figure  une  nacelle  de  quatre  metres  de  long 
et  de  soixante  centimetres  de  large  tout  au  plus.'    Laplace,    Circumnav., 
vol.  vi.,  p.  48.     '  These  canoes  were  covered  with  skins,  the  same  as  we  had 
«een  last  season  in  Cook's  Eiver.  JJixon's  Voy.,  p.  147.     '  Safer  at  sea  in  bad 
weather  than  European  boats. '  Lisiansky's  Voy.,  p.  211. 

96  Their  whale-sinew  thread  was  as  fine  as  silk.  Li^iansky'a  Voy.,  p.  207. 


80  HYPERBOEEANS. 

ments  were  few— a  stone  adze,  a  shell  or  flint  knife,  a 
polishing  stone,  and  a  handled  tooth.97  Yet  they  excel 
in  carving^  and  in  working  walrus-teeth  and  whalebone, 
the  former  being  supplied  them  mostly  by  the  Agle- 
mutes  of  the  Alaskan  Peninsula.  The  tools  used  in 
these  manufactures  were  of  stone,  and  the  polishing  tools 
of  shell.  Traces  of  the  stone  age  are  found  in  lamps, 
hammers  and  cutting  instruments,  wedges  and  hatchets. 
Carving  is  done  by  the  men,  while  the  women  are  no  less 
skillful  in  sewing,  basket-making,  crotcheting,  and  knit 
ting.  The  women  tan ,  and  make  clothing  and  boat-covers 
from  skins  and  intestines.98  The  Agulmutes  are  skilled 
in  the  carving  of  wood  and  ivory;  the  Kuskoquims 
excel  in  wood  and  stone  carving.  They  make  in  this 
manner  domestic  utensils  and  vases,  with  grotesque  rep 
resentations  of  men,  animals,  and  birds,  in  relief. 

Authority  is  exercised  only  by  heads  of  households, 
but  chiefs  may,  by  superior  ability,  acquire  much  influ 
ence.99  Before  they  became  broken  up  and  demoralized 
by  contact  with  civilization,  there  was  a  marked  division 
of  communities  into  castes ;  an  hereditary  nobility  and 
commonalty.  In  the  former  was  embodied  all  author 
ity  ;  but  the  rule  of  American  chieftains  is  nowhere  of  a 
very  arbitrary  character.  Slavery  existed  to  a  limited 
extent,  the  thralls  being  mostly  women  and  children. 
Their  male  prisoners  of  war,  they  either  killed  im 
mediately  or  reserved  to  torture  for  the  edification  and 
improvement  of  their  children.100  Upon  the  arrival  of 

97  The  only  tool  seen  was  a  stone  adze.  Cook's  Third  Voy.,  vol.  ii.  p.  373. 

93  '  Their  sewing,  plaiting  of  sinews,  and  small  work  on  their  little  bags 
may  be  put  in  competition  with  the  most  delicate  manufactures  found  in  any 
part  of  the  known  world.'  Cook's  Third  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  373,  374.  '  If  we  may 
judge  by  these  figures,  the  inhabitants  of  Cadiack  must  have  lost  much  o'f 
their  skill  in  carving,  their  old  productions  of  this  kind  being  greatly  superior. ' 
TAsiansky,  p.  178.  The  Ingalik's  household  furniture  is  made  '  von  geboge- 
nem  Holz  sehr  zierlich  gearbeitet  und  mittelst  Erdfarben  roth,  grim  und 
blau  angestrichen.  Zuin  Kochen  der  Speisen  bedienen  sie  sich  irdener,  aus- 
gebrannter  Geschirre.  Baer,  titat.  u.  Ethn.,  p.  121. 

99  '  Tis  most  probable  they  are  divided  into  clans  or  tribes.'    Dixon's 
Voy.,  p.  67.     '  They  have  a  King,  whose  name  was  Sheenoway.'  Meares'  Voy., 
p.  xxvii.     'They  always  keep  together  in  families,  and  are  under  the  direc 
tion  of  toyons  or  chiefs.'  Lixiansky's  Voy.,  p.  151. 

100  Female  slaves  are  sold  from  one  tribe  to  another.    Sauer,  Billing's 
Voy.,  p.  175. 


IDEALITY  OF  THE  KONIAGAS.  81 

the  Russians,  the  slaves  then  held  by  the  natives,  think 
ing  to  better  their  condition,  left  their  barbaric  masters 
and  placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of  the  new 
comers.  The  Russians  accepted  the  trust,  and  set  them 
to  work.  The  poor  creatures,  unable  to  perform  the 
imposed  tasks,  succumbed;  and,  as  their  numbers  were 
diminished  by  ill  treatment,  their  places  were  supplied 
by  such  of  the  inhabitants  as  had  been  guilty  of  some 
misdemeanor;  and  singularly  enough,  misdemeanors 
happened  to  be  about  in  proportion  to  the  demand  for 
slaves.101 

The  domestic  manners  of  the  Koniagas  are  of  the 
lowest  order.  In  filth  they  out-do,  if  possible,  their 
neighbors  of  the  north.102  Thrown  together  in  little 
bands  under  one  roof,  they  have  no  idea  of  morality, 
and  the  marriage  relation  sits  so  loosely  as  hardly  to 
excite  jealousy  in  its  abuse.  Female  chastity  is  deemed* 
a  thing  of  value  only  as  men  hold  property  in  it.  A 
young  unmarried  woman  may  live  uncensured  in  the 
freest  intercourse  with  the  men;  though,  as  soon  as 
she  belongs  to  one  man,  it  is  her  duty  to  be  true 
to  him.  Sodomy  is  common;  the  Kaviaks  practice 
polygamy  and  incest;  the  Kadiaks  cohabit  promis 
cuously,  brothers  and  sisters,  parents  and  children.103 
The  Malemutes  are  content  with  one  wife,  but  they 
have  no  marriage  ceremony,  and  can  put  her  away 
at  pleasure.  They  prize  boy  babies,  but  frequently  kill 
the  girls,  taking  them  out  into  the  wilderness,  stuffing 
grass  into  their  mouth  and  abandoning  them ;  yet  chil 
dren  are  highly  esteemed,  and  the  barren  woman  is  a 
reproach  among  her  people.  Such  persons  even  go  so 
far  as  to  make  a  doll  or  image  of  the  offspring  which  they 

101  « Zugleich  verschwand  auch  ihre  Benemmng;  man  nannte  sie  ferner 
Kajuren,  em  Wort,  aus  Kamtschatka  hieher  iibergesiedelt,  welches  Tage- 
lohner  oder  Arbeiter  bedeutet.'  Holmberg,  Ethn.  tikiz.,  p.  79. 

102  <  They  will  not  go  a  step  out  of  the  way  for  the  most  necessary  pur 
poses  of  nature ;  and  vessels  are  placed  at  their  very  doors  for  the  reception 
of  the  urinous  fluid,  which  are  resorted  to  alike  by  both  sexes.'     Lisiansky's 
Voy.,  p.  214. 

103  « Not  only  do  brothers  and  sisters  cohabit  with  each  other,  but  even 
parents  and  children.'     Langsdorff's  Voy,,  pt.  ii.,  p.  64. 

Voi..  I.    6 


82  HYPERBOREANS. 

so  greatly  desire,  and  fondle  it  as  if  it  were  a  real 
child.104  Two  husbands  are  also  allowed  to  one  wo.nan ; 
one  the  chief  or  principal  husband,  and  the  other  a 
deputy,  who  acts  as  husband  and  master  of  the  house 
during  the  absence  of  the  true  lord ;  and  who,  upon  the 
latter' s  return,  not  only  yields  to  him  his  place,  but 
becomes  in  the  meantime  his  servant. 

But  the  most  repugnant  of  all  their  practices  is  that 
of  male  concubinage.  A  Kadiak  mother  will  select  her 
handsomest  and  most  promising  boy,  and  dress  and  rear 
him  as  a  girl,  teaching  him  only  domestic  duties,  keeping 
him  at  woman's  work,  associating  him  only  with  women 
and  girls,  in  order  to  render  his  effeminacy  complete. 
Arriving  at  the  age  of  ten  or  fifteen  years,  he  is  married 
to  some  wealthy  man,  who  regards  such  a  companion  as 
&  great  acquisition.  These  male  wives  are  called  achnut- 
schik  or  sckopans.105 

A  most  cruel  superstition  is  enforced  upon  maidens 
,at  the  age  of  puberty ;  the  victim  being  confined  for  six 
months  in  a  hut  built  for  the  purpose,  apart  from  the 
others,  and  so  small  that  the  poor  inmate  cannot  straight 
en  her  back  while  upon  her  knees.  During  the  six 
months  following,  she  is  allowed  a  room  a  little,  larger, 
but  is  still  permitted  no  intercourse  with  any  one. 
Daughters  of  principal  men  obtain  the  right  of  access  to 
the  kashim  by  undergoing  a  ceremonial  yielding  up  of 

104  'Images  dressed  in  different  forms.'  Lisiansky's  Voy.,  p.  178.     'The 
most  favoured  of  women  is  she  who  has  the  greatest  number  of  children.' 
Saner,  Billing's  Voy.,  p.  176. 

105  <  Der  Vater  oder  die  Mutter  bestimmen  den  Sohn  schon  in  seiner  friih- 
sten   Kindheit  zum   Achmitschik,  wenn  er  ihiien  madchenhaft   erscheint.' 


youths  are  dressed  like  women,  and  taught  all  their  domestic  duties.'  Sauer, 
.Billing's  Ex.,  p.  176.  '  Ces  peuples  sont  tres  adonnes  aux  plaisirs  des  sens 
•et  meme  a  un  vice  infame.'  Choris,  Voy.  Pitt.,  pt.  vii.,  p.  8.  'Of  all  the 
customs  of  these  islanders,  the  most  disgusting  is  that  of  men,  called  schoo- 
pans,  living  with  men,  and  supplying  the  place  of  women.'  LisiausJey's  Voy., 
p.  199.  This  shameful  custom  applies  to  the  Thlinkeets  as  well.  '  Quelqiies 
personnes  de  1'Equipage  du  Solide  ont  rapporte  qu'il  ne  leur  est  pas  possible 
de  douter  que  les  Tchinkitaneens  ne  soient  souilles  de  ce  vice  honteux  que 
la  Theogonie  immorale  des  Grecs  avoit  divinise.'  Marchand,  Voy.  aut.  da 
Monde,  torn,  ii.,  p.  97. 


KONIAGAN  SWEAT-HOUSES  83 

their  virginity  to  the  shaman.106  Marriage  ceremonies 
are  few,  and  marriage  engagements  peculiar.  The  con 
sent  of  the  father  of  the  intended  bride  being  obtained, 
the  aspirant  for  nuptial  honors  brings  wood  and  builds  a 
fire  in  the  bath-room;  after  which,  he  and  the  father  take 
a  bath  together.  The  relatives  meanwhile  congregate, 
a  feast  is  held,  presents  are  made,  the  bridegroom  takes 
the  name  of  the  bride's  father,  the  couple  are  escorted  to 
a  heated  vapor-bath  and  there  left  together.  Although 
extremely  filthy  in  their  persons  and  habits,  all  Indians 
attach  great  importance  to  their  sweat-baths.  This  pecu 
liar  institution  extends  through  most  of  the  nations  of  our 
territory,  from  Alaska  to  Mexico,  with  wonderful  uni 
formity.  Frequently  one  of  the  side  subterranean  apart 
ments  which  open  off  from  the  main  hall,  is  devoted  to 
the  purposes  of  a  sweat-house.  Into  one  of  these 
caverns  a  Kadiak  will  enter  stripped.  Steam  is  gen 
erated  by  throwing  wrater  upon  heated  stones.  After 
sweltering  for  a  time  in  the  confined  apd  heated  atmos 
phere,  and  while  yet  in  a  profuse  perspiration,  the 
bather  rushes  out  and  plunges  into  the  nearest  stream  or 
into  the  sea,  frequently  having  to  break  the  ice  before 
being  able  to  finish  his  bath.  Sometimes  all  the  occu 
pants  of  the  house  join  in  a  bath.  They  then  clear  the 
floor  of  the  main  room  from  obstructions,  and  build  a 
hot  fire  under  the  smoke-hole.  When  the  fire  is  reduced 
to  coals,  a  covering  is  placed  over  the  smoke-hole,  and 
the  bathers  proceed  to  wash  themselves  in  a  certain  liquid, 
which  is  carefully  saved  for  this  and  other  cleansing  pur 
poses,  and  also  for  tanning.  The  alkali  of  the  fluid 
combines  with  the  grease  upon  their  persons,  and  thus  a 
lather  is  formed  which  removes  dirt  as  effectually  as  soap 
would.  They  then  wash  in  water,  wrap  themselves  in 
deer-skins,  and  repose  upon  shelves  until  the  lassitude 
occasioned  by  perspiration  passes  away. 

loe  «  Der  Scbamane  hat  seiner  Obliegenheit  gemass  oder  aus  besonderem 
Wohlwollen  sie  der  Jnngferscbaft  beraubt  und  sie  ware  unwiirdig  vor  der 
Versammlung  zu  erscheinen,  wenn  sie  ihre  erste  Liebe  irgend  einem  Anderen 
und  nicbt  dem  Schainanen  gezollt  hatte.'  Baer,  Stat.  u.  Ethn.,  p.  133. 


84  HYPEEBOEEANS. 

Festivals  of  various  kinds  are  held ;  as,  when  one  vil 
lage  is  desirous  of  extending  hospitality  to  another  village, 
or  when  an  individual  becomes  ambitious  of  popularity, 
a  feast  is  given.  A  ceremonial  banquet  takes  place  a  year 
after  the  death  of  a  relative;  or  an  entertainment  may 
be  announced  as  a  reparation  for  an  injury  done  to  one's 
neighbor.  At  some  of  these  feasts  only  men  dance,  and 
at  others  the  women  join.  Upon  these  occasions,  presents 
are  exchanged,  and  the  festivities  sometimes  continue 
for  several  days.  The  men  appear  upon  the  scene  nearly 
or  quite  naked,  with  painted  faces,  and  the  hair  fan 
tastically  decorated  with  feathers,  dancing  to  the  music  of 
the  tambourine,  sometimes  accompanied  by  sham  fights 
and  warlike  songs.  Their  faces  are  marked  or  fantasti 
cally  painted,  and  they  hold  a  knife  or  lance  in  one 
hand  and  a  rattle  in  the  other.  The  women  dance  by 
simply  hopping  forward  and  backward  upon  their  toes.107 
A  visitor,  upon  entering  a  dwelling,  is  presented  with  a 
cup  of  cold  water ;  -afterward,  fish  or  flesh  is  set  before 
him.  and  it  is  expected  that  he  will  leave  nothing  un 
eaten.  The  more  he  eats,  the  greater  the  honor  to  the 
host ;  and,  if  it  be  impossible  to  eat  all  that  is  given  him, 
he  must  take  away  with  him  whatever  remains.  After 
eating,  he  is  conducted  to  a  hot  bath  and  regaled  with  a 
drink  of  melted  fat. 

Sagoskin  assisted  at  a  ceremony  which  is  celebrated 
annually  about  the  first  of  January  at  all  the  villages 
on  the  coast.  It  is  called  the  festival  of  the  immersion 
of  the  bladders  in  the  sea.  More  than  a  hundred  blad 
ders,  taken  only  from  animals  which  have  been  killed 
with  arrows,  and  decorated  with  fantastic  paintings,  are 
hung  upon  a  cord  stretched  horizontally  along  the  wall 
of  the  kashim.  Four  birds  carved  from  wood,  a  screech- 

!07  'Their  dances  are  proper  tournaments.'  Sauer,  Billing's  Ex.,  p.  176. 
They  are  much  addicted  to  public  dances,  especially  during  winter.  Whym- 
per's  Alaska,  p.  165.  'Masks  of  the  most  hideous  figures  are  worn.'  Lisi- 
ansky's  Voy.,  p.  210.  'Use  a  sort  of  rattle  composed  of  a  number  of  the 
beaks  of  the  sea-parrot,  strung  upon  a  wooden  cross,' — sounds  like  castanets. 
Langsdorff's  Voy.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  64.  '  Die  Ta'nzer  erscheinen,  eben  so,  mit  Wurf- 
spiessen  oder  Messern  in  den  Ha'nden,  welche  sie  iiber  dem  Kopfe  schwing- 
en.'  Baer,  Slat.  u.  Ethn.,  p.  118. 


SUPERSTITIONS  OF  THE  KONIAGAS.  85 

owl  with  the  head  of  a  man,  a  sea-gull,  and  two 
partridges,  are  so  disposed  that  they  can  be  moved  by 
strings  artfully  arranged ;  the  owl  flutters  his  wings  and 
moves  his  head;  the  gull  strikes  the  boards  with  his 
beak  as  if  he  were  catching  fish,  and  the  partridges  com 
mence  to  peck  each  other.  Lastly,  a  stake  enveloped  in 
straw  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  fire-place.  Men 
and  women  dance  before  these  effigies  in  honor  of  Jug- 
jak,  the  spirit  of  the  sea.  Every  time  the  dancing 
ceases,  one  of  the  assistants  lights  some  straw,  burning 
it  like  incense  before  the  birds  and  the  bladders.  The 
principal  ceremony  X)f  the  feast  consists,  as  its  name 
indicates,  in  the  immersion  of  the  bladders  in  the  sea. 
It  was  impossible  to  discover  the  origin  of  this  custom ; 
the  only  answer  given  to  questions  was,  that  their  an 
cestors  had  done  so  before  them. 

The  shaman,  or  medicine-man  of  the  Koniagas,  is  the 
spiritual  and  temporal  doctor  of  the  tribe ;  wizard,  sor 
cerer,  priest,  or  physician,  as  necessity  demands.  In  the 
execution  of  his  offices,  the  shaman  has  several  assistants, 
male  and  female,  sages  and  disciples;  the  first  in  rank 
being  called  kaseks,  whose  duty  it  is  to  superintend 
festivals  and  teach  the  children  to  dance.  When  a  person 
falls  sick,  some  evil  spirit  is  supposed  to  have  taken  pos 
session  of  him,  and  it  is  the  business  of  the  shaman  to 
exorcise  that  spirit,  to  combat  and  drive  it  out  of  the 
man.  To  this  end,  armed  with  a  magic  tambourine,  he 
places  himself  near  the  patient  and  mutters  his  incan 
tations.  A  female  assistant  accompanies  him  with  groans 
and  growls.  Should  this  prove  ineffectual,  the  shaman 
approaches  the  bed  and  throws  himself  upon  the  person 
of  the  sufferer;  then,  seizing  the  demon,  he  struggles 
with  it,  overpowers  and  casts  it  out,  while  the  assistants 
cry,  "  He  is  gone!  he  is  gone!"  If  the  patient  recovers, 
the  physician  is  paid,  otherwise  he  receives  nothing. 


10h 


108  '  Les  sorciers  et  chamans  jouissent  d'une  grande  faveur  dans  cette  re 
gion  glacee  de  1'Amerique.'  D'Orbigny,  Voy.,  p.  574.  'Schamane  und  alte 
Weiber  kennen  verschiedene  Heilmittel.'  Baer,  Stat.  u.  Ethn.,  p.  135.  '  Next 
in  rank  to  the  shamans  are  the  kaseks,  or  sages,  whose  office  is  to  teach  chil- 


86  HYPEKBOREANS. 

Colds,  consumption,  rheumatism,  itch,  boils,  ulcers,  syph 
ilis,  are  among  their  most  common  diseases.  Blood-let 
ting  is  commonly  resorted  to  as  a  curative,  and  except  in 
extreme  cases  the  shaman  is  not  called.  The  Koniagas 
bleed  one  another  by  piercing  the  arm  with  a  needle, 
and  then  cutting  away  the  flesh  above  the  needle  with  a 
flint  or  copper  instrument.  Beaver's  oil  is  said  to  re 
lieve  their  rheumatism. 

"The  Kadiak  people,"  says  Lisiansky,  " seem  more 
attached  to  their  dead  than  to  their  living."  In  token 
of  their  grief,  surviving  friends  cut  the  hair,  blacken  the 
face  with  soot,  and  the  ancient  custom  was  to  remain  in 
mourning  for  a  year.  No  work  may  be  done  for  twenty 
days,  but  after  the  fifth  day  the  mourner  may  bathe. 
Immediately  after  death,  the  body  is  arrayed  in  its  best 
apparel,  or  wrapped  with  moss  in  seal  or  sea-lion  skins, 
and  placed  in  the  kashim,  or  left  in  the  house  in  which 
the  person  died,  where  it  remains  for  a  time  in  state. 
The  body,  with  the  arms  and  implements  of  the  de 
ceased,  is  then  buried.  It  was  not  unfrequent  in  former 
times  to  sacrifice  a  slave  upon  such  an  occasion.  The 
grave  is  covered  over  with  blocks  of  wood  and  large 
stones.109  A  mother,  upon  the  death  of  a  child,  retires 
for  a  time  from  the  camp ;  a  husband  or  wife  withdraws 
and  joins  another  tribe.110 

The  character  of  the  Koniagas  may  be  drawn  as  peace 
able,  industrious,  serviceable  to  Europeans,  adapted  to 
labor  and  commerce  rather  than  to  war  and  hunting. 
They  are  not  more  superstitious  than  civilized  nations; 
and  their  immorality,  though  to  a  stranger  most  rank, 
is  not  to  them  of  that  socially  criminal  sort  which  loves 
darkness  and  brings  down  the  avenger.  In  their  own 
eyes,  their  abhorrent  practices  are  as  sinless  as  the  ordi- 

dren  the  different  dances,  and  superintend  the  public  amusements  and  shows, 
of  which  they  have  the  supreme  control.'  Lisiansky1  s  Voy.,  p.  208. 

109  « The  dead  body  of  a  chief  is  embalmed  with  moss,  and  buried.'  Sauer, 
Mlling's  Ex.,  p.  177. 

110  '  In  one  of  the  small  buildings,  or  kennels,  as  they  may  very  properly 
be  called,  was  a  woman  who  had  retired  into  it  in  consequence  of  the  death 
of  her  son.'    Lisiansky1 's  Voy.,  p.  184. 


THE  ALEUTS.  87 

nary,  openly  conducted  avocations  of  any  community  are 
to  the  members  thereof. 

THE  ALEUTS  are  the  inhabitants  of  the  Aleutian 
Archipelago.  The  origin  of  the  word  is  unknown;111 
the  original  name  being  Kagataya  Koungns,  or  l  men 
of  the  east,'  indicating  an  American  origin.112  The  na 
tion  consists  of  two  tribes  speaking  different  dialects; 
the  Unalaskans,  occupying  the  south-western  portion  of 
the  Alaskan  Peninsula,  the  Shumagin  Islands,  and  the 
Fox  Islands;  and  the  Atkhas,  inhabiting  the  Andrean- 
ovski,  Rat,  and  Near  Islands.  Migrations  and  intermix 
tures  with  the  Russians  have,  however,  nearly  obliterated 
original  distinctions. 

The  earliest  information  concerning  the  Aleutian  Is 
landers  was  obtained  by  Michael  Nevodtsikoff,  who 
sailed  from  Kamchatka  in  1745.  Other  Russian  voy 
agers  immediately  followed,  attracted  thither  in  search 
of  sea-animal  skins,  which  at  that  time  were  very  plen 
tiful.113  Tribute  was  levied  upon  the  islanders  by  the 
Russians,  and  a  system  of  cruelty  commenced  which 
soon  reduced  the  natives  from  ten  thousand  to  but  little 
more  than  one  thousand. 

The  Aleuts,  to  Langsdorff,  "  appear  to  be  a  sort  of 
middle  race  between  the  mongrel  Tartars  and  the  North 

111  '  The  word  Aleutian  seems  to  be  derived  from  the  interrogative  parti 
cle  attix,  which  struck  strangers  in  the  language  of  that  people.'  Kotzebue's 

Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  312.  The  Unalaskas  and  '  the  people  of  Oomnak,  call  them 
selves  Covxjhcutngtn.'  'The  natives  of  Alaksa  and  all  the  adjacent  islands 
they  call  KagataHakung'n.'  Sauer,  Sitting's  Ex.,  p.  154.  '  The  inhabitants  of 
Unalashka  are  called  Koyholaghi;  those  of  Akutan,  and  further  east  to  Uni- 
mak,  Kiyldgusi;  and  those  of  Unimak  and  Alaxa,  Kataghayekiki.  They  can 
not  tell  whence  these  appellations  are  derived;  and  now  begin  to  call  them 
selves  by  the  general  name  of  Aleyut,  given  to  them  by  the  Russians,  and 
borrowed  from  some  of  the  Kurile  Islands.'  Coxe's  Russ.  Dis.,  p.  219. 

112  Yet,  says  D'Orbigny,  Voyage,  p.  577:  'Si  on  interroge  les  Aleoutiens 
sur  leur  origine,  ils  disent  que  leurs  ancetres  ont  habite  un  grand  pays  vers 
1'ouest,  et  que  de  la  ils  sont  avances  de  proche  en  proche  sur  les  iles  desertes 
jusq'au  continent  americain.' 

113  Trapesnikoff  took  from  an  unknown  island  in  1753,  1920  sea-otter 
skins.    Durneff  returned  to  Kamchatka  in  1754,  with  3,000  skins.     In  1752 
one  crew  touched  at  Bering  Island  and  took  1,222  Arctic  foxes,  and  2,500 
sea-bears.      Cholodiloff,  in  1753,  took  from  one  island  1,600  otter-skins. 
Tcjlstych  in  one  voyage  took  1,780  sea -otter,  720  blue  foxes,  and  840  sea- 
bears.  Coxe's  Russ.  Dis.,  pp.  43,  44,  49,  51,  53. 


83  HYPEEBOEEANS. 

Americans.1'  John  Ledyard,  who  visited  Unalaska  with 
Captain  Cook,  saw  "two  different  kinds  of  people;  the 
one  we  knew  to  be  the  aborigines  of  America,  while 
we  supposed  the  others  to  have  come  from  the  opposite 
coasts  of  Asia."114  Their  features  are  strongly  marked, 
and  those  who  saw  them  as  they  originally  existed,  were 
impressed  with  the  intelligent  and  benevolent  expression 
of  their  faces.115  They  have  an  abundance  of  lank  hair, 
which  they  cut  with  flints — the  men  from  the  crown, 
and  the.  women  in  front.116  Both  sexes  undergo  the 
usual  face-painting  and  ornamentations.  They  extend 
their  nostrils  by  means  of  a  bow-cylinder.  The  men 
wear  a  bone  about  the  size  of  a  quill  in  the  nose,  and  the 
women  insert  pieces  of  bone  in  the  under  lip.117  Their 
legs  are  bowed,  from  spending  so  much  of  their  time  in 
boats ;  they  frequently  sitting  in  them  fifteen  or  twenty 
hours  at  a  time.  Their  figure  is  awkward  and  uncouth, 
yet  robust,  active,  capable  of  carrying  heavy  burdens  and 
undergoing  great  fatigue.118 

The  hat  of  the  Aleut  is  the  most  peculiar  part  of  his 
dress.  It  consists  of  a  helmet-shaped  crown  of  wood 
or  leather,  with  an  exceedingly  long  brim  in  front,  so  as 

H4  Sparks,  Life  of  Ledyard,  p.  79. 

115  A.  great  deal  of  character.  Langsdorff's  Voy.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  32. 

us  '  Bather  low  of  stature,  but  plump  and  well  shaped;  with  rather  short 
necks;  swarthy  chubby  faces;  black  eyes;  small  beards,  and  long,  straight, 
black  hair;  which  the  men  wear  loose  behind,  and  cut  before,  but  the  women 
tie  up  in  a  bunch.'  Cook's  Third  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  510.  'Von  Gesicht  sind 
sie  platt  und  weiss,  von  guter  Statur,  durchgangig  mit  schwarzen  Haaren.' 
Neue  Nadir.,  p.  150.  'Low  in  stature,  broad  in  the  visage.'  Campbell's  Voy., 
p.  112.  Hair  'strong  and  wiry;'  scanty  beard,  but  thick  on  the  upper  lip. 
Sauer,  Billings'  Ex.,  p.  154. 

117  *  Les  femmes  aleoutes  portaient  aux  mains  et  aux  pieds  des  chapelets 
de  pierres  de  couleur  et  preferablement  d'ambre.'  D'Orbigny,   Voy.,  p.  579. 
'  None  are  so  highly  esteemed  as  a  sort  of  long  muscle,  commonly  called  sea- 
teeth,   the  dentalium  entails  of  Linnaeus.'   Langsdorff's   Voy.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  40. 
'Women  have  the  chin  punctured  in  fine  lines  rayed  from' the  centre  of  the 
lip  and  covering  the  whole  chin.'     They  wear  bracelets  of  black  seal-skin 
around  the  wrists  and  ankles,  and  go  barefoot.  Sauer,  Billings'  Ex.,  p.  155. 
'  Im  Nasen-knorpel  und  der  TJnterlippe  machen  beide  Geschlechter  Locher 
und  setzen  Knochen  ein,  welches  ihr  liebster  Schmuck  ist.     Sie  stechen  sich 
auch  bunte  Figuren  im  Gesicht  aus.'  Neue  Nachr.,  p.  169.     'They  bore  the 
upper  lip  of  the  young  children  of  both  sexes,  under  the  nostrils,  where  they 
hang  several  sorts  of  stones,  and  whitened  fish-bones,  or  the  bones  of  other 
animals.'  Staehlin's  North  Arch.,  p.  37. 

118  'Leur  conformation  est  robuste  efc  leur  permet  de  supporter  des  tra- 
vaux  et  des  fatigues  de  toute  sorte.'  D'Orbigny,  Voy.,  p.  577. 


ALEUTIAN  HAT  AND  HABITATION.  89 

to  protect  the  eyes  from  the  sun's  reflection  upon  the 
water  and  snow.  Upon  the  apex  is  a  small  carving, 
down  the  back  part  hang  the  beards  of  sea-lions,  while 
carved  strips  of  bone  and  paint  ornament  the  whole. 
This  hat  also  serves  as  a  shield  against  arrows.  The 
Fox  Islanders  have  caps  of  bird-skin,  on  which  are  left 
the  bright-colored  feathers,  wings,  and  tail.119  As  a  rule, 
the  men  adopt  bird-skin  clothing,  and  the  women  furs, 
the  latter  highly  ornamented  with  beads  and  fringes.120 
The  habitations  of  the  Fox  Islanders  are  called  Ullaa, 
and  consist  of  immense  holes  from  one  to  three  hundred 
feet  in  length,  and  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  wide. 
They  are  covered  with  poles  and  earthed  over,  leaving 
several  openings  at  the  top  through  which  descent  is 
made  by  ladders.  The  interior  is  partitioned  by  stakes, 
and  three  hundred  people  sometimes  occupy  one  of  these 
places  in  common.  They  have  no  fire-place,  since  lamps 
hollowed  from  flat  stones  answer  every  purpose  for  cook 
ing  and  light.121  A  boat  turned  bottom  upward  is  the 
summer  house  of  the  Aleut.122 

iw  At  Shumagin  Island,  their  caps  were  of  sea-lion  skins.  Muller's  Voy., 
p.  46.  On  the  front  are  one  or  two  small  images  of  bone.  Cook's  Third  Voy.t 
vol.  ii.,  p.  510.  A  wooden  hat,  'which  in.  front  comes  out  before  the  eyes 
like  a  sort  of  umbrella,  and  is  rounded  off  behind.'  Langsdorff's  Voy.,  pt.  ii., 
p.  38.  '  Einige  haben.  gemeiue  Miitzen  von  eiiieni  bunten  Vogelfell,  woran 
sie  etwas  von  den  Fliigeln  uud'den  Schwanz  sitzen  lassen; — sind  vorn  mit 
einem  Bretchen,  wie  ein  Schirm  versehn  und  mit  Biirten  von  Seebareii — ge- 
schmiicket.'  Neae  Nachr.,  pp.  151,  152. 

120  On  a  feather  garment,  'a  person  is  sometimes  employed  a  whole  year.' 
'The  women  for  the  most  pj.rt  go  bare-footed."  Lanysdoi'Jf's  Voy.,  pt.  ii.,  pp. 
36,  39.     '  Seams  covered  with  thin  slips  of  skin,  very  elegantly  embroidered 
with  white  deer's  hair,  goat's  hair,  and  the  sinews  of  sea  animals,  dyed  of 
different  colours.'  tiauer,  Jjillinys'  Ex.,  p.  153.    'Ihr  Pelzkleid  wird  iiber  deii 
Kopf  angezogen,  und  ist  hinten  und  vomganz  zu.    Die  Manner  tragen  es  aus 
Vogelhauten;  die  Weiber  hingegeii  von  Bibern  und  jungen  Seebareii.'  Neue 
Nachr.,  p.  152.     '  Boots  and  breeches  in  one  piece.'  Campbell's  Voy.,  p.  113. 

121  «  Hound  the  sides  and  ends  of  the  huts,  the  families  (for  several  are 
lodged  together)  have  their  separate  apartments,  where  they  sleep,  and  sit  at 
work;  not  upon  benches,  but  in  a  kind  of  concave  trench,  which  is  dug  all 
around  the  inside  of  the  house,  and  covered  with  mats-.'  Cook's  Third  Voy., 
vol.  ii.,  p.  512.     'When  they  have  stood  for  sometime,  they  become  over 
grown  with  grass,  so  that  a  village  has  the  appearance  of  an  European  church 
yard  full  of  graves.'  Lanysdorff's  Voy.,  p.  32.     '  In  den  Jurten  wird  uiemals 
Feuer  angelegt  und  doch  ist  es  gemeiniglich  sehr  warm  darinnen,  so  dass 
beide  Geschlechter  ganz  nakkend  sitzen.'  Xeue  JVae/jr.,  p.  150. 

12iJ  '  A  bidarka  or  boat  is  turned  up  sideways,  and  at  the  distance  of  four 
or  five  feet,  two  sticks,  one  opposite  to  the  head  and  the  other  to  the  stern, 
are  driven  into  the  ground,  on  the  tops  of  which  a  cross  stick  is  fastened. 


90  HYPERBOREANS. 

Raw  seal  and  sea-otter,  whale  and  sea-lion  blubber, 
fish,  roots,  and  berries  are  staple  articles  of  food  among 
the  Aleuts.  To  procure  vegetable  food  is  too  much 
trouble.  A  dead,  half-putrefied  whale  washed  ashore  is 
always  the  occasion  of  great  rejoicing.  From  all  parts 
the  people  congregate  upon  the  shore,  lay  in  their  win 
ter  supplies,  and  stuff  themselves  until  not  a  morsel  re 
mains.  November  is  their  best  hunting-season.  Whale- 
fishing  is  confined  to  certain  families,  and  the  spirit  of 
the  craft  descends  from  father  to  son.  Birds  are  caught 
in  a  net  attached  to  the  end  of  a  pole ;  sea-otter  are  shot 
with  arrows;  spears,  bone  hooks,  and  nets  are  used  in 
fishing.123  After  the  advent  of  the  Russians,  the  natives 
were  not  allowed  to  kill  fur-animals  without  accounting 
to  them  therefor.124 

Their  weapons  are  darts  with  single  and  double  barbs, 
which  they  throw  from  boards;  barbed,  bone -pointed 
lances;  spears,  harpoons,  and  arrows,  with  bone  or  stone 
points.  At  their  side  is  carried  a  sharp  stone  knife  ten 
or  twelve  inches  long,  and  for  armor  they  wear  a  coat 
of  plaited  rushes,  which  covers  the  whole  body.125  An 

The  oars  are  then  laid  along  from  the  boat  to  the  cross  stick,  and  covered 
with  seal  skins,  which  are  always  at  hand  for  the  purpose.'  Lisiansky's  Voy., 
p.  152. 

123  '  Among  the  greatest  delicacies  of  Oon#,lashka  are  the  webbed  feet  of  a 
seal,  which  are  tied  in  a  bladder,  buried  in  the  ground,  and  remain  there  till 
they  are  changed  into  a  stinking  jelly.'  Kotzebue's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  165.     Al 
most  everything  is  eaten  raw.  Cook's  Third   Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  520.     The  sea- 
dog  is  caught  with  nets,  killed  when  asleep,  or  enticed  on  shore  by  a  false 
cap  made  to  resemble  a  seal's  head.  Lisiansky's  Voy.,  p.  205. 

124  <  L'Aleoute  peut  tuer  les  phoques  et  les  oiseaux,  sans  etre  oblige  d'en 
rendre  compte  a  la  compagnie.'  Chorls,  Voy.  Pitt.,  pt.  vii.,  p.  4. 

125  'Die  Spitze  selbst  wird  theils  aus  Obsidian  oder  Lavaglas,  theils  auch 
aus  Trachyt  verfertigt. '  Kittlitz,^  Reise,  vol.  i. ,  p.  208.    Spear-handles  are  feath 
ered,  the  points  of  sharpened  flint.  Neue  Nachr.,  p.  102.     '  Arrows  are  thrown 
from  a  narrow  and  pointed  board,  twenty  inches  long,  which  is  held  by  the 
thumb  and  three  fingers.     They  are  thrown  straight  from  the  shoulder  with 
astonishing  velocity.'  Lisiansky's  Voy.,  p.  205.     'Les  armes  defensives  con- 
sistaient  en  une  cotte  de  joncs  tresses  qui  leur  couvrait  tout  le  corps.' 
D'Orbigny,  Voy.,  p.  579.     'No  such  thing  as  an  offensive,  or  even  defens 
ive  weapon  was  seen  amongst  the  natives  of  Oonalashka.'    Probably  they 
had  been  disarmed  by  the  Russians.    Cook's  Third   Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  515. 
'  Wherever  any  one  has  fixed  his  habitation,  nobody  else  dares  to  hunt  or 
lish.'  Staehlin's  Nor.  Arch.,  p.  37.    For  birds  they  point  their  darts  with  three 
light  bones,  spread  and  barbed.   Sauer,   Sittings'   Ex.,  p.  157.      'Indeed, 
there  is  a  neatness  and  perfection  in  most  of  their  work,  that  shews  they 
neither  want  ingenuity  nor  perseverance.'  Cook's  Third  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  514. 


CUSTOMS  OF  THE  ALEUTS.  91 

Aleut  bear-trap  consists  of  a  board  two  feet  square  and 
two  inches  thick,  planted  with  barbed  spikes,  placed  in 
bruin's  path  and  covered  with  dust.  The  unsuspecting 
victim  steps  firmly  upon  the  smooth  surface  offered, 
when  his  foot  sinks  into  the  dust.  Maddened  with 
pain,  he  puts  forward  another  foot  to  assist  in  pulling 
the  first  away,  when  that  too  is  caught.  Soon  all  four 
of  the  feet  are  firmly  spiked  to  the  board ;  the  beast  rolls 
over  on  his  back,  and  his  career  is  soon  brought  to  an 
end. 

Notwithstanding  their  peaceful  character,  the  occu 
pants  of  the  several  islands  were  almost  constantly  at 
war.  Blood,  the  only  atonement  for  offense,  must  be 
washed  out  by  blood,  and  the  line  of  vengeance  be 
comes  endless.  At  the  time  of  discovery,  the  Unimak 
Islanders  held  the  supremacy. 

The-  fabrications  of  the  Aleuts  comprise  household 
utensils  of  stone,  bone,  and  wood ;  missiles  of  war  and 
the  chase;  mats  and  baskets  of  grass  and  the  roots  of 
trees,  neat  and  strong;  bird-beak  rattles,  tambourines 
or  drums,  wooden  hats  and  carved  figures.  From 
the  wing-bone  of  the  sea-gull,  the  women  make  their 
needles;  from  sinews,  they  make  thread  and  cord.120  To 
obtain  glue  for  mending  or  manufacturing  purposes,  they 
strike  the  nose  until  it  bleeds.127  To  kindle  a  fire,  they 
make  use  of  sulphur,  in  which  their  volcanic  islands 
abound,  and  the  process  is  very  curious.  First  they 
prepare  some  dry  grass  to  catch  the  fire;  then  they  take 
two  pieces  of  quartz,  and,  holding  them  over  the  grass, 
rub  them  wrell  with  native  sulphur.  A  few  feathers  are 
scattered  over  the  grass  to  catch  the  particles  of  sulphur, 
and,  when  all  is  ready,  holding  the  stones  over  the  grass, 

126  They  make  '  baskets  called  ishcats,  in  which  the  Aleutians  keep  all 
their  valuables.'  Lisiansky's  Voy.,  p.  181.     '  Thread  they  make  of  the  sinews 
of  the  seal,  and  of  all  sizes,  from  the  fineness  of  a  hair  to  the  strength  of  a 
moderate  cord,  both  twisted  and  plaited.'  Sauer,  Billings'  Ex.,  p.  157.    Of  the 
teeth  of  sea-dogs  they  carve  little  figures  of  men,  fish,  sea-otters,  sea-dogs,  sea- 
cows,  birds,  and  other  objects.  Langsdorff's  Voy.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  46. 

127  '\Vollen  sie  etwas  an  ihren  Pfeilen  oder  sonst  eine  Kleinigkeit  leimen, 
so  schlagen  sie  sich  an  die  Nase  und  bestreichen  es  mit  ihreni  Blute.'  Rene 
Nachr.  p.  173. 


92  HYPERBOREANS. 

they  strike  them  together ;  a  flash  is  produced  by  the  con 
cussion,  the  sulphur  ignites,  and  the  straw  blazes  up.128 

The  Aleuts  have  no  marriage  ceremony.  Every  man 
takes  as  many  women  to  wife  as  he  can  support,  or 
rather  as  he  can  get  to  support  him.  Presents  are  made 
to  the  relatives  of  the  bride,  and  when  she  ceases  to 
possess  attractions  or  value  in  the  eyes  of  her  proprietor, 
she  is  sent  back  to  her  friends.  Wives  are  exchanged 
by  the  men,  and  rich  women  are  permitted  to  indulge 
in  two  husbands.  Male  concubinage  obtains  throughout 
the  Aleutian  Islands,  but  not  to  the  same  extent  as 
among  the  Koniagas.129  Mothers  plunge  their  crying  ba 
bies  under  water  in  order  to  quiet  them.  This  remedy 
performed  in  winter  amid  broken  ice,  is  very  effectual.130 

Every  island,  and,  in  the  larger  islands,  every  village, 
has  its  toyon,  or  chief,  who  decides  differences,  is  ex 
empt  from  work,  is  allowed  a  servant  to  row  his  boat, 
but  in  other  respects  possesses  no  power.  The  office  is 
elective.131 

The  Aleuts  are  fond  of  dancing  and  given  to  hospitality. 
The  stranger  guest,  as  he  approaches  the  village,  is  met  by 
dancing  men  and  dancing  women,  who  conduct  him  to 
the  house  of  the  host,  where  food  is  given  him.  After 
supper,  the  dancing,  now  performed  by  naked  men,  con 
tinues  until  all  are  exhausted,  when  the  hospitalities  of 

128  Sauer,  Billings'  Ex.,  p.  159;  Campbell's  Voy.,  p.  59. 

129  '  Comme  les  femrnos  coutaient  cher  en  presents  de  fian<jailles,  la  pin- 
part  des  Aleoutes  ii'en  avaient  qu'une  ou  deux.'  D'Orbigny,  Voy.,  p.  579.    Pur 
chase  as  many  girls  for  wives  as  they  can  support.  Sauer,  '.Billings'  Ex.,  p. 
1G3.     'Objects  of  unnatural  affection.'  Id.,  p.  160.     'Their  beards  are  care 
fully  plucked  out  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  appear,  and  their  chins  tattooed 
like  those  of  the  women.'  Langsdorff's  Voy.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  48.     'The  Russians 
told  us,  that  they  never  had  any  connections  with  their  women,  because 
they  were  not  Christians.     Our  people  were  not  so  scmpulous;  and  some  of 
them  had  reason  to  repent  that  the  females  of  Ooiinlashka  encouraged  their 
addresses  without  any  reserve;  for  their  health  suffered  by  a  distemper  that 
is  not  unknown  here.'  Cook's  Third  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  521. 

130  '  It  often  happens  that  a  mother  plunges  her  noisy  child  into  water,  even 
in  winter,  and  keeps  it  there  till  it  leaves  off  crying.'  Lisiansky's  Voy.,  p.  202. 
'  Schreyt  das  Kind,  so  tra'gt  es  die  Mutter,  es  sey  Winter  oder  Sommer  nak- 
kend  nach  der  See,  und  halt  es  so  lange  im  Wasser  bis  es  still  wird. '  Neue 
Nachr.,  p.  168. 

"1  'Have  their  own  chiefs  in  each  island.'  Cook's  Third  Voy.,  vol.  ii., 
p.  510.  '  Generally  is  conferred  on  him  who  is  the  most  remarkable  for  his 
personal  qualities.'  Coxe's  Buss.  Uis.,  p.  219. 


CHARACTEK  OF  THE  ALEUTS.  93 

the  dwelling  are  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  guest,  and 
all  retire.132  A  religious  festival  used  to  be  held  in  De 
cember,  at  which  all  the  women  of  the  village  assembled 
by  moonlight,  and  danced  naked  with  masked  faces,  the 
men  being  excluded  under  penalty  of  death.  The  men 
and  women  of  a  village  bathe  together,  in  aboriginal 
innocency,  unconscious  of  impropriety.  They  are  fond 
of  pantomimic  performances;  of  representing  in  dances 
their  myths  and  their  legends ;  of  acting  out  a  chase,  one 
assuming  the  part  of  hunter,  another  of  a  bird  or  beast 
trying  to  escape  the  snare,  now  succeeding,  now  failing— 
the  piece  ending  in  the  transformation  of  a  captive  bird 
into  a  lovely  woman,  who  falls  exhausted  into  the  arms 
of  the  hunter. 

The  dead  are  clothed  and  masked,  and  either  placed 
in  the  cleft  of  a  rock,  or  swung  in  a  boat  or  cradle  from 
a  pole  in  the  open  air.  They  seem  to  guard  the  body 
as  much  as  possible  from  contact  with  the  ground.133 

In  their  nature  and  disposition,  these  islanders  are 
sluggish  but  strong.  Their  sluggishness  gives  to  their 
character  a  gentleness  and  obsequiousness  often  remarked 
by  travelers;  while  their  inherent  strength,  when  roused 
by  brutal  passions,  drives  them  on  to  the  greatest  enor 
mities.  They  are  capable  of  enduring  great  fatigue,  and, 
when  roused  to  action  by  necessity,  they  will  perform 
an  incredible  amount  of  work,  suffering  the  severest 
cold  or  heat  or  hunger  with  the  most  stoical  calmness. 
They  are  very  quiet  in  their  demeanor;  sometimes  sit 
ting  in  companies  within  their  dens,  or  on  their  house- 

132  Those  of  the  inhabitants  who  have  two  wives  give  their  guests  one,  or 
a  slave.  Neue  Nachr.,  p.  171.     '  In  the  spring  holidays,  they  wear  masks, 
neatly  carved  and  fancifully  ornamented.'  Sauer,  Billings'  Ex.,  p.  160. 

133  '  On  avait  soin  de  le  disposer  de  maniere  a  ce  qu'il  ne  touchat  pas  la  terre. ' 
D'Orbiyny,  Voy.,  p.  579.     '  Embalm  the  bodiesof  the  men  with  dried  moss  and 
grass.'  Saner,  .Billings'  Ex.,  p.  161.    Slaves  sometimes  slaughtered.  Langsdorff's 

Voy.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  48.  'Bury  their  dead  on  the  summits  of  hills.'  Cook's  Third 
Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  521.  '  When  a  man  dies  in  the  hut  belonging  to  his  wife,  she 
retires  into  a  dark  hole,  where  she  remains  forty  days.  The  husband  pays  the 
same  compliment  to  his  favorite  wife  upon  her  death.'  Coxe's  Kuss.  Dis.,  p. 
218.  '  Die  Todten  werden  begraben,  und  man  giebt  dem  Mann  seinen  Kahn, 
Pfeile  und  Kleider  mit  ins  Grab.'  '  Die  Todten  umwinden  sie  rnit  Kiemen 
und  hangen  sie  in  einer  Art  holzerner  Wiege  an  einen  auf  zwey  Gabelen 
ruhenden  Querstock  in  der  Luft  auf.'  Neue  Nachr.,  pp.  101,  154. 


94  HYPERBOREANS. 

tops  gazing  at  the  sea  for  hours,  without  speaking  a  word. 
It  is  said  that  formerly  they  were  much  more  gay  and 
cheerful,  but  that  an  acquaintance  with  civilization  has 
been  productive  of  the  usual  misfortune  and  misery.134 

It  does  not  appear  that  the  Russians  were  behind  the 
Spaniards  in  their  barbarous  treatment  of  the  natives.135 
Notwithstanding  their  interest  lay  in  preserving  life,  and 
holding  the  natives  in  a  state  of  serfdom  as  fishers  and 
hunters,  the  poor  people  were  soon  swept  away.  Father 
Innocentius  Veniaminoff,  a  Russian  missionary  who  la 
bored  among  the  islanders  long  and  faithfully,  gives  them 
the  highest  character  for  probity  and  propriety.  Among 
other  things,  he  affirms  that  during  a  residence  of  ten 
years  in  Unalaska,  there  did  not  occur  a  bingle  fight 
among  the  natives.  Proselytes  were  made  by  the  Rus 
sians  with  the  same  facility  as  by  the  Spaniards.  Trib 
ute  was  levied  by  the  Russians  upon  all  the  islanders, 
but,  for  three  years  after  their  conversion,  neophytes  were 
exempt;  a  cheap  release  from  hateful  servitude,  thought 
the  poor  Aleut ;  and  a  polity  which  brought  into  the  folds 
of  the  church  pagan  multitudes. 

THE  THLINKEETS,  as  they  call  themselves,  or  Kolosches, 
as  they  are  designated  by  the  Russians,  inhabit  the  coast 
and  islands  from  Mount  St  Elias  to  the  river  Nass. 
The  name  Thlinkeet  signifies  '  man,'  or  i  human  being.' 

134  '  Naturellement  silencieux.'  D'Orbigny,  Voy.,  p.  578.     '  Sie  verrichten 
auch  die  Nothdurft  und  das  Ehegeschaft  ohne  alle  Scheu.'  Neue,  Nachr.,  p. 
150.     '  A  stupid  silence  reigns  among  them.'     '  I  am  persuaded  that  the  sim 
plicity  of  their  character  exceeds  that  of  any  other  people.'  Lisiansky's  Voy., 
pp.  182,  183.     'Kind-hearted  and  obliging,  submissive  and  careful;  but  if 
roused  to  anger,  they  become  rash  and  unthinking,  even  malevolent,    and  in 
different  to  all  danger.'  Langsdorff's  Voy.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  32.     '  To  all  appearance, 
they  are  the  most  peaceable,  inoffensive  people,  I  ever  met  with.    And,  as  to 
honesty,  they  might  serve  as  a  pattern  to  the  most  civilized  nation  upon  earth. ' 
Cook,  vol.  ii.,  p.  509. 

135  '  To  hunt  was  their  task;  to  be  drowned,  or  starved,  or  exhausted,  was 
their  reward.'  Simpson's  Jour.,  vol.ii.,  p.  229.     '  They  are  harmless,  wretched 
slaves,'  whose  race  will  soon  be  extinct.  Kotzebue's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  315.    The 
Russian  hunters  '  used  not  unfrequently  to  place  the  men  close  together,  and 
try  through  how  many  the  ball  of  their  rifle-barrelled  musket  would  pass.' 
Sauer,  Billing's  Ex.  App.,  p.  56.     '  Of  a  thousand  men,  who  formerly  lived  in 
this  spot,  scarcely  more  than  forty  remained.'  Langsdorff's  Voy.,  pt.  ii.,p.  235. 
'  La  variole,  la  syphilis,  voire  meme  le  cholera  depuis  quelques  annees,  en  em- 
portent  une  effrayante  quantiteV  Laplace,  Circumnav.,  vol    u.,  p.  51. 


THE  THLINKEETS.  95 

Kolosch,136  or  more  properly  Kaluga,  is  the  Aleutian 
word  for  i  dish,'  and  was  given  to  this  people  by  Aleut 
ian  seal-hunters  whom  the  Russians  employed  during 
their  first  occupation  of  the  Island  of  the  Sitkas.  Per 
ceiving  a  resemblance  in  the  shape  of  the  Thlinkeet  lip- 
ornament,  to  the  wooden  vessels  of  their  own  country, 
they  applied  to  this  nation  the  name  Kaluga,  whence 
the  Kolosches  of  the  Russians. 

Holmberg  carries  their  boundaries  down  to  the  Co 
lumbia  River;  and  Wrangell  perceives  a  likeness,  real 
or  imaginary,  to  the  Aztecs.137  Indeed  the  differences 
between  the  Thlinkeets  and  the  inhabitants  of  New  Cal 
edonia,  Washington,  and  Oregon,  are  so  slight  that  the 
whole  might  without  impropriety  be  called  one  people. 
The  Thlinkeets  have,  however,  some  peculiarities  not 
found  elsewhere;  they  are  a  nation  distinct  from  the 
Tinneh  upon  their  eastern  border,  and  I  therefore  treat 
of  them  separately. 

The  three  families  of  nations  already  considered, 
namely,  the  Eskimos,  the  Koniagas,  and  the  Aleuts,  are 
all  designated  by  most  writers  as  Eskimos.  Some  even 
include  the  Thlinkeets,  notwithstanding  their  physical 
and  philological  differences,  which,  as  well  as  their  tra 
ditions,  are  as  broadly  marked  as  those  of  nations  that 
these  same  ethnologists  separate  into  distinct  families. 
Nomadic  nations,  occupying  lands  by  a  precarious  tenure, 
with  ever-changing  boundaries,  engaged  in  perpetual  hos 
tilities  with  conterminous  tribes  that  frequently  annihi 
late  or  absorb  an  entire  community,  so  graduate  into  one 
another  that  the  dividing  line  is  often  with  difficulty  de 
termined.  Thus  the  Thlinkeets,  now  almost  universally 
held  to  be  North  American  Indians  proper,  and  distinct 
from  the  Eskimos,  possess,  perhaps,  as  many  affinities  to 
their  neighbors  on  the  north,  as  to  those  upon  the  south 
and  east.  The  conclusion  is  obvious.  The  native  races  of 
America,  by  their  geographical  position  and  the  climatic 

136  Kaluga,  Kaljush,  Koljush,  Kalusch,  Kolush,  Kolosch,  Kolosh,  Kolosches. 
Marchand  calls  them  Tchinkitane.    Voyage  aut.  du  Monde,  torn,  ii .,  p.  3. 
"7  See  Holmberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  pp.  15,  16. 


96  HYPEKBOKEANS. 

influences  which  govern  them,  are  of  necessity  to  a  cer 
tain  degree  similar;  while  a  separation  into  isolated 
communities  which  are  acted  upon  by  local  causes,  re 
sults  in  national  or  tribal  distinctions.  Thus  the  human 
race  in  America,  like  the  human  race  throughout  the 
world,  is  uniform  in  its  variety,  and  varied  in  its  unity. 

The  Thlinkeet  family,  commencing  at  the  north,  com-  • 
prises  the  Ugalenzes™8  on  the  shore  of  the  continent 
between  Mount  St  Elias  and  Copper  River;  the  Ya- 
Jcutats,  of  Bering  Bay;  the  Chilkats,  at  Lynn  Canal;  the 
Hoodnids,  at  Cross  Sound;  the  Uoodsinoos,  of  Chatham 
Strait;  and,  following  down  the  coast  and  islands,  the 
Taboos,  the  Auks,  the  Kakas,  the  Siikas™  the  Stfldnes™ 
and  the  Tangass.  The  Sitkas  on  Baranoff  Island141  are 
the  dominant  tribe. 

Descending  from  the  north  into  more  genial  climes,  the 
physical  type  changes,  and  the  form  assumes  more  grace 
ful  proportions.  With  the  expansion  of  nature  and  a 
freer  play  of  physical  powers,  the  mind  expands,  native 
character  becomes  intensified,  instinct  keener,  savage 
nature  more  savage,  the  nobler  qualities  become  more 
noble;  cruelty  is  more  cruel,  torture  is  elevated  into  an 
art,  stoicism  is  cultivated,142  human  sacrifice  and  human 
slavery  begin,  and  the  oppression  and  degradation  of 
woman  is  systematized.  "If  an  original  American  race 
is  accepted,"  says  Holmberg,  "  the  Thlinkeets  must  be 
classed  with  them."  They  claim  to  have  migrated  from 
the  interior  of  the  continent,  opposite  Queen  Charlotte 
Island. 

The  Ugalenzes  spend  their  winters  at  a  small  bay  east 

138  Ugalachmiuti,   Ugaljachmjuten,   Ugalyachmutzi,   Ugalukmutes,  Ugalenzi, 
Ugalenzen,  Ugalenzes. 

139  They  '  call  themselves  G-tinkit,  or  S-chinkit,  or  also  S-chitcha-chon, 
that  is,  inhabitants  of  Sitki  or  Sitcha.'  Langsdorff's  Foy.,  pt.  ii.,  128. 

140  The  orthographic  varieties  of  this  word  are  endless.     Stickeen,  Slekin, 
Stakhin,  Stachin,  Stikin,  Stachine,  Stikeen,  Stikine,  Stychine,  are  among  those 
before  me  at  the  moment. 

141  At  the  end  of  this  chapter,  under  Tribal  Boundaries,  the  location  of 
these  tribes  is  given  definitely. 

142  A.  Thlinkeet  boy,  '  when  under  the  whip,  continued  his  derision,  with 
out  once  exhibiting  the  slightest  appearance  of  suffering.'  Lisiansky's  Voy., 
p.  242. 


THLINKEET  PECULIAEITIES.  97 

from  Kadiak,  and  their  summers  near  the  mouth  of 
Copper  River,  where  they  take  fish  in  great  quantities. 
Their  country  also  abounds  in  beaver.  The  Chilkats 
make  two  annual  trading  excursions  into  the  interior. 
The  Tacully  tribes,  the  Sicannis  and  Nehannes,  with 
whom  the  Chilkats  exchange  European  goods  for  furs, 
will  allow  no  white  man  to  ascend  their  streams. 

Naturally,  the  Thlinkeets  are  a  fine  race ;  the  men  bet 
ter  formed  than  the  boatmen  of  the  north  ;143  the  women 
modest,  fair,  and  handsome;144  but  the  latter  have  gone 
far  out  of  their  wray  to  spoil  the  handiwork  of  nature. 
Not  content  with  daubing  the  head  and  body  with  filthy 
coloring  mixtures;  with  adorning  the  neck  with  copper- 
wire  collars,  and  the  face  with  grotesque  wooden  masks; 
with  scarring  their  limbs  and  breast  with  keen-edged 
instruments;  with  piercing  the  nose  and  ears,  and  filling 
the  apertures  with  bones,  shells,  sticks,  pieces  of  copper, 
nails,  or  attaching  thereto  heavy  pendants,  which  drag 
down  the  organs  and  pull  the  features  out  of  place ; 


115 


143  'Leur  corps  est  ramasse,  mais  assez  bien  proportioning'    Marcliand', 
Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  46.    '  Very  fierce.'  Portlock's  Voy.,  p.  201.    '  Limbs  straight 

and  well  shaped.'  Uixon's  Voy.,  p. ^71.  '  Stolze  gerade  Haltung.'  Hohnberg, 
Ethn.  tikiz.,  p.  16.  '  Active  and  clever.'  Lisiansky's  Voy.,  p.  237.  'Bigote  a 
manera  de  los  Chinos.'  Perez,  Nav.,  MS.  p.  14.  'Limbs  ill-proportioned.' 
Kotzeljue's  New  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  49.  '  Tres  superieurs  en  courage  et  en  intelli 
gence.'  La  Perouse,  Voy.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  54. 

144  The  women  '  are  pleasing  and  their  carriage  modest.'  Portlock's  Voy., 

6,  291.     When  washed,  white  and  fresh.  Dixon's  Voy.,  p.  171.      '  Dunkle 
autfarbe.'  Holmberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  16.      '  Eran  de  color  bianco  y  habia 
muchos  con  ojos  azules.'  Perez,  Nai\,  MS.  p.  14.     As  fair  as  many  Euro 
peans.  LangsdorfTs   Voy.,  pt.  ii..  p.  112.     'Muchos  de  ellos  de  un  bianco 
regular.'  Bodega  y  Quadra,  Ifav.,  MS.  p.  43. 

14i  'Leur  chevelure,  dure,  epaisse,  melee,  couverte  d'ocre,  de  duvet  d'oi- 
seaux,  et  de  toutes  les  ordures  que  la  negligence  et  le  temps  y  ont  accumulees, 
contribue  encore  a  rendre  leur  aspect  hideux.'  Marchand,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p. 
46.  'A  more  hideous  set  of  beings,  in  the  form  of  men  and  women,  I  had 
never  before  seen.'  Cleveland's  Voy.,  p.  91 .  The  men  painted  '  a  black  circle 
extending  from  the  forehead  to  the  mouth,  and  a  red  chin,  which  gave  the 
face  altogether  the  appearance  of  a  mask.'  Lisianksy's  Voy.,  p.  146.  '  Pour- 
raient  meme  passer  pour  jolies,  sans  1'horrible  habitude  qu'elles  ont  adoptee.' 
Laplace,  Circumnav.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  87.  '  That  person  seems  to  be  reckoned  the 
greatest  beau  amongst  them,  whose  face  is  one  entire  piece  of  smut  and  grease. ' 
Dixon's  Voy.,  p.  68.  '  Us  se  font  des  cicatrices  sur  les  bras  et  sur  la  poitrine .' 
La  Perouse,  Voy.,  torn.  ii..  p.  220.  '  Um  aus  dem  Gesichte  diese  fette  Farben- 
masse  abzuwaschen,  gebrauchen  sie  ihren  eignen  Urin,  und  dieser  verursacht 
bei  ihnen  den  widerlichen  Geruch,  der  den  sich  ihm  nahenden  Fremdling  fast 
zum  Erbrechen  bringt.'  Holmberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  20. 
VOL.  I.  7 


98  HYPEKB02EANS. 

they  appear  to  have  taxed  their  inventive  powers  to  the 
utmost,  and  with  a  success  unsurpassed  by  any  nation 
in  the  world ,  to  produce  a  model  of  hideous  beauty. 

This  success  is  achieved  in  their  wooden  lip-ornament, 
the  crowning  glory  of  the  Thlinkeet  matron,  described 
by  a  multitude  of  eye-witnesses;  and  the  ceremony  of 
its  introduction  may  be  not  inappropriately  termed,  the 
baptism  of  the  block.  At  the  age  of  puberty, — some  say 
during  infancy  or  childhood, — in  the  under  lip  of  all  free- 
born  female  Thlinkeets,146  a  slit  is  made  parallel  with  the 
mouth,  and  about  half  an  inch  below  it.147  If  the  incision 
is  made  during  infancy,  it  is  only  a  small  hole,  into  which 
:a  needle  of  copper,  a  bone,  or  a  stick  is  inserted,  the 
.size  being  increased  as  the  child  grows.  If  the  baptism 
is  deferred  until  the  period  when  the  maiden  merges 
into  womanhood,  the  operation  is  necessarily  upon  a 
larger  scale,  and  consequently  more  painful.148  When 

us  Meares,  Voyages,  p.  xxxi.,  states  that  at  Prince  William  Sound,  'the 
men  have  universally  a  slit  in  their  under  lip,  between  the  projecting  part  of 
the  lip  and  the  chin,  which  is  cut  parallel  with  their  mouths,  and  has  the  ap 
pearance  of  another  mouth.'  Worn  only  by  women.  Dixon's  Voy.,  p.  172. 

147  'About  three  tenths  of  an  inch  below  the  upper  part  of  the  under  lip.' 
Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  280.  '  In  the  centre  of  the  under-lip.'  Lanys- 
dorff's  Voy.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  115.  'Fendue  au  ras  des  gencives.'  La  Perouse,  Voy., 
torn,  ii.,  p.  224.  '  In  the  thick  part  near  the  mouth.'  Dixon's  Voy.,  p.  187. 
'  When  the  first  person  having  this  incision  was  seen  by  one  of  the  seamen, 
who  called  out,  that  the  man  had  two  mouths.'  Cook's  Third  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p. 
369.  '  In  their  early  infancy,  a  small  incision  is  made  in  the  center  of  the 
under  lip,  and  a  piece  of  brass  or  copper  wire  is  placed  in,  and  left  in  the 
wound.  This  corrodes  the  lacerated  parts,  and  by  consuming  the  flesh  grad 
ually  increases  the  orifice,  until  it  is  sufficiently  large  to  admit  the  wooden 
appendage.'  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  408.  'Les  femmes  de  Tchinki- 
tane  ont  cm  devoir  aj outer  a  leur  beaute  naturelle,  par  1'emploi  d'un  orne- 


aussitot  qu'elles  sont  nees.'  Id.,  torn.  iv..  p.  54.  'At  first  a  thick  wire.' 
Langsdorff's  Voy.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  115.  When  almost  marriageable.  Kotzebue's  New 
Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  51.  '  The  children  have  them  bored  at  about  two  years  of 
:age,  when  a  piece  of  copper-wire  is  put  through  the  hole;  this  they  wear  till 
the  age  of  aboiit  thirteen  or  fourteen  years,  when  it  is  taken  out,  and  the 
wooden  ornament  introduced.'  Portlock's  Voy.,  p.  289.  '  Said  to  denote  ma 
turity.'  Wliymper's  Alaska,  p.  100.  '  Se  percer  la  levre  inferieure  des  1'en- 
fance.'  'D'agrandir  peu  a  pen  cette  ouverture  au  point  de  pouvoir  jeune 
fille  y  introduire  une  coquille,  et  fernme  mariee  une  enorine  tasse  de  bois.' 
Laplace,  Circunmav.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  87.  '  Never  takes  place  during  their  in 
fancy.'  Dixon's  Voy.,  p.  187.  'When  the  event  takes  place  that  implies 
womanhood.'  Lisiansky's  Voy.,  p.  243.  '  Wenn  zum  ersten  Mai  beim  Mad- 


THLINKEET  LIP-ORNAMENT.  99 

the  incision  is  made,  a  copper  wire,  or  a  piece  of  shell 
or  wood,  is  introduced,  which  keeps  the  wound  open  and 
the  aperture  extended ;  and  by  enlarging  the  object  and 
keeping  up  a  continuous  but  painful  strain,  an  artificial 
opening  in  the  face  is  made  of  the  required  dimensions. 
On  attaining  the  age  of  maturity,  this  wire  or  other 
incumbrance  is  removed  and  a  block  of  wood  inserted. 
This  block  is  oval  or  elliptical  in  shape,  concaved  or 
hollowed  dish-like  on  the  sides,  and  grooved  like  the 
wheel  of  a  pulley  on  the  edge  in  order  to  keep  it  in 
place.149  The  dimensions  of  the  block  are  from  two  to  six 
inches  in  length,  from  one  to  four  inches  in  width,  and 
about  half  an  inch  thick  round  the  edge,  and  highly  pol 
ished.150  Old  age  has  little  terror  in  the  eyes  of  a  Thlin- 
keet  belle,  for  larger  lip-blocks  are  introduced  as  years 
advance,  and  each  enlargement  adds  to  the  lady's  social 
status,  if  not  to  her  facial  charms.  When  the  block  is 
withdrawn,  the  lip  drops  down  upon  the  chin  like  a  piece 
of  leather,  displaying  the  teeth,  and  presenting  altogether 

chen  sich  Spuren  der  Mannbarkeit  zeigen,  wird  ihre  Unterlippe  durch- 
stochen  und  in  diese  Oefl'nung  eine  Knochenspitze,  gegenwartig  dock  hau- 
figer  ein  Silberstift  gelegt.'  Hohnberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  21.  '  Pues  les  parecio 
que  solo  lo  tenian  los  casados.'  Perez,  Rav.,  MS.  p.  15. 

i*9  '  Concave  on  both  sides.'  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  280.  '  So  lange 
sie  unverheirathet  ist,  tragt  sie  diesen;  erha'lt  sie  aber  eiiien  Maun,  so  presst 
man  eiiien  grosseren  Schmuck  von  Holz  oder  Knochen  in  die  Oeffnung,  welcher 
nack  innen,  d.  h.  zur  Zahuseite  etwas  trogformig  ausgehohlt  ist.'  Hobiiberg, 
Eihn.  tikiz.,  p.  21.  '  Une  espece  d'ecuelle  de  bois  sans  anses  qui  appuie  con- 
tre  les  gencives.'  La  Perouse,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  224.  Pieces  of  shell  resem 
bling  teeth.  J/eares'  Voy.,  p.  xxxi. 

1M  '  As  large  as  a  large  saucer.'  Portlock's  Voy.,  p.  289.  'From  one  cor 
ner  of  the  mouth  to  the  other.'  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  280.  '  Frequently 
increased  to  thi-ee,  or  even  four  inches  in  length,  and  nearly  as  wide.'  Nixon's 

Voy.,  p.  187.  'A  comniunement  un  demi-pouce  d'epaisseur,  deux  de  dia- 
metre,  et  trois  pouces  de  long.'  La  Perouse,  Voy.  torn,  iv.,  p.  54.  'At 
least  seven  inches  in  circumference.'  Meares'  Voy.,  p.  xxxviii.  'Mit  den 
Jahren  wird  der  Schmuck  vergrossert,  so  dass  er  bei  einem  alten  Weibe  iiber 
2  Zoll  breit  angetroffen  wird. '  Holniberg,  Ethn.  tSkiz.,  p.  21.  From  two  to  five 
inches  long,  and  from  one  and  a  half  to  three  inches  broad.  Ladies  of  dis 
tinction  increase  the  size.  '  I  have  even  seen  ladies  of  very  high  rank  with 
this  ornament,  full  five  inches  long  and  three  broad.'  Mr  Dwolf  affirms  that 
he  saw  '  an  old  woman,  the  wife  of  a  chief,  whose  lip  ornament  was  so  large, 
that  by  a  peculiar  motion  of  her  under-lip  she  could  almost  conceal  her  whole 
face  with  it.'  '  Horrible  in  its  appearance  to  us  Europeans.'  Langsdorff's 

Voy.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  115.  '  Es  una  abertura  como  de  media  pulgada  debaxo  del 
labio  inferior,  que  representa  segunda  boca,  donde  colocan  una  especie  de 
roldana  elfptica  de  pino,  cuyo  diametro  mayor  es  de  dos  pulgadas,  quatro 
lineas,  y  el  menor  de  una  pulgada.'  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  p.  126. 


100  HYPEKBOKEANS. 

a  ghastly  spectacle.151  This  custom  is  evidently  associated 
in  their  minds  with  womanly  modesty,  for  when  La 
Perouse  asked  them  to  remove  their  block,  some  refused ; 
those  who  complied  manifesting  the  same  embarrassment 
shown  by  a  European  woman  who  uncovers  her  bosom. 
The  Yakutats  alone  of  all  the  Thlinkeet  nation  have 
never  adopted  this  fashion. 

Their  dress,  which  is  made  from  wolf,  deer,  bear,  or 
other  skin,  extends  from  the  shoulder  to  the  knee,  and 
consists  of  a  mantle,  or  cape,  with  sleeves,  which  reaches 
down  to  the  waist,  and  to  which  the  women  attach  a 
skirt,  or  gown,  and  the  men  a  belt  and  apron.  A  white 
blanket  is  made  from  the  wool  of  the  wild  sheep,  em 
broidered  with  figures,  and  fringed  with  furs,  all  of  native 
work.  This  garment  is  most  highly  prized  by  the  men. 
They  wear  it  thrown  over  the  shoulder  so  as  to  cover  the 
whole  body. 

Vancouver  thus  describes  the  dress  of  a  chief  at  Lynn 
Canal.  His  "  external  robe  was  a  very  fine  large  gar- 

!5i  « Une  enorme  tasse  de  bois,  destinee  a  recevoir  la  salive  qui  s'en  echappe 
constamment.'  Laplace,  Circumnav.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  87.  '  L'effet  de  cet  ornement 
est  de  rabattre,  par  le  poids  de  sa  partie  saillante  la  levre  inferieure  sur  le 
meiiton,  de  developper  les  charmes  d'nne  graiide  bouche  beante,  qui  prend 
la  forme  de  celle  d'un  four,  et  de  mettre  a  decouvert  line  rangee  de  dents 
jaunes  et  sales.'  Marchand,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  49.  '  She  is  obliged  to  be  con 
stantly  on  the  watch,  lest  it  should  fall  out,  which  would  cover  her  with  con 
fusion.'  Lisiansky's  Voy.,  p.  244.  '  The  weight  of  this  trencher  or  ornament 
weighs  the  lip  down  so  as  to  cover  the  whole  of  the  chin,  leaving  all  the 
lower  teeth  and  gum  quite  naked.'  Portlock's  Voy.,  p.  289.  '  L 'usage  le  plus 
revoltaiit  qui  existe  peut-etre  sur  la  terre.'  La  Perouse,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p. 
226.  'Always  in  proportion  to  a  person's  wealth.'  'Distorts  every  feature 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  face.'  Dixon's  Voy.,  p.  68,  172.  'In  running 
the  lip  flaps  up  and  down  so  as  to  knock  sometimes  against  the  chin  and 
sometimes  against  the  nose.  Upon  the  continent  the  kaluga  is  worn  still 
larger;  and  the  female  who  can  cover  her  whole  face  with  her  under-lip 
passes  for  the  most  perfect  beauty/  '  The  lips  of  the  women  held  out  like  a 
trough,  and  always  filled  with  saliva  stained  with  tobacco-juice,  of  which 
they  are  immoderately  fond,  is  the  most  abominably  revolting  part  of  the 
spectacle.'  Kotzebue's  New  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  52.  'Dadnrch  ensteht  eine  im 
selbigen  Maasse  ausgedehnte  Lippe,  die  hoehst  widerlich  aussieht,  um  so 
mehr,  da  sich  nun  mehr  der  Mtind  iiicht  schliessen  kann,  sondern  unauf- 
horlich  einen  bnmnen  Tabaksspeichel  voii  sich  gibt.'  Holiuberg,  Ethn.  tikiz., 
p.  21.  '  So  distorts  the  face  as  to  take  from  it  almost  the  resemblance  to  the 
human;  yet  the  privilege  of  wearing  this  ornament  is  not  extended  to  the 
female  slaves,  who  are  prisoners  taken  in  war.'  Cleveland's  Voy.,  p.  91.  '  Look 
as  if  they  had  large  flat  wooden  spoons  growing  in  the  flesh.'  Langsdorff's 
Voy.,  pt.  ii.  p.  115.  *  The  sight  is  hideous.  Our  men  used  jocosely  to  say, 
this  lower  lip  would  make  a  good  slab  to  lay  their  trousers  on  to  be  scrubbed.' 


DKESS  OF  THE  THLINKEETS.  101 

ment,  that  reached  from  his  neck  down  to  his  heels, 
made  of  wool  from  the  mountain  sheep,  neatly  varie 
gated  with  several  colors,  and  edged  and  otherwise  dec 
orated  with  little  tufts  or  frogs  of  woolen  yarn,  dyed  of 
various  colors.  His  head-dress  was  made  of  wood,  much 
resembling  in  its  shape  a  crown,  adorned  with  bright 
copper  and  brass  plates,  from  whence  hung  a  number  of 
tails  or  streamers,  composed  of  wool  and  fur,  wrought 
together,  dyed  of  various  colors,  and  each  terminating 
in  a  whole  ermine  skin.  The  whole  exhibited  a  mag 
nificent  appearance,  and  indicated  a  taste  for  dress  and 
ornament  that  we  had  not  supposed  the  natives  of  these 
regions  to  possess." 

The  men  make  a  wooden  mask,  which  rests  on  a  neck 
piece,  very  ingeniously  carved,  and  painted  in  colors,  so 
as  to  represent  the  head  of  some  bird  or  beast  or  myth 
ological  being.  This  was  formerly  worn  in  battle,  prob 
ably,  as  La  Pe rouse  suggests,  in  order  to  strike  terror  into 
the  hearts  of  enemies,  but  is  now  used  only  on  festive 
occasions.152 

A  small  hat  of  roots  and  bark,  woven  in  the  shape  of 
a  truncated  cone,  ornamented  with  painted  figures  and 
pictures  of  animals,  is  worn  by  both  sexes.153  Ordinarily, 
however,  the  men  wear  nothing  on  the  head ;  their  thick 
hair,  greased  and  covered  with  ochre  and  birds'  down, 
forming  a  sufficient  covering.  The  hat  is  designed  espe 
cially  for  rainy  weather,  as  a  protection  to  the  elaborately 

Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  277.  '  On  ne  connait  point  d'explication  plausible  de  cette 
mutilation,  qui,  chez  les  Indiens,  passe  pour  un  sigiie  de  noblesse.'  Mofras, 
Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  336. 

152  'Die  Maunertracht  unterscheidet  sich  in  Nichts  von  der  der  Weiber;  sie 
besteht  uamlich  aus  eiuem  bis  zu  den  Kuieen  gehenden  Hemde.'  Ilolmberg, 
Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  18.  Some  of  their  blankets  '  are  so  curiously  worked  on  one 
side  with  the  fur  of  the  sea-otter,  that  they  appear  as  if  lined  with  it.'  '  Some 
dress  themselves  in  short  pantaloons.'  Lisiansky's  Voy.,  p.  238.  'Las  mu- 
geres  visten  houestameute  uua  especie  de  tunica  interior  de  piel  sobada.'  Sutil 
y  Mexicana,  Viage,  p.  cxvii.  '  Se  vestian  las  mugeres  tunicas  de  pieles  ajusta- 
das  al  cuerpo  con  brazaletes  de  cobre  o  hierro. '  Perez,  Nav.,  MS.  p.  15.  '  Usual 
clothing  consists  of  a  little  apron. '  Kotzebue's  New  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  49.  '  Their 
feet  are  always  bare.'  Lanysdorff's  Voy.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  114. 

li3  '  Usan  sombreros  de  la  cbrteza  interior  del  pino  en  forma  de  cono  trun- 
cado.'  Siitil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  p.  cxvii.  Their  wooden  masks  '  are  so  thick, 
that  a  musket-ball,  fired  at  a  moderate  distance,  can  hardly  penetrate  them.' 
Jjisiansky's  Voy.,  p.  150. 


102  HYPERBOKEANS. 

dressed  hair.154    Besides  their  every-day  dress,  they  have 
a  fantastic  costume  for  tribal  holidays. 

For  their  winter  habitations,  a  little  back  from  the 
ocean,  the  Thlinkeets  build  substantial  houses  of  plank 
or  logs,  sometimes  of  sufficient  strength  to  serve  as  a 
fortress.  They  are  six  or  eight  feet  in  height,  the  base 
in  the  form  of  a  square  or  parallelogram,  the  roof  of 
poles  placed  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  and  cov 
ered  with  bark.  The  entrance  is  by  a  small  side  door. 
The  fire,  which  is  usually  kept  burning  night  and  day, 
occupies  the  centre  of  the  room;  over  it  is  a  smoke- 
hole  of  unusual  size,  and  round  the  sides  of  the  room 
are  apartments  or  dens  which  are  used  as  store-houses, 
sweat-houses,  and  private  family  rooms.  The  main  room 
is  very  public  and  very  filthy.155  Summer  huts  are  light 
portable  buildings,  thrown  up  during  hunting  excursions 
in  the  interior,  or  on  the  sea-beach  in  the  fishing-season. 
A  frame  is  made  of  stakes  driven  into  the  ground,  sup 
porting  a  roof,  and  the  whole  covered  with  bark,  or  with 
green  or  dry  branches,  and  skins  or  bark  over  all.  The 
door  is  closed  by  bark  or  a  curtain  of  skins.  Each  hut 

154  Pluck  out  their  beard.  Langsdorff's  Voy.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  112.      'Us  ont  de 
la  barbe,  nioius  a  la  verite  que  les  Europeens,  niais  assez  cependant  pour  qu'il 
soit  impossible  d'en  douter.'  La  Perouse,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  229.     '  The  women 
in  general  are  hair-dressers  for  their  husbands.'  Portlock's  Voy.,  p.  290. 

155  '  Der  Eingang,  ziemlich  hoch  von  der  Erde,  besteht  aus  einem  kleinen. 
nmden  Loche.'  Jlolmbery,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  25.    '  Us  se  construisent  des  maisons 
de  bois  ou  de  terre  pour  1'hiver.'  Laplace,  Circiunnav.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  87.     '  The 
barabaras  of  the  Sitcan  people  are  of  a  square  form,  and  spacious.    The  sides 
are  of  planks;  and  the  roof  resembles  that  of  a  Eussian  house.'  Lisiansky's 
Voy.,  p.  239.     '  Habitan  estos  Indies  en  chozas  6  raiicherias  de  tablas  muy 
desabrigadas.'  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  p.  cxvi.    At  Sitka  the  roof  'rests  upon 
ten  or  twelve  thick  posts  driven  into  the  ground,  and  the  sides  of  the  house  are 
composed  of  broad  thick  planks  fastened  to  the  same  posts. '  Lanysdorff's  Voy., 


boards,  which  they  take  away  with  them  when  they  go  to  their  winter  quarters. 
It  is  very  surprising  to  see  how  well  they  will  shape  their  boards  with  the 
shocking  tools  they  employ;  some  of  them  being  full  10  feet  long,  2%  feet 
broad,  and  not  more  than  an  inch  thick.'  Portlock's  Voy., p.  292.  '  High,  large, 
and  roomy,  built  of  wood,  with  the  hearth  in  the  middle,  and  the  sides  divided 
into  as  many  compartments  as  there  are  families  living  under  the  roof. '  Rich 
ardson's  Jour.,  vol.  i.,  p.  410.  '  Lebt  in  Schoppen  aus  Balken  gebaut,  wo 
an  den  Seiten  fur  jede  Familie  besondere  Platze  abgetheilt  sind,  in  der  Mitte 
aber  Feuer  fiir  alle  zusammen  angemacht  wird.  So  pflegen  gemeiniglich  2 
bis  6  Familien  eine  einzige  Scheune  einzunehmen.'  £aer's  Ethn.  u.  Stat.,  p.  97. 


FOOD  OF  THE  THLINKEETS.  103 

is  the  rendezvous  for  a  small  colony,  frequently  cover 
ing  twenty  or  thirty  persons,  all  under  the  direction  of 
one  chief.156 

The  food  of  the  Thlinkeets  is  derived  principally  from 
the  ocean,  and  consists  of  fish,  mussels,  sea-weeds,  and 
in  fact  whatever  is  left  upon  the  beach  by  the  ebbing 
tide — which  at  Sitka  rises  and  falls  eighteen  feet  twice 
a  day — or  can  be  caught  by  artificial  means.  Holmberg 
says  that  all  but  the  Yakutats  hate  whale  as  the  Jews 
hate  pork.  Roots,  grasses,  berries,  and  snails  are  among 
their  summer  luxuries.  They  chew  a  certain  plant  as 
some  chew  tobacco,  mixing  with  it  lime  to  give  it  a 
stronger  effect,157  and  drink  whale-oil  as  a  European 
drinks  beer.  Preferring  their  food  cooked,  they  put  it 
in  a  tight  wicker  basket,  pouring  in  water,  and  throw 
ing  in  heated  stones,  until  the  food  is  boiled.158  For 

156  « Vingt-cinq  pieds  cle  long  sur  quinze  a  vingt  pieds  de  large. '  La  Perouse, 
Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  220.    '  Roof  in  the  whole  with  the  bark  of  trees. '  Kotzebue's  New 
Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  53.     'Las  casas  en  que  estos  habitaii  en  las  playas  son  de 

poca  consideraciou  y  niuguua  subsistencia.'  Bodeya  y  Quadra,  Nav.,  MS.  p. 
49.  '  A  few  poles  stuck  in  the  ground,  without  order  or  regularity.'  JJixon's 
Voy.,  p.  172.  '  Gebaude  besteht  aus  langeii,  sorgfaltig  behauenen  Brettern, 
die  kartenhausartig  iiber  eiiiander  gestellt,  an  zahlreicheu  in  die  Erde  ge- 
steckten  Stangen  befestigt,  recht  eigentlich  ein  holzernes  Zelt  bilden.  Es 
hat  die  Form  einer  langlichen  Barake  init  zwei  Giebeln.'  Kittlltz,  Reise,  vol.  i., 
pp.  220,  221. 

157  All  kinds  of  fish;  '  such  as  salmon,  mussels,  and  various  other  shell-fish, 
sea-otters,  seals  and  porpoises;  the  blubber  of  the  porpoise,  they  are  remark 
ably  fond  of,  and  indeed  the  flesh  of  any  animal  that  comes  in  their  way.' 
Portlocfc's  Voy. ,  p.  290.    '  Vom  Meere,  an  dessen  Ufern sie  sich  stets  ansiedeln, 
erhalten  sie  ihre  hauptsachlichste  Nahrung;  einige  Wurzeln,  Graser  u.  Beer- 
en  gehoren  nur  zu  den  Leckerbissen  des  Somraers.'  Holmbtn/,  Ethn.  tikiz.,  p. 
22.     Cakes  made  of  bark  of  spruce-fir,  mixed  with  roots,  berries,  and  train- 
oil.     For  salt  they  use  sea-water.     Never  eat  whale-fat.  Lanqsdorff's   Voy., 

§t.  ii.,  p.  131.  At  Sitka,  summer  food  consists  of  berries,  fresh  fish,  and 
esh  of  amphibious  animals.  Winter  food,  of  dried  salmon,  train-oil,  and 
the  spawn  of  fish,  especially  herrings.  Lisiansky's  Voy.,  p.  239.  '  Sus  ali- 
mentos  se  reducen  a  pescado  cocido  6  asado  ya  fresco  6  ya  seco,  varias  hier- 
bas  y  raizes.'  Bodega  y  Quadra,  Nav.,  MS.  p.  50.  They  chew  'a  plant  which 
appears  to  be  a  species  of  tobacco.'  Dixon's  Voy.,  p.  175.  '  Sont  converts 
de  vermine ;  ils  font  une  chasse  assidue  a  ces  animaux  devorans,  mais  pour  les 
devorer  eux-memes.'  Marchand,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  52.  'Tagliche  Nahrung 
der  Einwohner — sind  haupsachtlich  Fische,  doch  ha'ufig  auch  Mollusken  und 
Echinodermen.'  Kittlitz,  Reise,  vol.  i.,  p.  222. 

158  'Le  poisson  frais  ou  fume,  les  ceufs  seches  de  poisson.'  Marchand, 
Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  62.     '  Is  sometimes  cooked  upon  red-hot  stones,  but  more 
commonly  eaten  raw.'  Kotzebue's  New  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  53.     '  Not  so  expert 
in  hunting  as  the  Aleutians.     Their  principal  mode  is  that  of  shooting  the 
sea  animals  as  they  lie  asleep.'  Lisiansky's   Voy.,  p.  242.     They  boil  their 
Victuals  in  wooden  vessels,  by  constantly  putting  red-hot  stones  into  the 


104  HYPEKBOKEANS. 

winter,  they  dry  large  quantities  of  herring,  roes,  and 
the  liesh  of  animals. 

For  catching  fish,  they  stake  the  rivers,  and  also  use 
a  hook  and  line ;  one  fisherman  casting  from  his  canoe 
ten  or  fifteen  lines,  with  bladders  for  floats.  For  herring, 
they  fasten  to  the  end  of  a  pole  four  or  five  pointed  bones, 
and  with  this  instrument  strike  into  a  shoal,  spearing  a 
fish  on  every  point.  They  sometimes  make  the  same  in 
strument  in  the  shape  of  a  rake,  and  transfix  the  fish  with 
the  teeth.  The  Sitkas  catch  halibut  with  large,  wooden, 
bone-pointed  hooks.159 

The  arms  of  the  Thlinkeets  denote  a  more  warlike 
people  than  any  we  have  hitherto  encountered.  Bows 
and  arrows ;  hatchets  of  flint,  and  of  a  hard  green  stone 
which  cuts  wood  so  smoothly  that  no  marks  of  notches 
are  left;  great  lances,  six  or  eight  varas  in  length,  if 
Bodega  y  Quadra  may  be  trusted,  hardened  in  the  fire  or 
pointed  with  copper,  or  later  with  iron;  a  large,  broad, 
double-ended  dagger,  or  knife, — are  their  principal  weap 
ons.  The  knife  is  their  chief  implement  and  constant 
companion.  The  handle  is  nearer  one  end  than  the 
other,  so  that  it  has  a  long  blade  and  a  short  blade,  the 
latter  being  one  quarter  the  length  of  the  former.  The 
handle  is  covered  with  leather,  and  a  strap  fastens  it 
to  the  hand  when  fighting.  Both  blades  have  leathern 
sheaths,  one  of  which  is  suspended  from  the  neck  by  a 
strap.160 

water.  Portlock's  Voy.,  p.  291.  '  Das  Kochen  geschieht  jetzt  in  eisernen  Kes- 
seln,  vor  der  Bekanntschaft  mit  den  Kussen  aber  wurden  dazu  aus  Wurzeln 
geflochtene  Kiirbe  angewandt.  Holmbery,  Ethn,  tikiz.,  p.  23. 

159  To  their  fishing  lines,  bladders  are  fastened,  'which  float  upon  the  surf  ace 
of  the  water,  so  that  one  person  can  attend  to  fourteen  or  fifteen  lines. '  Langs- 
dorff's  Voy.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  134.  '  Us  pechent,  comine  nous,  en  barrant  les  rivieres, 
on  a  la  ligne.'  La  Perouse,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  232.  '  For  taking  the  spawn,  they 
use  the  branches  of  the  pine-tree,  to  which  it  easily  adheres,  and  on  which 
it  is  afterwards  dried.  It  is  then  put  into  baskets,  or  holes  purposely  dug  in 
the  ground,  till  wanted.'  Lisiansky's  Voy,,  p.  239.  '  Su  comun  alimento  es 
el  salmon,  yes  ingenioso  el  metodo  que  tienen  de  pescarle.'  Sutily  Mexicana, 
Vuige,  p.  cxvii.  'Their  lines  are  very  strong,  being  made  of  the  sinews  or 
intestines  of  animals.'  Dixon's  Voy.,  p.  174.  '  Die  Kiesenbutte,  die  in  Sitcha 
bisweilen  ein  Gewicht  von  10  bis  12  Pud  erreicht,  wird  aus  der  Tiefe  mit  gros- 
sen  holzernen  Angeln,  die  mit  Widerhaken  aus  Eisen  oder  Knochen  versehen 
sind,  herausgezogen.  Die  Angelschnur  besteht  aus  an  einander  geknupften 
Fucusstangeln.'  Holmberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  32. 

leo  <  Bows  and  arrows  were  formerly  their  only  weapons;  now,  besides  their 


THE  THLINKEETS  IN  WAR.  105 

They  also  encase  almost  the  entire  body  in  a  wooden 
and  leathern  armor.  Their  helmets  have  curiously 
carved  vizors,  with  grotesque  representations  of  beings 
natural  or  supernatural,  which,  when  brilliantly  or  dis 
mally  painted,  and  presented  with  proper  yells,  and 
brand  ishings  of  their  ever-glittering  knives,  are  supposed 
to  strike  terror  into  the  heart  of  their  enemies.  They 
make  a  breast- plate  of  wood,  and  an  arrow-proof  coat  of 
thin  flexible  strips,  bound  with  strings  like  a  woman's 
stays.161 

When  a  Thlinkeet  arms  for  war,  he  paints  his  face 
and  powders  his  hair  a  brilliant  red.  He  then  .orna 
ments  his  head  with  W7hite  eagle-feathers,  a  token  of 
stern,  vindictive  determination.  During  war  they  pitch 
their  camp  in  strong  positions,  and  place  the  women  on 
guard.  Trial  by  combat  is  frequently  resorted  to,  not 
only  to  determine  private  disputes,  but  to  settle  quar 
rels  between  petty  tribes.  In  the  latter  case,  each  side 
chooses  a  champion,  the  warriors  place  themselves  in 

muskets,  they  have  daggers,  and  knives  half  a  yard  long.'  Kotzebue's  New 


Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  55.  Their  weapons  were  bows,  arrows,  and  spears.  Dixon's 
Voy.,  p.  67.  '  Leur  lances  dont  1'ancieune  forme  n'est  pas  connue,  est  a 
present  coinposee  de  deux  pieces:  de  la  hampe,  loiigue  de  quinze  on  dix- 
huit  pieds,  et  du  fer  qui  lie  le  cede  en  rien  a  celui  de  la  hallebarde  de  parade 
dont  etoit  arme  un  Suisse  de  paroisse.'  Marchand,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  68. 
Knives,  some  two  feet  long,  shaped  almost  like  a  dagger,  with  a  ridge  in  the 
middle.  Worn  in  skin  sheaths  hung  by  a  thoug  to  the  neck  under  their 
robe,  probably  used  only  as  weapons.  Cook's  Third  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  373. 
'  Las  armas  of eiisivas  que  generalmente  usan  son  las  flechas,  lanzas  de  seis  y 
ocho  varas  de  largo  con  lenguetas  de  fierro.'  Bodega  y  Quadra,  Nav.,  MS.  p. 
46.  '  The  daggers  used  in  battle  are  made  to  stab  with  either  end,  having 
three,  four  or  five  inches  above  the  hand  tapered  to  a  sharp  point;  but  the 
upper  part  of  those  used  in  the  Sound  and  River  is  excurvated.'  Port- 
lock's  Voy.,  p.  261.  '  Principally  bows  and  arrows.'  Lanysdorff' s  Voy.,  pt.  ii., 
p.  131.  '  Sus  armas  se  reducen  al  arco,  la  flecha  y  el  punal  que  traeu  siempre 
consigo.'  tiutil  y  Mexicana,  Viaye,  p.  cxvii.  'Comme  nous  examinioiis  tres- 
dttentivenient  tous  ces  poigiiards,  ils  nous  firent  signe  qu'ils  n'en  faisaient 
usage  que  coiitre  les  ours  et  les  autres  betes  des  forets.'  La  Perouse,  Voy., 
torn,  ii.,  p.  172.  '  Der  Dolch  ist  sehr  breit  uiid  hat  zwei  geschliffeiie  Blatter 
auf  jeder  Seite  des  Griffes,  das  obere  jedoch  nur  ein  Viertel  von  der  La'nge 
des  untereii.'  '  Beide  Blatter  oder  Klingen  sind  mit  ledernen  Scheiden  ver- 
sehen.'  Holmberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  28. 

161  '  A  kind  of  jacket,  or  coat  of  mail,  made  of  thin  laths,  bound  together 
with  sinews,  which  makes  it  quite  flexible,  though  so  close  as  not  to  admit 
an  arrow  or  dart.'  Cook's  Third  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  372.  '  Fiir  den  Krieg  be- 
sitzen  die  Kaloschenauchvon  Holz  gearbeitete  Schutzwaffen :  Brustharnische, 
Sturmhaubeii  und  seltsam  geschnitzte  Visire,  mit  grellen  Farben  bemalte 
Fratzengesichter  darstellen.'  Kittlitz,  Eeise,  vol.  i.,  p.  216. 


106  HYPEBBOBEANS. 

battle  array,  the  combatants  armed  with  their  favorite 
weapon,  the  dagger,  and  well  armored,  step  forth  and 
engage  in  fight;  while  the  people  on  either  side  engage 
in  song  and  dance  during  the  combat.  Wrangell  and 
Laplace  assert  that  brave  warriors  killed  in  battle  are 
devoured  by  the  conquerors,  in  the  belief  that  the  brav 
ery  of  the  victim  thereby  enters  into  the  nature  of  the 
partaker.102 

Coming  from  the  north,  the  Thiinkeets  are  the  first 
people  of  the  coast  who  use  wooden  boats.  They  are 
made  from  a  single  trunk ;  the  smaller  ones  about  fifteen 
feet  long,  to  carry  from  ten  to  twelve  persons;  and  the 
larger  ones,  or  war  canoes,  from  fifty  to  seventy  feet 
long;  these  will  carry  forty  or  fifty  persons.  They  have 
from  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  beam ;  are  sharp  fore 
and  aft,  and  have  the  bow  and  stern  raised,  the  former 
rather  more  than  the  latter.  Being  very  light  and  well 
modeled,  they  can  be  handled  with  ease  and  celerity. 
Their  paddles  are  about  four  feet  in  length,  with  crutch- 
like  handles  and  wide,  shovel-shaped  blades.  Boats  as 
well  as  paddles  are  ornamented  with  painted  figures, 
and  the  family  coat-of-arms.  Bodega  y  Quadra,  in  con 
tradiction  to  all  other  authorities,-  describes  these  canoes 
as  being  built  in  three  parts;  with  one  hollowed  piece, 
which  forms  the  bottom  and  reaches  well  up  the  sides, 
and  with  two  side  planks.  Having  hollowed  the  trunk 
of  a  tree  to  the  required  depth,  the  Thlinkeet  builders 
fill  it  with  water,  which  they  heat  with  hot  stones  to 
soften  the  wood,  and  in  this  state  bend  it  to  the  desired 
shape.  When  they  land,  they  draw  their  boats  up  on 
the  beach,  out  of  reach  of  the  tide,  and  take  great  care 
in  preserving  them.103 

162  "They  never  attack  their  enemies  openly.'  Kotzebue's  New'Voy.,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  55.     '  Les  guerriers  tues  on  faits  prisonniers  a  la  gnerre,  passent  egale- 
ment  sous  la  dent  de  leurs  vainqnenrs  qui,  en  devorant  une  proie  aussi  dis- 
tinguee,  croient  y  puiser  de  nouvelles  forces,  une  nouvelle  energie.'  Laplace, 
Circiimnav.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  155. 

163  <  Bien  hechas  de  una  pieza  con  su  falca  sobre  las  bordas.'  Perez,  JVau., 
MS.  p.  17.     'On  n'est  pas  moins  etonne  de  leur  stabilite:  malgre  la  legerete 
et  le  pen  de  largeur  de  la  coque,  elles  n'ont  pas  besoin  d'etre  soutenues  par 
des  talanciers,  et  jamais  on  ne  les  accouple.'  Marchand,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  72. 


INDUSTRIES  OF  THE  THLINKEETS.  107 

The  Thlinkeets  manifest  no  less  ingenuity  in  the  man 
ufacture  of  domestic  and  other  implements  than  in  their 
arms.  Rope  they  make  from  sea- weed,  water-tight  bask 
ets  and  mats  from  withes  and  grass;  and  pipes,  bowls, 
and  figures  from  a  dark  clay.  They  excel  in  the  work 
ing  of  stone  and  copper,  making  necklaces,  bracelets,  and 
rings ;  they  can  also  forge  iron.  They  spin  thread,  use  the 
needle,  and  make  blankets  from  the  white  native  wool. 
They  exhibit  considerable  skill  in  carving  and  painting, 
ornamenting  the  fronts  of  their  houses  with  heraldic 
symbols,  and  allegorical  and  historical  figures;  while  in 
front  of  the  principal  dwellings,  and  on  their  canoes,  are 
carved  parts  representing  the  human  face,  the  heads  of 
crows,  eagles,  sea-lions,  and  bears.104  La  Perouse  asserts 
that,  except  in  agriculture,  which  was  not  entirely  un 
known  to  them,  the  Thlinkeets  were  farther  advanced  in 
industry  than  the  South  Sea  Islanders. 

Trade  is  carried  on  between  Europeans  and  the  in 
terior  Indians,  in  which  no  little  skill  is  manifested. 

'  Las  regulares  canoas  de  que  se  sirven  son  de  pino,  y  no  tienen  mas  capaci- 
dad  que  la  que  basta  para  contener  una  familia,  sin  embargo  que  las  hay  su- 
mamente  grandes. '  .Bode/jay  Quadra,  Nav.,  MS.  p.  48.  '  Rudely  excavated  and 
reduced  to  no  particular  shape,  but  each  end  has  the  resemblance  of  a  butcher's 
tray.'  Dixon's  Voy.,  p.  173.  '  Their  canoes  are  much  inferior  to  those  of  the 
lower  coast,  while  their  skin  "  baidarkes  "  (kyacks)  are  not  equal  to  those 
of  Norton  Sound  and  the  northern  coast.'  Whymper's  Alaska,  p.  101.  At 
Cook's  Inlet,  '  their  canoes  are  sheathed  with  the  bark  of  trees.'  Llsiansky's 
Voy.,  p.  188.  These  canoes  '  were  made  from  a  solid  tree,  and  many  of  them 
appeared  to  be  from  50  to  70  feet  in  length,  but  very  narrow,  being  no 
broader  than  the  tree  itself.'  Meares1  Voy.,  p.  xxxviii.  '  Their  boat  was  the 
body  of  a  large  pine  tree,  neatly  excavated,  and  tapered  away  towards  the 
ends,  until  they  came  to  a  point,  and  the  fore-part  somewhat  higher  than  the 
after-part;  indeed,  the  whole  was  finished  in  a  neat  and  very  exact  manner.' 
Portlock's  Voy.,  p.  259. 

164  '  Qnt  fait  beaucoup  plus  de  progres  dans  les  arts  que  dans  la  morale.' 
La  Perouse,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  233.  Thlinkeet  women  make  baskets  of  bark  of 
trees,  and  grass,  that  will  hold  water.  langsdorff's  Voy.,  p.  ii.,  p.  132.  They 
have  tolerable  ideas  of  carving,  most  utensils  having  sculptures,  representing 
some  animal.  Portlock's  Voy.,  p.  294.  'Ces  peintures,  ces  sculptures,  telles 
qu'elles  sont,  on  en  voit  sur  tous  leurs  meubles.'  Marchand,  Voy.,  torn,  ii., 
p.  71.  '  De  la  vivacidad  de  su  genio  y  del  afecto  al  canibio  se  debe  inferir 
son  bastantemente  laboriosos.'  Bodega  y  Quadra,  Nav.,  MS.  p.  48.  *  Tienen 
lana  blanca  cuya  especie  ignoraron.'  Perez,  Nav.,  MS.  p.  16.  'Masks  very 
ingeniously  cut  in  wood,  and  painted  with  different  colors.'  A  rattle,  '  very 
well  finished,  both  as  to  sculpture  and  painting.'  '  One  might  suppose  these 
productions  the  work  of  a  people  greatly  advanced  in  civilization.'  Lisiansky's 
Voy.,  pp.  150,  241.  'Found  some  square  patches  of  ground  in  a  state  of 
cultivation,  producing  a  plant  that  appeared  to  be  a  species  of  tobacco.'  Van 
couver's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  256. 


108  HYPERBOREANS. 

Every  article  which  they  purchase  undergoes  the  closest 
scrutiny,  and  every  slight  defect,  which  they  are  sure  to 
discover,  sends  down  the  price.  In  their  commercial 
intercourse  they  exhibit  the  utmost  decorum,  and  con 
duct  their  negotiations  with  the  most  becoming  dignity. 
Nevertheless,  for  iron  and  beads  they  willingly  part  with 
anything  in  their  possession,  even  their  children.  In 
the  voyage  of  Bodega  y  Quadra,  several  young  Thlin- 
keets  thus  became  the  property  of  the  Spaniards,  as  the 
author  piously  remarks,  for  purposes  of  conversion.  Sea- 
otter  skins  circulate  in  place  of  money.165 

The  office  of  chief  is  elective,  and  the  extent  of  power 
wielded  depends  upon  the  ability  of  the  ruler.  In  some 
this  authority  is  nominal ;  others  become  great  despots.166 
Slavery  was  practiced  to  a  considerable  extent ;  and  not 
only  all  prisoners  of  war  were  slaves,  but  a  regular  slave- 
trade  was  carried  on  with  the  south.  When  first  known 
to  the  Russians,  according  to  Holmberg,  most  of  their 
slaves  were  Flatheads  from  Oregon.  Slaves  are  not 
allowed  to  hold  property  or  to  marry,  and  when  old  and 
worthless  they  are  killed.  Kotzebue  says  that  a  rich 
man  a  purchases  male  and  female  slaves,  who  must 
labor  and  fish  for  him,  and  strengthen  his  force  when  he 
is  engaged  in  warfare.  The  slaves  are  prisoners  of  war, 
and  their  descendants;  the  master's  power  over  them  is 
unlimited,  and  he  even  puts  them  to  death  without 
scruple.  When  the  master  dies,  two  slaves  are  mur 
dered  on  his  grave  that  he  may  not  want  attendance  in 
the  other  world ;  these  are  chosen  long  before  the  event 

165  '  The  skins  of  the  sea-otters  form  their  principal  wealth,  and  are  a  sub 
stitute  for  money.'  Kotzebue' 's  New  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  54.  '  In  one  place  they 
discovered  a  considerable  hoard  of  woolen  cloth,  and  as  much  dried  fish  as 
would  have  loaded  150  bidarkas.'  Lisiansky's  Voy.,  p.  160. 

iG6  '  Le  Gouvernement  des  Tchinkitaneens  paroitroit  done  se  rapprocher 
da  Gouvernement  patriarchal.'  Marchand,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  83.  '  De  su 
gobierno  pensamos  cuando  mas,  oiendo  el  modo  de  someterse  a  algunos  vie- 
jos,  seria  oligarhico.'  Bodega  y  Quadra,  Nau.,  MS.  p.  50.  '  Though  the  toyons 
have  power  over  their  subjects,  it  is  a  very  limited  power,  unless  when  an 
individual  of  extraordinary  abilities  starts  up,  who  is  sure  to  rule  despotically.' 
Lisiansky's  Voi/.,  p.  243.  '  Chaque  famille  semble  vivre  d'une  maniere  isolee 
et  avoir  un  regime  pavticulier. '  L  i  'I'eroiise,  Voy.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  61.  '  Ces  Con- 
seils  composes  des  vieillards.'  Laplace,  Circunmao.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  155. 


CASTE  AND  CLANSHIP.  109 

occurs,  but  meet  the  destiny  that  awaits  them  very  phil 
osophically."  Simpson  estimates  the  slaves  to  be  one  third 
of  the  entire  population.  Interior  tribes  enslave  their 
prisoners  of  war,  but,  unlike  the  coast  tribes,  they  have 
no  hereditary  slavery,  nor  systematic  traffic  in  slaves. 

With  the  superior  activity  and  intelligence  of  the  Thlin- 
keets,  social  castes  begin  to  appear.  Besides  an  hered 
itary  nobility,  from  which  class  all  chiefs  are  chosen,  the 
whole  nation  is  separated  into  two  great  divisions  or 
clans,  one  of  which  is  called  the  Wolf,  and  the  other  the 
Raven.  Upon  their  houses,  boats,  robes,  shields,  and 
wherever  else  they  can  find  a  place  for  it,  they  paint  or 
carve  their  crest,  an  heraldic  device  of  the  beast  or  the 
bird  designating  the  clan  to  which  the  owner  belongs.  The 
Raven  trunk  is  again  divided  into  sub-clans,  called  the 
Frog,  the  Goose,  the  Sea-Lion,  the  Owl,  and  the  Salmon. 
The  Wolf  family  comprises  the  Bear,  Eagle,  Dolphin, 
Shark,  and  Alca.  In  this  clanship  some  singular  social 
features  present  themselves.  People  are  at  once  thrust 
widely  apart,  and  yet  drawn  together.  Tribes  of  the  same 
clan  may  not  war  on  each  other,  but  at  the  same  time 
members  of  the  same  clan  may  not  marry  with  each  other. 
Thus  the  young  Wolf  warrior  must  seek  his  mate  among 
the  Ravens,  and,  while  celebrating  his  nuptials  one  day, 
he  may  be  called  upon  the  next  to  fight  his  father-in- 
law  over  some  hereditary  feud.  Obviously  this  singular 
social  fancy  tends  greatly  to  keep  the  various  tribes  of 
the  nation  at  peace.167 

Although  the  Thlinkeet  women  impose  upon  them 
selves  the  most  painful  and  rigorous  social  laws,  there 
are  few  savage  nations  in  which  the  sex  have  greater 
influence  or  command  greater  respect.  Whether  it  be 
the  superiority  of  their  intellects,  their  success  in  ren 
dering  their  hideous  charms  available,  or  the  cruel  pen- 

iC7  Tribes  are  distinguished  by  the  color  and  character  of  their  paint.  Kot- 
zebue's  New  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  51.  They  '  are  divided  into  tribes ;  the  principal  of 
which  assume  to  themselves  titles  of  distinction,  from  the  names  of  the  ani 
mals  they  prefer;  as  the  tribe  of  the  bear,  of  the  eagle,  etc.  The  tribe  of  the 
wolf  are  called  Coquontans,  and  have  many  privileges  over  the  other  tribes.' 
Lisiamky' 's  Voy.,  pp.  238,  242. 


110  HYPERBOKEANS. 

ances  imposed  upon  womanhood,  the  truth  is  that  not 
only  old  men,  but  old  women,  are  respected.  In  fact,  a 
remarkably  old  and  ugly  crone  is  accounted  almost  above 
nature — a  sorceress.  One  cause  of  this  is  that  they  are 
much  more  modest  and  chaste  than  their  northern  sis 
ters.168  As  a  rule,  a  man  has  but  one  wife ;  more,  how 
ever,  being  allowable.  A  chief  of  the  Nass  tribe  is  said 
to  have  had  forty. 

A  young  girl  arrived  at  the  age  of  maturity  is  deemed 
unclean;  and  everything  she  comes  in  contact  with,  or 
looks  upon,  even  the  clear  sky  or  pure  water,  is  thereby 
rendered  unpropitious  to  man.  She  is  therefore  thrust 
from  the  society  of  her  fellows,  and  confined  in  a  dark 
den  as  a  being  unfit  for  the  sun  to  shine  upon.  There 
she  is  kept  sometimes  for  a  whole  year.  Langsdorff 
suggests  that  it  may  be  during  this  period  of  confine 
ment  that  the  foundation  of  her  influence  is  laid ;  that 
in  modest  reserve,  and  meditation,  her  character  is 
strengthened,  and  she  comes  forth  cleansed  in  mind  as 
well  as  body.  This  infamous  ordeal,  coming  at  a  most 
critical  period,  and  in  connection  with  the  baptism  of  the 
block,  cannot  fail  to  exert  a  powerful  influence  upon  her 
character. 

It  is  a  singular  idea  that  they  have  of  uncleanness. 
During  all  this  time,  according  to  Holmberg,  only  the 
girl's  mother  approaches  her,  and  that  only  to  place  food 
within  her  reach.  There  she  lies,  wallowing  in  her 
filth,  scarcely  able  to  move.  It  is  almost  incredible  that 
human  beings  can  bring  themselves  so  to  distort  nature. 
To  this  singular  custom,  as  well  as  to  that  of  the  block, 
female  slaves  do  not  conform.  After  the  girl's  immure- 

168  <  The  women  posses  a  predominant  influence,  and  acknowledged  supe 
riority  over  the  other  sex.'  MearesJ  Voy.,  p.  323.  'Parmi  eux  les  femmes 
jouisseiit  d'une  certaine  consideration.'  Laplace,  Circumnav.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  87. 
They  treat  their  wives  and  children  with  much  affection  and  tenderness,  and 
the  women  keep  the  treasures.  Portlock's  Voy.,  p.  290.  The  Kalush  '  finds 
his  filthy  countrywomen,  with  their  lip-troughs,  so  charming,  that  they  often 
awaken  in  him  the  most  vehement  passion.'  Kotzebue's  New  Voy.,  vol.  ii., 
p.  56.  '  It  is  certain  that  industry,  reserve,  modesty,  and  conjugal  fidelity, 
are  the  general  characteristics  of  the  female  sex  among  these  people.'  Langs- 
dorff's  Voy.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  133.  '  Quoiqu'elles  vivent  sous  la  domination  d'hom- 


THLINKEET  SOCIAL  CUSTOMS.  Ill 

ment  is  over,  if  her  parents  are  wealthy,  her  old  clothing 
is  destroyed,  she  is  washed  and  dressed  anew,  and  a  grand 
feast  given  in  honor  of  the  occasion. 1GD  The  natural  suf 
ferings  of  mothers  during  confinement  are  also  aggra 
vated  by  custom.  At  this  time  they  too  are  considered 
unclean,  and  must  withdraw  into  the  forest  or  fields,  away 
from  all  others,  and  take  care  of  themselves  and  their  oft- 
spring.  After  the  birth  of  a  child,  the  mother  is  locked 
up  in  a  shed  for  ten  days. 

A  marriage  ceremony  consists  in  the  assembling  of 
friends  and  distribution  of  presents.  A  newly  married 
pair  must  fast  for  two  days  thereafter,  in  order  to  insure 
domestic  felicity.  After  the  expiration  of  that  time  they 
are  permitted  to  partake  of  a  little  food,  when  a  second 
two  days'  fast  is  added,  after  which  they  are  allowed  to 
come  together  for  the  first  time;  but  the  mysteries  of 
wedlock  are  not  fully  unfolded  to  them  until  four  weeks 
after  marriage. 

Very  little  is  said  by  travelers  regarding  the  bath 
houses  of  the  Thlinkeets,  but  I  do  not  infer  that  they 
used  them  less  than  their  neighbors.  In  fact,  notwith 
standing  their  filth,  purgations  and  purifications  are 
commenced  at  an  early  age.  As  soon  as  an  infant  is 
born,  and  before  it  has  tasted  food,  whatever  is  in  the 
stomach  must  be  squeezed  out.  Mothers  nurse  their 
children  from  one  to  two  and  a  half  years.  When  the 
child  is  able  to  leave  its  cradle,  it  is  bathed  in  the  ocean 
every  day  without  regard  to  season,  and  this  custom  is 
kept  up  by  both  sexes  through  life.  Those  that  survive 
the  first  year  of  filth,  and  the  succeeding  years  of  applied 
ice  water  and  exposure,  are  very  justly  held  to  be  well 
toughened. 

The  Thlinkeet  child  is  frequently  given  two  names,  one 
from  the  father's  side  and  one  from  the  mother's;  and 
when  a  son  becomes  more  famous  than  his  father,  the 

ines  tres-fe'roces,  je  n'ai  pas  vu  qu'elles  en  fussent  traite'es  d'une  maniere 
aussi  barbare  que  le  preteudent  la  plupartdes  voyageurs.'  La  Perouse,  Voy., 
torn,  iv.,  p.  61. 

169  « Weddings  are  celebrated  merely  by  a  feast,  given  to  the  relatives  of 
the  bride.'  Kotzebue's  New  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  57. 


112  HYPERBOREANS. 

latter  drops  his  own  name,  and  is  known  only  as  the 
father  of  his  son.  Their  habits  of  life  are  regular.  In 
summer,  at  early  dawn  they  put  out  to  sea  in  their  boats, 
or  seek  for  food  upon  the  beach,  returning  before  noon 
for  their  first  meal.  A  second  one  is  taken  just  before 
night.  The  work  is  not  unequally  divided  between  the 
sexes,  and  the  division  is  based  upon  the  economical 
principles  of  civilized  communities.  The  men  rarely 
conclude  a  bargain  without  consulting  their  wives. 

Marchand  draws  a  revolting  picture  of  their  treatment 
of  infants.  The  little  bodies  are  so  excoriated  by  fer 
mented  filth,  and  so  scarred  by  their  cradle,  that  they 
carry  the  marks  to  the  grave.  No  wonder  that  when 
they  grow  up  they  are  insensible  to  pain.  JSFor  are  the 
mothers  especially  given  to  personal  cleanliness  and  de 


corum.170 


Music,  as  well  as  the  arts,  is  cultivated  by  the  Thlin- 
keets,  and,  if  we  may  believe  Marchand,  ranks  with 
them  as  a  social  institution.  "  At  fixed  times,"  he  says, 
''evening  and  morning,  they  sing  in  chorus,  every  one 
takes  part  in  the  concert,  and  from  the  pensive  air  which 
they  assume  while  singing,  one  would  imagine  that  the 
song  has  some  deep  interest  for  them."  The  men  do  the 
dancing,  while  the  women,  who  are  rather  given  to  fat 
ness  and  flaccidity,  accompany  them  with  song  and  tam 
bourine.171 

Their  principal  gambling  game  is  played  with  thirty 
small  sticks,  of  various  colors,  and  called  by  divers 
names,  as  the  crab,  the  whale,  and  the  duck.  The 
player  shuffles  together  all  the  sticks,  then  counting  out 
seven,  he  hides  them  under  a  bunch  of  moss,  keeping 

170  'Us  ne  s'ecartent  jamais  de  deux  pas  pour  aucun  besoin;  ils  ne  cher- 
chent  dans  ces  occasions  ni  1'ombre  ni  le  mystere;  ils  continuent  la  conver 
sation  qii'ils  out  commencee,  comme  s'ils  n'avaient  pas  un  instant  a  perdve; 
et  lorsque  c'est  pendant  le  repas,  ils  reprennent  leur  place,  dont  ils  ii'ont 
jamais  ete  eloignes  d'une  toise.'  La  Perouse,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  2'.1. 

171  '  Out  un  gout  decide  pour  le  chant.'  Marchand,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  75. 
1  The  women  sit  upon  the  ground  at  a  distance  of  some  paces  from  the  dancers, 
and  sing  a  not  inharmonious  melody,  which  supplies  the  place  of  music.' 
Langsdorff's  Voy.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  114.     'They  dance  and  sing  continually.'  Lisi- 
ansky's  Voy.,  p.  240.     Besides  the  tambourine,  Captain  Belcher  saw  a  casta- 
net  and  '  a  new  musical  instrument,  composed  of  three  hoops,  with  a  cross 


THLIXKEET  CHAKACTEB.  113 

the  remainder  covered  at  the  same  time.  The  game  is 
to  guess  in  which  pile  is  the  whale,  and  the  crab,  and 
the  duck.  During  the  progress  of  the  game,  they  pre 
sent  a  perfect  picture  of  melancholic  stoicism.172 

The  Thlinkeets  burn  their  dead.  An  exception  is 
made  when  the  deceased  is  a  shaman  or  a  slave;  the 
body  of  the  former  is  preserved,  after  having  been 
wrapped  in  furs,  in  a  large  wooden  sarcophagus ;  and  the 
latter  is  thrown  out  into  the  ocean  or  anywhere,  like  a 
beast.  The  ashes  of  the  burned  Thlinkeet  are  carefully 
collected  in  a  box  covered  with  hieroglyphic  figures,  and 
placed  upon  four  posts.  The  head  of  a  warrior  killed  in 
battle  is  cut  off  before  the  body  is  burned,  and  placed 
in  a  box  supported  by  two  poles  over  the  box  that  holds 
his  ashes.173  Some  tribes  preserve  the  bodies  of  those 
who  die  during  the  winter,  until  forced  to  get  rid  of 
them  by  the  warmer  weather  of  spring.  Their  grandest 
feasts  are  for  the  dead.  Besides  the  funeral  ceremony, 
which  is  the  occasion  of  a  festival,  they  hold  an  annual 
'elevation  of  the  dead,'  at  which  times  they  erect  mon 
uments  to  the  memory  of  their  departed. 

The  shamans  possess  some  knowledge  of  the  medicinal 
properties  of  herbs,  but  the  healing  of  the  body  does 
not  constitute  so  important  a  part  of  their  vocation  as 
do  their  dealings  with  supernatural  powers. 

To  sum  up  the  character  of  the  Thlinkeets,  they  may 
be  called  bold,  brave,  shrewd,  intelligent,  industrious,  lov- 

in  the  centre,  the  circumference  being  closely  strung  with  the  beaks  of  the 
Alca  arctica.'  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  103. 

172  They  lose  at  this  game  all  their  possessions,  and  even  their  wives  and 
children,  who  then  become  the  property  of  the  winner.'  Kotzebue's  New  Voy., 
vol.  ii.,  p.  62.     '  Ce  jeu  les  rend  tristes  et  serieux.'  La  Perouse,  Voy.,  torn., 
ii.,  p.  235. 

173  Upon  one  tomb,  '  f ormaba  una  figura  grande  y  horrorosa  que  teuia 
entre  sus  garras  una  caxa.'  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage.,  p.  cxviii.     'The  box  is 
freqiiently  decorated  with  two  or  three  rows  of  small  shells.'  Dixon's  Voy., 
p.  176.     '  The  dead  are  burned,  and  their  ashes  preserved  in  small  wood 
en  boxes,  in  buildings  appropriated  to  that  purpose.'  Kotzebue's  New  Voy., 
vol.  ii.,  p.  57.      '  Nos  voyageurs  rencontrerent  aussi  un  morai  qui  leur 
prouva  que  ces  Indiens  etaient  dans  1'usage  de  bruler  les  morts  et  d'en  con- 
server  la  tete.'  La  Perouse,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  205.     '  On  the  death  of  a  toyon, 
or  other  distinguished  person,  one  of  his  slaves  is  deprived  of  life,  and 
burned  with  him. '  Lisiansky's  Voy.,  p.  241. 

VOL.  I.    8 


114:  HYPERBOREANS. 

ers  of  art  and  music,  respectful  to  women  and  the  aged ; 
yet  extremely  cruel,  scalping  and  maiming  their  prisoners 
out  of  pure  wantonness,  thievish,  lying,  and  inveterate 
gamblers.  In  short  they  possess  most  of  the  virtues  and 
vices  incident  to  savagism. 

THE  TINNEH,  the  fifth  and  last  division  of  our  Hyper 
borean  group,  occupy  the  '  Great  Lone  Land,'  between 
Hudson  Bay  and  the  conterminous  nations  already  de 
scribed-  a  land  greater  than  the  whole  of  the  United 
.States,  and  more  'lone,'  excepting  absolute  deserts,  than 
;any  part  of  America.  White  men  there  are  scarcely 
.any;  wild  men  and  wild  beasts  there  are  few;  few 
-dense  forests,  and  little  vegetation,  although  the  grassy 
.savannahs  sustain  droves  of  deer,  buffalo,  and  other 
animals.  The  Tinneh  are,  next  to  the  Eskimos,  the  most 
northern  people  of  the  continent.  They  inhabit  the  un 
explored  regions  of  Central  Alaska,  and  thence  extend 
^eastward,  their  area  widening  towards  the  south  to  the 
.shores  of  Hudson  Bay.  Within  their  domain,  from  the 
north-west  to  the  south-east,  may  be  drawn  a  straight 
line  measuring  over  four  thousand  miles  in  length. 

The  Tiiineh,m  may  be  divided  into  four  great  families 
=of  nations ;  namely,  the  Chepewyans,  or  Athabascas,  living 
between  Hudson  Bay  and  the  Hocky  Mountains ;  the  Ta- 
-.cutties,  or  Carriers,  of  New  Caledonia  or  North-western 
British  America;  the  Kutcliins,  occupying  both  banks  of 
the  upper  Yukon  and  its  tributaries,  from  near  its  mouth 
to  the  Mackenzie  River;  and  the  Kenai,  inhabiting  the 
interior  from  the  lower  Yukon  to  Copper  River. 

The  Chepewyan  family  is  composed  of  the  Northern 
Indians,  so  called  by  the  fur-hunters  at  Fort  Churchill 
as  lying  along  the  shores  of  Hudson  Bay,  directly  to  their 
north;  the  Copper  Indians,  on  Coppermine  River;  the 
Born  Mountain  and  Beaver  Indians,  farther  to  the  west ; 
the  Strong-bows,  Dog-ribs,  Hares,  Red-knives,  Sheep, 

174  Called  by  G-allatin,  in  Am.  Antiq.  Soc.  Transact.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  17,  Atha- 
pasca,  the  name  'first  given  to  the  central  part  of  the  country  they  inhabit.' 
Sir  John  Richardson,  Jour.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  1,  calls  them  "Tinne,  or  'Dtinne,  Ath- 


THE  TINNEH.  115 

Sarsis,  Brush-wood,  Nagailer,  and  Rocky-Mountain  In 
dians,  of  the  Mackenzie  River  and  Rocky  Mountains.175 

The  Tacully176  nation  is  divided  into  a  multitude  of 
petty  tribes,  to  which  different  travelers  give  different 
names  according  to  fancy.  Among  them  the  most  im 
portant  are  the  Talkotins  and  Chilkotins,  Nateotetains 
and  Sicannis,  of  the  upper  branches  of  Fraser  River  and 
vicinity.  It  is  sufficient  for  our  purpose,  however,  to 
treat  them  as  one  nation. 

The  Kutchins,177  a  large  and  powerful  nation,  are  com 
posed  of  the  following  tribes.  Commencing  at  the  Mac 
kenzie  River,  near  its  mouth,  and  extending  westward 
across  the  mountains  to  and  down  the  Yukon ;  the  Lou- 
cheux  or  Quarrellers,  of  the  Mackenzie  River ;  the  Y ante 
Kutchin,  JSatche  Kutchin,  and  Yukuth  Kutchin,  of  Por 
cupine  River  and  neighborhood ;  the  Tutchone  Kutchin, 
Han  Kutchin,  Kutcha  Kutchin,  Gens  de  Bouleau,  Gens 
de  Milieu,  Tenan  Kutchin,  Nuclukayettes,  and  Newi- 
carguts,  of  the  Yukon  River.  Their  strip  of  territory  is 
from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in 
width,  lying  immediately  south  of  the  Eskimos,  and 
extending  westward  from  the  Mackenzie  River  about 
eight  hundred  miles.178 

abascans  or  Chepewyans. '  '  They  style  themselves  generally  Dinneh  men,  or 
Indians.'  Franklin's  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  241. 

175  Richardson's  Jour.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  1-33. 

!76  « Les  Indiens  de  la  cote  ou  de  la  Nouvelle  Caledonie,  les  Tokalis,  les 
Chargeurs  (Gamers)  les  Schouchouaps,  les  Atnas,  appartiennent  tous  a  la 
nation  des  Chipeoiia'ians  dont  la  langue  est  en  usage  dans  le  iiord  dn  Conti 
nent  jusqu'il  la  baie  d'Hudson  et  a  la  Mer  Polaire.'  Mqfras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii., 
p.  337. 

177  Are  'known  under  the  names  of  Loucheux,  Digothi,  and  Kutshin.'  La 
tham's  Nat.  Races,  p.  292.     'They  are  called  Deguthee  Dinees,  or  the  Quar 
rellers.'  Mackenzie's  Voy.,  p.  51.      'On  Peel's  River  they  name  themselves 
Kutchin,  the  final  n  being  nasal  and  faintly  pronounced.'  Richardson's  Jour., 
vol.  i.,  p.  378.    They  are  also  called  Tykothee-dinneh,  Loucheux  or  Quarrellers. 
Franklin's  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  83.     '  The  Loucheux  proper  is  spoken  by  the  In 
dians  of  Peel's  River.     All  the  tribes  inhabiting  the  valley  of  the  Youkon  un 
derstand  one  another.'  Hardisty,  in  Smithsonian  Rept.,  1866,  p.  311. 

178  Gallatin,  in  Am.  Antiq.  Soc.  Transact. ,  vol.  ii.,  p.  17,  erroneously  ruled 
the  Loucheux  out  of  his  Athabasca  nation.      '  Im  aussersten  Nordosten  hat 
uns  Gallatin  aufmerksam  gemacht  auf  das  Volk  der  Loucheux,  Zanker-India- 
ner  oder  Digothi:  an  der  Miindung  des  Mackenzie -Flusses,  nach  Einigen  zu 
dessen  beiden  Seiten  (westliche  und  6'stliche) ;  dessen  Sprache  er  nach  den 
Reisenden  fiir  fremd  den  athapaskischen  hielt:  woriiber  sich  die  neuen  Nach- 
richten  noch  widersprechen.'  Buschmann,  Spuren  der  Aztek.  Sprache,  p.  713. 
Franklin,  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  83,  allies  the  Loucheux  to  the  Eskimos. 


116  HYPEKBOKEANS. 

The  Kenai179  nation  includes  the  Ingaliks,  of  the  Lower 
Yukon;  the  Koltchanes,  of  the  Kuskoquim  River;  and 
to  the  south-eastward,  the  Kenais,  of  the  Kenai  Penin 
sula,  and  the  Atnas,  of  Copper  River.180 

Thus  we  see  that  the  Tinneh  are  essentially  an  inland 
people,  barred  out  from  the  frozen  ocean  by  a  thin  strip 
of  Eskimo  land,  and  barely  touching  the  Pacific  at  Cook 
Inlet.  Philologists,  however,  find  dialectic  resemblances, 
imaginary  or  real,  between  them  and  the  Umpquas181  and 
Apaches.182 

The  name  Chepewyan  signifies  L  pointed  coat,'  and  de 
rives  its  origin  from  the  parka,  coat,  or  outer  garment,  so 
universally  common  throughout  this  region.  It  is  made 
of  several  skins  differently  dressed  and  ornamented  in 
different  localities,  but  always  cut  with  the  skirt  pointed 
before  and  behind.  The  Chepewyans  believe  that  their 
ancestors  migrated  from  the  east,  and  therefore  those  of 
them  who  are  born  nearest  their  eastern  boundary,  are 
held  in  the  greatest  estimation.  The  Dog-ribs  alone  refer 
their  origin  to  the  west. 

The  Chepewyans  are  physically  characterized  by  a  long 
full  faoe,183  tall  slim  figure  ;184  in  complexion  they  are  darker 
than  coast  tribes,185  and  have  small  piercing  black  eyes,186 


179  Tnai,  'man;'  Tnaina  Ttynai,  Thnaina,  Kinai,  Kenai,  Kenaize. 
wo  See  notes  on  Boundaries  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 

181  Besides  the  '  Umkwa,  '  being  outlying  members  of  the  Athabaskan 
stock,'  there  are  the  'Navahoe,  the  Jecorilla,  the  Panalero,  along  with  the 
Apatsh  of  New  Mexico,  California,  and  Sonora.     To  these  add  the  Hoopah 
of  California,  which  is  also  Athabaskan.'  Latham's  Comp.  Phil.,  p.  393. 

182  William  W.  Turner  was  the  first  to  assert  positively  that  the  Apaches 
spoke  a  language  which  belongs  to  the  Athabascan  family.  Buschtuann,  Spu- 
ren  der  Aztelc.  Spradic,  p.  316. 

IS:}  Face  'oval.'  Fran/din's  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  180.  'Broad  faces,  projecting 
cheek-bones,  and  wide  nostrils.  '  Id.,  vol.  i.,  p.  242.  Foreheads  low,  chin  long. 
Martin's  Brit.  CoL,  vol.  iii.,  p.  524.  An  exact  compound  between  the  Usque- 
mows  and  Western  Indians.  Barrow's  Geoy.  Hudson  Bay,  p.  33. 

is*  Generally  more  than  medium  size.  Hearne's  Tray.,  p.  305.  'Well  pro 
portioned,  and  about  the  middle  size.'  Martin's  Brit.  CoL,  vol.  iii.,  p.  524. 
'Long-bodied,  with  short,  stout  limbs.'  Boss,  in  Smithsonian  Bept.,  1866, 
p.  304. 

185  'Dingy  copper.'  Martin's  Brit.  Col,  vol.  iii.,  p.  526.  'Swarthy.'  Mac 
kenzie's  Voy.,  p.  cxix.  Dingy  brown,  copper  cast.  Uearne's  Trav.,  p.  305. 
y  fresh  and  red.'  Franklin's  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  180.  'Dirty  yellowish 


'Very 

'  Small,  fine  eyes  and  teeth."  Franklin's  Nar.,  p.  vol.  i.,  242. 


. 

ochre  tinge.'  Boss,  in  Smithsonian  Bept.,  1866,  p.  304. 

's  Nar.,  p. 


THE  CHEPEWYANS.  117 

flowing  hair,187  and  tattooed  cheeks  and  forehead.188  Al 
together  they  are  pronounced  an  inferior  race.189  Into 
the  composition  of  their  garments  enter  beaver,  moose, 
and  deer- skin,  dressed  with  and  without  the  hair,  sewed 
with  sinews  and  ornamented  with  claws,  horns,  teeth,  and 
feathers.190 

The  Northern  Indian  man  is  master  of  his  household.191 
He  marries  without  ceremony,  and  divorces  his  wife  at 
his  pleasure.192  A  man  of  forty  buys  or  fights  for  a  spouse 
of  twelve,193  and  when  tired  of  her  whips  her  and  sends 
her  away.  Girls  on  arriving  at  the  age  of  womanhood 


187  '  Hair  lank,  but  not  always  of  a  dingy  black.  Men  in  general  extract 
their  beard,  though  some  of  them  are  seen  to  prefer  a  bushy,  black  beard,  to 
a  smooth  chin.'  Mackenzie's  Voy.,  p.  cxix.  Beard  in  the  aged  'between  two 
and  three  inches  long,  and  perfectly  white.'  Franklin's  Nar.,  vol.  ii  ,  p.  180. 
'  Black,  strait,  and  coarse.'  Martin's  Brit.  Col.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  524.  '  Neither  sex 
have  any  hair  under  their  armpits,  and  very  little  on  any  other  part  of  the 
body,  particularly  the  women;  but  on  the  place  where  Nature  plants  the 
hair,  I  never  knew  them  attempt  to  eradicate  it.'  Hearne's  Trav.,  p.  306. 

183  Tattooing  appears  to  be  universal  among  the  Kutchins.  Kirby,  in  Smith 
sonian  Kept.,  ]864,  p.  419.  The  Chepewyans  tattooed  'by  entering  an  awl 
or  needle  under  the  skin,  and,  on  drawing  it  out  again,  immediately  rubbing 
powdered  charcoal  into  the  wound.'  Hearne's  Trav.,  p.  306.  'Both  sexes 
have  blue  or  black  b:irs,  or  from  one  to  four  straight  lines  on  their  cheeks  or 
forehead,  to  distinguish  the  tribe  to  which  they  belong.'  Mackenzie's  Voy., 
p.  cxx. 

189  Women  'destitute  of  real  beauty.'  ITearne's  Trav.,  p.  89.     'Very  infe 
rior  aspect.'  Richardson's  Jour.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  8.     Women  nasty.  Mackenzie's 

Voy.,  p.  126.     '  Positively  hideous.'  7?oss,  in  Smithsonian  Kept.,  1866,  p.  304. 

190  A.  Deer-Horn  Mountaineer's  dress  *  consisted  of  a  shirt,  or  jacket  with 
a  hood,  wide  breeches,  reaching  only  to  the  knee,  and  tight  leggins  sewed  to 
the  shoes,  all  of  deer's  skins.'  Franklin's  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  180.     The  cap  con 
sists  of  the  skin  of  a  deer's  head.  Mackenzie's  Voy.,  p.  cxxii. 

191  As  witness  this  speech  of  a  noble  chief:  '  Women  were  made  for  labor; 
one  of  them  can  carry,  or  haul,  as  much  as  two  men  can  do.    They  also  pitch 
our  tents,  make  and  mend  our  clothing,  keep  us  warm  at  night;  and,  in  fact, 
there  is  no  such  thing  as  traveling  any  considerable  distance,  in  this  country 
without  their  assistance.'  Jlearne's  Trav.,  p.  55. 

192  An  Indian  desiring  another  one's  wife,  fights  with  her  husband,  princi 
pally  by  pulling  hair.    If  victorious,  he  pays  a  number  of  skins  to  the  hus 
band.  Hooper's  Tuski,  p.  303. 

193  'Continence  in  an  unmarried  female  is  scarcely  considered  a  virtue.' 
'  Their  dispositions  are  not  amatory. '     '  I  have  heard  among  them  of  two  sons 
keeping  their  mother  as  a  common  wife,  of  another  wedded  to  his  daughter, 
and  of  several  married  to  their  sisters.    Ross,  in  Smithsonian  Kept.,  1866,  p. 
310.     Women  carry  their  children  on  the  back  next  the  skin,  and  suckle 
them  until  another  is  born.     They  do  not  suspend  their  ordinary  occupa 
tions  for  child-birth.  Mackenzie's  Voy.,  p.  cxxii.     '  A  temporary  interchange 
of  wives  is  not  uncommon;  and  the  offer  of  their  persons  is  considered  as 
a  necessary  part  of  the  hospitality  due  to  strangers.'  Id.,  p.  xcvi.     Women 
are  'rather  the  slaves  than  the  companions  of  the  men.'  Sell's  Geog.,  vol. 
v.,  p.  293. 


118  HYPEKBOREANS. 

must  retire  from  the  village  and  live  for  a  time  apart.194 
The  Chepewyans  inhabit  huts  of  brush  and  portable  skin 
tents.  They  derive  their  origin  from  a  dog.  At  one  time 
they  were  so  strongly  imbued  with  respect  for  their  ca 
nine  ancestry  that  they  entirely  ceased  to  employ  dogs 
in  drawing  their  sledges,  greatly  to  the  hardship  of  the 
women  upon  whom  this  laborious  task  fell. 

Their  food  consists  mostly  of  fish  and  reindeer,  the 
latter  being  easily  taken  in  snares.  Much  of  their  land 
is  barren,  but  with  sufficient  vegetation  to  support  nu 
merous  herds  of  reinder,  and  fish  abound  in  their  lakes 
and  streams.  Their  hunting  grounds  are  held  by  clans, 
and  descend  by  inheritance  from  one  generation  to  an 
other,  which  has  a  salutary  effect  upon  the  preservation 
of  game.  Indian  law  requires  the  successful  hunter  to 
share  the  spoils  of  the  chase  with  all  present.  When 
game  is  abundant,  their  tent-fires  never  die,  but  are  sur 
rounded  during  all  hours  of  the  day  and  night  by  young 
and  old  cooking  their  food.195 

Superabundance  of  food,  merchandise,  or  anything 
which  they  wish  to  preserve  without  the  trouble  of  car 
rying  it  about  with  them  while  on  hunting  or  foraging 
expeditions,  is  cached,  as  they  term  it;  from  the  French, 
cacher.  to  conceal.  Canadian  fur-hunters  often  resorted 
to  this  artifice,  but  the  practice  was  common  among  the 
natives  before  the  advent  of  Europeans.  A  sudden  ne 
cessity  often  arises  in  Indian  countries  for  the  traveler 

194  They  are  harsh  towards  their  wives,  except  when  enceinte.  They  are 
accused  of  abandoning  the  aged  and  sick,  but  only  one  case  came  to  his 
knowledge.  Franklin's  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  pp  250,  251. 

19:5  Beeatee,  prepared  irom  deer  only,  '  is  a  kind  of  haggis,  made  with  the 
blood,  a  good  quantity  of  fat  shred  small,  some  of  the  tenderest  of  the  flesh, 
together  with  the  heart  and  lungs  cut,  or  more  commonly  cut  into  small  shiv 
ers;  all  ot  which  is  put  into  the  stomach,  and  roasted.'  IJearne's  Tray.,  p.  144. 
'  Not  remarkable  for  their  activity  as  hunters,  owing  to  the  ease  with  which 
they  snare  deer  and  spear  fish.'  Mackenzie's  Voy.,  p.  cxxiii.  The  Deer-Horn 
Mountaineers  'repair  to  the  sea  in  spring  and  kill  seals;  as  the  season  ad 
vances,  they  hunt  deer  and  musk  oxen  at  some  distance  from  the  coast. 
They  approach  the  deer  either  by  crawling,  or  by  leading  these  animals  by 
ranges  of  turf  towards  the  spot  where  the  archer  can  conceal  himself.'  Do 
not  use  nets,  but  the  hook  and  line.  Franklin's  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  181.  'Nets 
made  of  lines  of  twisted  willow-bark,  or  thin  strips  of  deer-hide.'  Richard 
son's  Jour.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  25.  Curdled  blood,  a  favorite  dish.  Simpson's  Nar., 
p.  324. 


THE  NOETHEKN  INDIANS.  119 

to  relieve  himself  from  burdens.  This  is  done  by  dig 
ging  a  hole  in  the  earth  and  depositing  the  load  therein, 
so  artfully  covering  it  as  to  escape  detection  by  the  wily 
savages.  Goods  may  be  cached  in  a  cave,  or  in  the 
branches  of  a  tree,  or  in  the  hollow  of  a  log.  The  camp- 
fire  is  frequently  built  over  the  spot  where  stores  have 
been  deposited,  in  order  that  the  disturbance  of  the  sur 
face  may  not  be  detected. 

Their  weapons196  and  their  utensils197  are  of  the  most 
primitive  kind — stone  and  bone  being  used  in  place  of 
metal. 

Their  dances,  which  are  always  performed  in  the 
night,  are  not  original,  but  are  borrowed  from  the  South 
ern  and  Dog-rib  Indians.  They  consist  in  raising  the 
feet  alternately  in  quick  succession,  as  high  as  possible 
without  moving  the  body,  to  the  sound  of  a  drum  or 
rattle.198 

They  never  bury  their  dead,  but  leave  the  bodies 
where  they  fall,  to  be  devoured  by  the  birds  and  beasts 
of  prey.198  Their  religion  consists  chiefly  in  songs  and 
speeches  to  these  birds  and  beasts  and  to  imaginary  be- 

196  The  weapons  of  the  Chepewyans  are  bows  and  arrows;  stone  and  bone 
axes  and  knives.  Harmon's  Jour.,  p.  183.     The  bows  of  the  Deer-Horns  'are 
formed  of  three  pieces  of  fir,  the  centre  piece  alone  bent,  the  other  two  lying 
in  the  same  strait  line  with  the  bowstring;  the  pieces  are  neatly  tied  together 
with  sinew.   Fran/din's  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  180.     In  preparing  for  an  attack, 
each  Coppermine  Indian  paints  his  shield  with  figures  of    Sun,  Moon,  or 
some  animal  or  imaginary  beings,  each  portraying  whatever  character  he 
most  relies  upon.   Hearne's  Trav.,  p.  148.     In  some  parts  hunting  grounds 
descend  by  inheritance,  and  the  right  of  property  is  rigidly  enforced.  Simp 
son's  Nar.,  p.  75. 

197  '  Their  cooking  utensils  are  made  of  pot-stone,  and  they  form  very 
neat  dishes  of  fir.'  Franklin's  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  181.     Make  fishing-lines  and 
nets  of  green  deer-thongs.  Mackenzie's  Voy.,  p.  cxxvi. 

198  <  They  are  great  mimics.'  Richardson's  Jour.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  13.    Men  dance 
naked;  women  dressed.     A  crowd  stand  in  a  straight  line,  and  shuffle  from 
right  to  left  without  moving  the  feet  from  the  ground.  Nearness  Trav.,  p.  335. 
'The  men  occasionally  howl  in  imitation  of  some  animal.'  Mackenzie's  Voy., 
p.  35 

1  '  They  manifest  no  common  respect  to  the  memory  of  their  departed 
friends,  by  a  long  period  of  mourning,  cutting  off  their  hair,  and  never 
making  use  of  the  property  of  the  deceased.'  Mackenzie's  Voy.^  p.  cxxviii. 
The  death  of  leading  men  is  attributed  to  conjuring.  They  never  bury  the 
dead,  but  leave  them,  where  they  die,  for  wild  beasts  to  devour.  Ife<trne'n 
Trav.,  p.  341.  The  Chepewyans  bury  their  dead.  When  mourning  for  rel 
atives  they  gash  their  bodies  with  knives.  IlichurJson's  Jour.,  vol.  ii.,  pp. 


120  HYPEKBOKEANS. 

ings,  for  assistance  in  performing  cures  of  the  sick.200 
Old  age  is  treated  with  disrespect  and  neglect,  one  half 
of  both  sexes  dying  before  their  time  for  want  of  care. 
The  Northern  Indians  are  frequently  at  war  with  the 
Eskimos  and  Southern  Indians,  for  whom  they  at  all 
times  entertain  the  most  inveterate  hatred.  The  Copper 
Indians,  bordering  on  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Es 
kimos  at  the  Coppermine  River,  were  originally  the 
occupants  of  the  territory  south  of  Great  Slave  Lake. 

The  Dog-ribs,  or  Slaves  as  they  are  called  by  neighbor- 
ring  nations,  are  indolent,  fond  of  amusement,  but  mild 
and  hospitable.  They  are  so  debased,  as  savages,  that 
the  men  do  the  laborious  work,  while  the  women  employ 
themselves  in  household  affairs  and  ornamental  needle 
work.  Young  married  men  have  been  known  to  exhibit 
specimens  of  their  wives1  needle-work  with  pride.  From 
their  further  advancement  in  civilization,  and  the  tra 
dition  which  they  hold  of  having  migrated  from  the 
westward,  were  it  not  that  their  language  differs  from 
that  of  contiguous  tribes  only  in  accent,  they  might  nat 
urally  be  considered  of  different  origin.  Bands  of  Dog- 
ribs  meeting  after  a  long  absence  greet  each  other  with  a 
dance,  which  frequently  continues  for  two  or  three  days. 
First  clearing  a  spot  of  ground,  they  take  an  arrow  in 
the  right  hand  and  a  bow  in  the  left,  and  turning  their 
backs  each  band  to  the  other,  they  approach  dancing,  and 
when  close  together  they  feign  to  perceive  each  other's 
presence  for  the  first  time;  the  bow  and  arrow  are  in 
stantly  transferred  from  one  hand  to  the  other,  in  token 
of  their  non-intention  to  use  them  against  friends.  They 
are  very  improvident,  and  frequently  are  driven  to  can 
nibalism  and  suicide.201 

200  « The  Northern  Indians  seldom  attain  a  great  age,  though  they  have  few 
diseases.'  Martin's  Brit.  Col,  vol.  in.,  p.  525.     For  inward  complaints,  the 
doctors  blow  zealously  into  the  rectum,  or  adjacent  parts.  Hearm's  Trav., 
p.  189.     The  conjurer  shuts  himself  up  for  days  with  the  patient,  without 
food,  and  sings  over  him.  Franklin's  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  41.     Medicine-men  or 
conjurers  are  at  the  same  time  doctors.  Hooper's  Tuski,  pp.  317,  318.     'The 
Kutchins  practice  blood-letting  ad  libitum.'  Jones,  Smithsonian  Rept.,  1866,  p. 
325.     '  Their  principal  maladies  are  rheumatic  pains,  the  flux,  and  consump 
tion.'  Mackenzie's  Voy.,  p.  cxxiv. 

201  According  to  the  report  of  the  Dog-ribs,  the  Mountain  Indians  are 


HAEES,  DOG-KIBS,  AND  TACULLIES.  121 

The  Hare  Indians,  who  speak  a  dialect  of  the  Tinneh 
scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  that  of  the  Dog-ribs, 
are  looked  upon  by  their  neighbors  as  great  conjurers. 
The  Hare  and  Sheep  Indians  look  upon  their  women 
as  inferior  beings.  From  childhood  they  are  inured  to 
every  description  of  drudgery,  and  though  not  treated 
with  special  cruelty,  they  are  placed  at  the  lowest  point 
in  the  scale  of  humanity.  The  characteristic  stoicism 
of  the  red  race  is  not  manifested  by  these  tribes.  Social 
ism  is  practiced  to  a  considerable  extent.  The  hunter  is 
allowed  only  the  tongue  and  ribs  of  the  animal  he  kills, 
the  remainder  being  divided  among  the  members  of  the 
tribe. 

The  Hares  and  Dog-ribs  do  not  cut  the  finger-nails  of 
female  children  until  four  years  of  age,  in  order  that 
they  may  not  prove  lazy;  the  infant  is  not  allowed  food 
until  four  days  after  birth,  in  order  to  accustom  it  to 
fasting  in  the  next  world. 

The  Sheep  Indians  are  reported  as  being  cannibals. 
The  Red-knives  formerly  hunted  reindeer  and  musk- 
oxen  at  the  northern  end  of  Great  Bear  Lake,  but  they 
were  finally  driven  eastward  by  the  Dog-ribs.  Laws 
and  government  are  unknown  to  the  Chepewyans.202 

The  Tacullies,  or,  as  they  were  denominated  by  the 
fur-traders,  l  Carriers,'  are  the  chief  tribe  of  New  Cale 
donia,  or  North-western  British  America.  They  call 
themselves  Tacullies,  or  'men  who  go  upon  water,'  as 
their  travels  from  one  village  to  another  are  mostly  ac 
complished  in  canoes.  This,  with  their  sobriquet  of 

cannibals,  casting  lots  for  victims  in  time  of  scarcity.  Simpson1  it  Nar.,  p. 
188.  '  Instances  of  suicide,  by  hanging,  frequently  occur  among  the  women.' 
Harmon's  Jour.,]).  198.  During  times  of  starvation,  which  occur  quite  frequent, 
the  Slave  Indians  eat  their  families.  Hooper's  Tuski,  p.  303.  '  These  people 
take  their  names,  in  the  first  instance,  from  their  dogs.  A  young  man  is  the 
father  of  a  certain  dog,  but  when  he  is  married,  and  has  a  son,  he  styles  him 
self  the  father  of  the  boy.  The  women  have  a  habit  of  reproving  the  dogs 
very  tenderly  when  they  observe  them  fighting.  "Are  you  not  ashamed," 
say  they,  "to  quarrel  with  your  little  brother?"'  Franklin's  Nar.,  vol.  ii., 
pp.  85,  86.  '  Whether  circumcision  be  practiced  among  them,  I  cannot  pretend 
to  say,  but  the  appearance  of  it  was  general  among  those  whom  I  saw.'  Mac- 
kenzie's  Voy.,  p.  36.  Dog-rib  Indians,  sometimes  also  called  Slaves,  'a  name 
properly  meaning  'strangers.'  Gallatin,inAm.  Arch.Soc.  Trans.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  19. 
202  'Order  is  maintained  in  the  tribe  solely  by  public  opinion.'  Richard 
son's  Jour.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  26.  The  chiefs  are  now  totally  without  power.  Frank- 


122  HYPEKBOREANS. 

'  Carriers/  clearly  indicates  their  ruling  habitudes.  The 
men  are  more  finely  formed  than  the  women,  the  latter 
being  short,  thick,  and  disproportionately  large  in  their 
lower  limbs.  In  their  persons  they  are  slovenly;  in 
their  dispositions,  lively  and  contented.  As  they  are 
able  to  procure  food203  with  but  little  labor,  they  are 
naturally  indolent,  but  appear  to  be  able  and  willing  to 
work  when  occasion  requires  it.  Their  relations  with 
white  people  have  been  for  the  most  part  amicable ;  they 
are  seldom  quarrelsome,  though  not  lacking  bravery. 
The  people  are  called  after  the  name  of  the  village  in 
which  they  dwell.  Their  primitive  costume  consists  of 
hare,  musk-rat,  badger,  and  beaver  skins,  sometimes  cut 
into  strips  an  inch  broad,  and  woven  or  interlaced.  The 
nose  is  perforated  by  both  sexes,  the  men  suspending 
therefrom  a  brass,  copper,  or  shell  ornament,  the  women 
a  wooden  one,  tipped  with  a  bead  at  either  end.204  Their 
avarice  lies  in  the  direction  of  hiaqua  shells,  which  find 
their  way  up  from  the  sea-coast  through  other  tribes. 
In  1810,  these  beads  were  the  circulating  medium  of  the 
country,  and  twenty  of  them  would  buy  a  good  beaver- 
skin.  Their  paint  is  made  of  vermilion  obtained  from 
the  traders,  or  of  a  pulverized  red  stone  mixpfl  with 
grease.  They  are  greatly  addicted  to  gambling,  and  do 
not  appear  at  all  dejected  by  ill  fortune,  spending  days 
and  nights  in  the  winter  season  at  their  games,  frequently 
gambling  away  every  rag  of  clothing  and  every  trinket 
in  their  possession.  They  also  stake  parts  of  a  garment 
or  other  article,  and  if  losers,  cut  off  a  piece  of  coat- 
sleeve  or  a  foot  of  gun-barrel.  Native  cooking  vessels 

lin's  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  247.  'They  are  influenced,  more  or  less,  by  certain 
principles  which  conduce  to  their  general  benefit.'  Mackenzie's  Voy.,  p.  cxxv. 

203  <  Many  consider  a  broth,  made  by  means  of  the  dung  of  the  cariboo 
and  the  hare,  to  be  a  dainty  dish.'  Harmon's  Jour.,  p.  324.     They  '  are  lazy, 
dirty,  and  sensual,'  and  extremely  uncivilized.     'Their  habits  and  persons 
are  equally  disgusting.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  62.     'They  are  a  tall, 
well  formed,  good-looking  race.'  Nicolay's  Ogn.  Ter.,  p.  154.     'An  utter  con 
tempt  of  cleanliness  prevailed  on  all  hands,  and  it  was  revolting  to  witness 
their  voracious  endeavors  to  surpass  each  other  in  the  gluttonous  contest.' 
Ind.  Life,  p.  156. 

204  The  women  '  run  a  wooden  pin  through  their  noses.'  Harmon's  Jour., 
p.  287.    At  their  burial  ceremonies  they  smear  the  face  'with  a  composition 


THE  TACULLIES,  OE  CAKKIEKS.  123 

are  made  of  bark,  or  of  the  roots  or  fibres  of  trees,  woven 
so  as  to  hold  water,  in  which  are  placed  heated  stones 
for  the  purpose  of  cooking  food.205  Polygamy  is  prac 
ticed,  but  not  generally.  The  Tacullies  are  fond  of  their 
wives,  performing  the  most  of  the  household  drudgery 
in  order  to  relieve  them,  and  consequently  they  are  very 
jealous  of  them.  But  to  their  unmarried  daughters, 
strange  as  it  may  seem,  they  allow  every  liberty  without 
censure  or  shame.  The  reason  which  they  give  for  this 
strange  custom  is,  that  the  purity  of  their  wives  is  there 
by  better  preserved.206 

During  a  portion  of  every  year  the  Tacullies  dwell  in 
villages,  conveniently  situated  for  catching  and  drying 
salmon.  In  April  they  visit  the  lakes  and  take  small 
fish;  and  after  these  fail,  they  return  to  their  villages 
and  subsist  upon  the  fish  they  have  dried,  and  upon 
herbs  and  berries.  From  August  to  October,  salmon  are 
plentiful  again.  Beaver  are  caught  in  nets  made  from 
strips  of  cariboo-skins,  and  also  in  cypress  and  steel 
traps.  They  are  also  sometimes  shot  with  guns  or  with 
bows  and  arrows.  Smaller  game  they  take  in  various 
kinds  of  traps. 

The  civil  polity  of  the  Tacullies  is  of  a  very  primitive 
character.  Any  person  may  become  a  miuty  or  chief 
who  will  occasionally  provide  a  village  feast.  A  malefac 
tor  may  find  protection  from  the  avenger  in  the  dwell 
ing  of  a  chief,  so  long  as  he  is  permitted  to  remain  there, 
or  even  afterwards  if  he  has  upon  his  back  any  one  of  the 
chief's  garments.  Disputes  are  usually  adjusted  by  some 
old  man  of  the  tribe.  The  boundaries  of  the  territories 
belonging  to  the  different  villages  are  designated  by 

of  fish-oil  and  charcoal.'  When  conjuring,  the  chief  and  his  companions 
'wore  a  kind  of  coronet  formed  of  the  inverted  claws  of  the  grizzly  bear.' 
Ind.  Life,  pp.  127,  158. 

205  The  Tacullies  have  '  wooden  dishes,  and  other  vessels  of  the  rind  of 
the  birch  and  pine  trees.'  'Have  also  other  vessels  made  of  small  roots  or 
fibres  of  the  cedar  or  pine  tree,  closely  laced  together,  which  serve  them  as 
buckets  to  put  water  in.'  Harmon's  Jour.,  p.  292. 

200  « in  the  summer  season  both  sexes  bathe  often;  and  this  is  the  only 
time,  when  the  married  people  wash  themselves. '  The  Tacullies  are  very  fond 
and  very  jealous  of  their  wives,  'but  to  their  daughters,  they  allow  every  lib- 


124  HYPEKBOBEANS. 

mountains,  rivers,  or  other  natural  objects,  and  the 
rights  of  towns,  as  well  as  of  individuals,  are  most  gen 
erally  respected;  but  broils  are  constantly  being  occa 
sioned  by  murders,  abduction  of  women,  and  other 
causes,  between  these  separate  societies.207 

When  seriously  ill,  the  Carriers  deem  it  an  indis 
pensable  condition  to  their  recovery  that  every  secret 
crime  should  be  confessed  to  the  magician.  Murder,  of 
any  but  a  member  of  the  same  village,  is  not  consid 
ered  a  heinous  offense.  They  at  first  believed  read 
ing  and  writing  to  be  the  exercise  of  magic  art.  The 
Carriers  know  little  of  medicinal  herbs.  Their  priest  or 
magician  is  also  the  doctor,  but  before  commencing  his 
operations  in  the  sick  room,  he  must  receive  a  fee,  which, 
if  his  efforts  prove  unsuccessful,  he  is  obliged  to  restore. 
The  curative  process  consists  in  singing  a  melancholy 
strain  over  the  invalid,  in  which  all  around  join.  This 
mitigates  pain,  and  often  restores  health.  Their  winter 
tenements  are  frequently  made  by  opening  a  spot  of 
earth  to  the  depth  of  two  feet,  across  which  a  ridge-pole 
is  placed,  supported  at  either  end  by  posts;  poles  are 
then  laid  from  the  sides  of  the  excavation  to  the  ridge 
pole  and  covered  with  hay.  A  hole  is  left  in  the  top  for 
purposes  of  entrance  and  exit,  and  also  in  order  to  allow 
the  escape  of  smoke.208 

Slavery  is  common  with  them ;  all  who  can  afford  it 
keeping  slaves.  They  use  them  as  beasts  of  burden,  and 

crty,  for  the  purpose,  as  they  say,  of  keeping  the  young  men  from  intercourse 
with  the  married  women.'  Harmon'*  Jour.,  pp.  289,  '292,  293.  A  father,  whose 
daughter  had  dishonored  him,  killed  her  and  himself.  2nd.  Life,  184. 

207  '  The  people  of  every  village  have  a  certain  extent  of  country,  which 
they  consider  their  own,  and  in  which  they  may  hunt  and  fish;  but  they  may 
not  transcend  these  bounds,  without  purchasing  the  privilege  of  those  who 
claim  the  land.     Mountains  and  rivers  serve  them  as  boundaries.'  Harmon's 
Jour.,  p.  298. 

208  Mackenzie,  Voy.,  p.  238,  found  on  Fraser  River,  about  latitude  55°,  a 
deserted  house,  30  by  20,  with  three  doors,  3  by  3%  feet;  three  fire-places, 
and  beds  on  either  side;  behind  the  beds  was  a  narrow  space,  like  a  manger, 
somewhat  elevated,  for  keeping  fish.     '  Their  houses  are  well  formed  of  logs 
of  small  trees,  buttressed  up  internally,  frequently  above  seventy  feet  long 
and  fifteen  high,  but,  unlike  those  of  the  coast,  the  roof  is  of  bark:  their 
winter  habitations  are  smaller,  and  often  covered  over  with  grass  and  earth ; 
some  even  dwell  in  excavations  of  the  ground,  which  have  only  an  aper 
ture  at  the  top,  and  serves  alike  for  door  and  chimney.'  Nicolay's  Ogn.  Ter., 
p.  154. 


NEHANNES  AND  TALKOTINS.  125 

treat  them  most  inhumanly.  The  country  of  the  Sican- 
nis  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  is  sterile,  yielding  the  occu 
pants  a  scanty  supply  of  food  and  clothing.  They  are 
nevertheless  devotedly  attached  to  their  bleak  land,  and 
will  fight  for  their  rude  homes  with  the  most  patriotic 
ardor. 

The  Nehannes  usually  pass  the  summer  in  the  vicin 
ity  of  the  sea-coast,  and  scour  the  interior  during  the 
winter  for  furs,  which  they  obtain  from  inland  tribes 
by  barter  or  plunder,  and  dispose  of  to  the  European 
traders.  It  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  this  war 
like  and  turbulent  horde  was  at  one  time  governed  by  a 
woman.  Fame  gives  her  a  fair  complexion,  with  regular 
features,  and  great  intelligence.  Her  influence  over  her 
fiery  people,  it  is  said,  was  perfect;  while  her  warriors,  the 
terror  and  scourge  of  the  surrounding  country,  quailed 
before  her  eye.  Her  word  was  law,  and  was  obeyed  with 
marvelous  alacrity.  Through  her  influence  the  condi 
tion  of  the  women  of  her  tribe  was  greatly  raised. 

Great  ceremonies,  cruelty,  and  superstition  attend 
burning  the  dead,  which  custom  obtains  throughout  this 
region,209  and,  as  usual  in  savagism,  woman  is  the  suf 
ferer.  When  the  father  of  a  household  dies,  the  entire 
family,  or.  if  a  chief,  the  tribe,  are  summoned  to  present 
themselves.210  Time  must  be  given  to  those  most  distant 
to  reach  the  village  before  the  ceremony  begins.211  The 
Talkotin  wife,  when  all  is  ready,  is  compelled  to  ascend  the 
funeral  pile,  throw  herself  upon  her  husband's  body  and 
there  remain  until  nearly  suffocated,  when  she  is  permitted 
to  descend.  Still  she  must  keep  her  place  near  the  burn 
ing  corpse,  keep  it  in  a  proper  position,  tend  the  fire,  and 

209  <  Quelques  peuplades  du  nord,  telles  que  les  Sikanis,  enterrent  leurs 
morts.'  Mo f ran,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  339.     'The  Sicaunies  bury,  while  the  Ta- 
cullies,  burn  their  dead.'  Harmon's  Jour.,  p.  196.    They  '  and  the  Chiimnesy- 
aiis  on  the  coast,  and  other  tribes  speaking  their  language,  burn  the  dead. ' 
Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  236.     See  also  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  79,  80;  Ind.  Life, 
pp.  128,  136;  Domenfch's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  362,  363. 

210  They  fire  guns  as  a  warning  to  their  friends  not  to  invade  their  sorrow. 
Mackenzie's  Voy.,  p.  139. 

211  '  In  the  winter  season,  the  Camel's  often  keep  their  dead  in  their  huts 
during  five  or  six  months,  before  they  will  allow  them  to  be  burned. '  Har 
mon's  Jour.,  p.  249. 


126  HYPEKBOREANS. 

if  through  pain  or  faintness  she  fails  in  the  performance 
of  her  duties,  she  is  held  up  and  pressed  forward  by 
others;  her  cries  meanwhile  are  drowned  in  wild  songs, 
accompanied  by  the  beating  of  drums.212 

When  the  funeral  pile  of  a  Tacully  is  fired,  the  wives 
of  the  deceased,  if  there  are  more  than  one,  are  placed 
at  the  head  and  foot  of  the  body.  Their  duty  there  is 
to  publicly  demonstrate  their  affection  for  the  departed ; 
which  they  do  by  resting  their  head  upon  the  dead  bosom, 
by  striking  in  frenzied  love  the  body,  nursing  and  bat 
tling  the  fire  meanwhile.  And  there  they  remain  until 
the  hair  is  burned  from  their  head,  until,  suffocated  and 
almost  senseless,  they  stagger  off  to  a  little  distance;  then 
recovering,  attack  the  corpse  with  new  vigor,  striking  it 
first  with  one  hand  and  then  with  the  other,  until  the 
form  of  the  beloved  is  reduced  to  ashes.  Finally  these 
ashes  are  gathered  up,  placed  in  sacks,  and  distributed 
one  sack  to  each  wife,  whose  duty  it  is  to  carry  upon  her 
person  the  remains  of  the  departed  for  the  space  of  two 
years.  During  this  period  of  mourning  the  women  are 
clothed  in  rags,  kept  in  a  kind  of  slavery,  and  not  al 
lowed  to  marry.  Not  unfrequently  these  poor  creatures 
avoid  their  term  of  servitude  by  suicide.  At  the  expir 
ation  of  the  time,  a  feast  is  given  them,  and  they  are 
again  free.  Structures  are  erected  as  repositories  for  the 
ashes  of  their  dead,213  in  which  the  bag  or  box  contain 
ing  the  remains  is  placed.  These  grave-houses  are  of 
split  boards  about  one  inch  in  thickness,  six  feet  high, 
and  decorated  with  painted  representations  of  various 
heavenly  and  earthly  objects. 

The  Indians  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  burn  with  the 
deceased  all  his  effects,  and  even  those  of  his  nearest 
relatives,  so  that  it  not  unfrequently  happens  that  a 
family  is  reduced  to  absolute  starvation  in  the  dead  of 

212  '  She  must  frequently  put  her  hands  through  the  flames  and  lay  them 
upon  his  bosom,  to  show  her  continued  devotion.'  Parker's  E'xplor.  Tow,  p. 
239.  They  have  a  custom  of  mourning  over  the  grave  of  the  dead;  their 
expressions  of  grief  are  generally  exceedingly  vociferous.  Jnd.  Life,  pp. 
185,  186. 

5:13  On  the  end  of  a  pole  stuck  in  front  of  the  lodge.'  Lord's  Nat  ,  vol.  ii., 
p.  237. 


KUTCHIN  CHARACTERISTICS.  127 

winter,  when  it  is  impossible  to  procure  food.  The  mo 
tive  assigned  to  this  custom  is,  that  there  may  be  nothing 
left  to  bring  the  dead  to  remembrance. 

A  singular  custom  prevails  among  the  Nateotetain 
women,  which  is  to  cut  off  one  joint  of  a  finger  upon* 
the  death  of  a  near  relative.  In  consequence  of  this 
practice  some  old  women  may  be  seen  with  two  joints 
off  every  finger  on  both  hands.  The  men  bear  their 
sorrows  more  stoically,  being  content  in  such  cases  with 

•/    7  O 

shaving  the  head  and  cutting  their  flesh  with  flints.214 

The  Kutchins  are  the  flower  of  the  Tinneh  family. 
They  are  very  numerous,  numbering  about  twenty-two 
tribes.  They  are  a  more  noble  and  manly  people  than 
either  the  Eskimos  upon  the  north  or  the  contiguous 
Tinneh  tribes  upon  their  own  southern  boundary.  The 
finest  specimens  dwell  on  the  Yukon  River.  The  women 
tattoo  the  chin  with  a  black  pigment,  and  the  men  draw 
a  black  stripe  down  the  forehead  and  nose,  frequently 
crossing  the  forehead  and  cheeks  with  red  lines,  and 
streaking  the  chin  alternately  with  red  and  black.  Their 
features  are  more  regular  than  those  of  their  neighbors, 
more  expressive  of  boldness,  frankness,  and  candor ;  their 
foreheads  higher,  and  their  complexions  lighter.  The 
Tenan  Kutchin  of  the  Tananah  River,  one  of  the  largest 
tribes  of  the  Yukon  Valley,  are  somewhat  wilder  and 
more  ferocious  in  their  appearance.  The  boys  are  pre 
cocious,  and  the  girls  marry  at  fifteen.215  The  Kutchins 
of  Peel  River,  as  observed  by  Mr  Isbister,  "  are  an  ath 
letic  and  fine-looking  race;  considerable  above  the  av- 

214  Women  cut  off  a  joint  of  one  of  their  fingers.     Men  only  cut  off  their 
hair  close  to  their  heads,  but  also  frequently  cut  and  scratch  their  faces  and 
arms.  Harmon's  Jour.,  p.  182.    With  some  sharp  instrument  they  'force  back 
the  flesh  beyond  the  first  joint,  which  they  immediately  amputate.'  Macken 
zie's  Voy.,  p.  148. 

215  '  The  men  are  completely  destitute  of  beard,  and  both  men  and  women, 
are  intensely  ugly.'  Jones,  in  Smithsonian  Kept.,  1866,  p.  320.      'They  re 
minded  me  of  the  ideal  North  American  Indian  I  had  read  of  but  never 
seen.'    Whympers  Alaska,  p.  239.     Distinguished  from  all  other  tribes  for 
the  frankness  and  candor  of  their  demeanor,  and  bold  countenances.  Simp 
son's  Nar.,  p.  100.      «  Males  are  of  the  average  hight  of  Europeans,  and  well- 
formed,  with  regular  features,  high  foreheads,  and  lighter  complexions  than 
those  of  the  other  red  Indians.    The  women  resemble  the  men.'  Richardson's 
Jour.j  vol.  i.,  p.  379. 


123  HYPERBOREANS. 

erage  stature,  most  of  them  being  upwards  of  six  feet  in 
height  and  remarkably  well  proportioned." 

Their  clothing  is  made  from  the  skins  of  reindeer, 
dressed  with  the  hair  on ;  their  coat  cut  after  the  fashion 
of  the  Eskimos,  with  skirts  peaked  before  and  behind, 
and  elaborately  trimmed  with  beads  and  dyed  porcupine- 
quills.  The  Kutchins,  in  common  with  the  Eskimos, 
are  distinguished  by  a  similarity  in  the  costume  of  the 
sexes.  Men  and  women  wear  the  same  description  of 
breeches.  Some  of  the  men  have  a  long  flap  attached  to 
their  deer-skin  shirts,  shaped  like  a  beaver's  tail,  and 
reaching  nearly  to  the  ground.216  Of  the  coat,  Mr 
Whymper  says:  u  If  the  reader  will  imagine  a  man 
dressed  in  two  swallow-tailed  coats,  one  of  them  worn 
as  usual,  the  other  covering  his  stomach  and  buttoned 
behind,  he  will  get  some  idea  of  this  garment,"  Across 
the  shoulders  and  breast  they  wear  a  broad  band  of 
beads,  with  narrower  bands  round  the  forehead  and 
ankles,  and  along  the  seams  of  their  leggins.  They  are 
great  traders ;  beads  are  their  wealth,  used  in  the  place 
of  money,  and  the  rich  among  them  literally  load  them 
selves  with  necklaces  and  strings  of  various  patterns.217 
The  nose  and  ears  are  adorned  with  shells.'18  The  hair 
is  worn  in  a  long  cue,  ornamented  with  feathers,  and 
bound  with  strings  of  beads  and  shells  at  the  head,  with 
flowing  ends,  and  so  saturated  with  grease  and  birds' 
down  as  to  swell  it  sometimes  to  the  thickness  of  the 
neck.  They  pay  considerable  attention  to  personal  clean- 

216  <  Tunic  or  shirt  reaching  to  the  knees,  and  very  much  ornamented  with 
beads,  and  Hyaqua  shells  from  the  Columbia.'  Kirby,  in  Smithsonian  JRept., 
1864,  p.  418.     The  Tenan  Kutchins  are  'gay  with  painted  faces,  feathers  in 
their  long  hair,  patches  of  red  clay  at  the  back  of  their  head.'  Whymper's 
Alaska,  p.  239.     Jackets  like  the  Eskimos.  Richardson's  Jour.,  vol.  i.,  p.  221. 
'  Both  sexes  wear  breeches.'  Simpson's  Nar.,  p.  103. 

217  '  The  Kutch-a-Kutchin,  are  essentially  traders.'  Kirby,  in  Smithsonian 
Eept.,  1864,  p.  418.    Appear  to  care  more  for  useful  than  ornamental  articles. 
Whymper's  Alaska,  p.  213.     'Dentalium  and  arenicola  shells  are  transmitted 
from  the  west  coast  in  traffic,  and  are  greatly  valued.'  Richardson's  Jour., 
vol.  i.,  p.  391. 

218  Some  wear  '  wampum  (a  kind  of  long,  hollow  shell)  through  the  sep 
tum  of  the  nose.'  Hooper's  Tuski,  p.  270.     They  pierce  the  nose  and  insert 
shells,  which  are  obtained  from  the  Eskimos  at  a  high  price.  Franklin's  Nar., 
vol.  ii.,  p.  84. 


FOOD  OF  THE  KUTCHINS.  129 

liness.  The  Kutchins  construct  both  permanent  under 
ground  dwellings  and  the  temporary  summer-hut  or 
tent.219 

On  the  Yukon,  the  greatest  scarcity  of  food  is  in  the 
spring.  The  winter's  stores  are  exhausted,  and  the  bright 
rays  of  the  sun  upon  the  melting  snow  almost  blind  the 
eyes  of  the  deer-hunter.  The  most  plentiful  supply  of 
game  is  in  August,  September,  and  October,  after  which 
the  forming  of  ice  on  the  rivers  prevents  fishing  until 
December,  when  the  winter  traps  are  set.  The  reindeer 
are  in  good  condition  in  August,  and  geese  are  plentiful. 
Salmon  ascend  the  river  in  June,  and  are  taken  in  great 
quantities  until  about  the  first  of  September;  fish  are 
dried  or  smoked  without  salt,  for  winter  use.  Fur- 
hunting  begins  in  October;  and  in  December,  trade 
opens  with  the  Eskimos,  with  whom  furs  are  exchanged 
for  oil  and  seal-skins. 

The  Kutchin  of  the  Yukon  are  unacquainted  with 
nets,  but  catch  their  fish  by  means  of  weirs  or  stakes 
planted  across  rivers  and  narrow  lakes,  having  openings 
for  wicker  baskets,  by  which  they  intercept  the  fish. 
They  hunt  reindeer  in  the  mountains  and  take  moose- 
deer  in  snares.220 

Both  Kutchins  and  Eskimos  are  very  jealous  regard 
ing  their  boundaries ;  but  the  incessant  warfare  which  is 
maintained  between  the  littoral  and  interior  people  of  the 

219  The  Loucheux  live  in  huts  '  formed  of  green  branches.     In  winter  their 
dwellings  are  partly  under  ground.     The  spoils  of  the  moose  and  reindeer 
furnish  them  with  meat,  clothing,  and  tents.'  Simpson's  Nar.,  pp.  103,  191. 
The  Co- Yukon  winter  dwellings  are  made  under  ground,  and  roofed  over  with 
earth,  having  a  hole  for  the  smoke  to  escape  by,  in  the  same  manner  as  those 
of  the  Malemutes  and  Ingaliks.  Why-taper' s  Alaska,  pp.  175,  205.    Their  mov 
able  huts  are  constructed  of  deer-skin,  '  dressed  with  the  hair  on,  and  sewed 
together,  forming  two  large  rolls,  which  are  stretched  over  a  frame  of  bent 
poles,'  with  a  side  door  and  smoke-hole  at  the  top.  Jones,  in  Smithsonian 

•  Eept.,  1866,  321. 

220  The  Loucheux  are  '  great  gormandizers,  and  will  devour  solid  fat,  or 
even  drink  grease,  to  surfeiting.'  Hooper's  Tuski,  p.  271.     'The  bears  are  not 
often  eaten  in  summer,  as  their  flesh  is  not  good  at  that  time.'  Jones,  in  Smith 
sonian  Re.pt.,  1866,  p.  321.     Some  of  their  reindeer-pounds  are  over  one  hun 
dred  years  old  and  are  hereditary  in  the  family.  Richardson's  Jour.,  vol.  i.,  p. 
394.     '  The  mode  of  fishing  through  the  ice  practiced  by  the  Russians  is 
much  in  vogue  with  them.'  Whymper's  Alaska,  p.  211. 

VOL.  I.    9 


130  HYPERBOREANS. 

northern  coast  near  the  Mackenzie  river,  is  not  main 
tained  by  the  north-western  tribes.  One  of  either  peo 
ple,  however,  if  found  hunting  out  of  his  own  territory, 
is  very  liable  to  be  shot.  Some  Kutchin  tribes  permit 
the  Eskimos  to  take  the  meat  of  the  game  which  they  kill, 
provided  they  leave  the  skin  at  the  nearest  village.221 

The  Kutchins  of  the  Yukon  River  manufacture  cups 
and  pots  from  clay,  and  ornament  them  with  crosses, 
dots,  and  lines;  moulding  them  by  hand  after  various 
patterns,  first  drying  them  in  the  sun  and  then  baking 
them.  The  Eskimo  lamp  is  also  sometimes  made  of  clay. 
The  Tinneh  make  paint  of  pulverized  colored  stones  or  of 
earth,  mixed  with  glue.  The  glue  is  made  from  buffalo 
feet  and  applied  by  a  moose-hair  brush. 

In  the  manufacture  of  their  boats  the  Kutchins  of  the 
Yukon  use  bark  as  a  substitute  for  the  seal-skins  of  the 
coast.  They  first  make  a  light  frame  of  willow  or  birch, 
from  eight  to  sixteen  feet  in  length.  Then  with  fine 
spruce-fir  roots  they  sew  together  strips  of  birch  bark, 
cover  the  frame,  and  calk  the  seams  with  spruce  gum. 
They  are  propelled  by  single  paddles  or  poles.  Those  of 
the  Mackenzie  River  are  after  the  same  pattern.222 

In  absence  of  law,  murder  and  all  other  crimes  are  com 
pounded  for.223  A  man  to  be  well  married  must  be  either 

221  The  Kutchins  'have  no  knowledge  of  scalping.'     'When  a  man  kills 
his  enemy,  he  cuts  all  his  joints.'  Jones,  in  Smithsonian  Kept.,  1866,  327.    The 
Loucheux  of  Peel  River  and  the  Eskimos  are  constantly  at  war.  Hooper's 
Tusld,  p.  273. 

222  '  At  Peace  River  the  bark  is  taken  off  the  tree  the  whole  length  of  the  in 
tended  canoe,  which  is  commonly  about  eighteen  feet,  and  is  sewed  with  watupe 
.at  both  ends.'  Mackenzie's  Voy.,  p.  207.     When  the  Kutchins  discover  a  leak, 

'  they  go  ashore,  light  a  small  fire,  warm  the  gum,  of  which  they  always 
•carry  a  supply,  turn  the  canoe  bottom  upward,  and  rub  the  healing  bairn 'in 
a  semi-fluid  state  into  the  seam  until  it  is  again  water-tight.'  V/hympers 
Alaska,  p.  225.  The  Tacullies  'make  canoes  which  are  clumsily  wrought,  of 
the  aspin  tree,  as  well  as  of  the  bark  of  the  spruce  fir.'  Harmon's  Jour.,  p. 
291.  Rafts  are  employed  on  the  Mackenzie.  Simpson's  Nar.,  p.  185.  'In 
shape  the  Northern  Indian  canoe  bears  some  resemblance  to  a  weaver's 
^shuttle;  covered  over  with  birch  bark.'  Hearne's  Jour.,  pp.  97,  98.  '  Kanots 
:aus  Birkenrinde,  auf  denen  sie  die  Flusse  u.  Seen  befahren.'  Baer,  Stat.  u. 
Ethn.,  p.  112.  The  Kutchin  canoe  'is  flat-bottomed,  is  about  nine  feet  long 
and  one  broad,  and  the  sides  nearly  straight  up  and  down  like  a  wall.'  Jones, 
in  Smithsonian  Kept.,  1866,  p.  323. 

2-'3  As  for  instance  for  a  life,  the  fine  is  forty  beaver-skins,  and  may  be 
paid  in  guns  at  twenty  skins  each;  blankets,  equal  to  ten  skins  each;  powder, 
one  skin  a  measure;  bullets,  eighteen  for  a  skin;  worsted  belts,  two  skins 


THE  TENAN  KUTCHIN.  131 

rich  or  strong.  A  good  hunter,  who  can  accumulate 
beads,  and  a  good  wrestler,  who  can  win  brides  by  force, 
may  have  from  two  to  five  wives.  The  women  perform 
all  domestic  duties,  and  eat  after  the  husband  is  satisfied, 
but  the  men  paddle  the  boats,  and  have  even  been  known 
to  carry  their  wives  ashore  so  that  they  might  not  wet 
their  feet.  The  women  carry  their  infants  in  a  sort  of 
bark  saddle,  fastened  to  their  back ;  they  bandage  their 
feet  in  order  to  keep  them  small.221  Kutchin  amusements 
are  wrestling,  leaping,  dancing,  and  singing.  They  are 
great  talkers,  and  etiquette  forbids  any  interruption  to 
the  narrative  of  a  new  comer.225 

The  Tenan  Kutchin,  'people  of  the  mountains/  in 
habiting  the  country  south  of  Fort  Yukon  which  is 
drained  by  the  river  Tananah,  are  a  wild,  ungovernable 
horde,  their  territory  never  yet  having  been  invaded  by 
white  people.  The  river  upon  which  they  dwell  is  sup 
posed  to  take  its  rise  near  the  upper  Yukon.  They  allow 
no  women  in  their  deer-hunting  expeditions.  They 
smear  their  legging  and  hair  with  red  ochre  and  grease. 
The  men  part  their  hair  in  the  middle  and  separate  it 
into  locks,  which,  when  properly  dressed,  look  like  rolls 
of  red  mud  about  the  size  of  a  finger;  one  bunch  of 
locks  is  secured  in  a  mass  which  falls  down  the  neck,  by 
a  band  of  dentalium  shells,  and  two  smaller  rolls  hang 
down  either  side  of  the  face.  After  being  soaked  in 

each.  Hooper's  Tuski,  p.  272.  «  For  theft,  little  or  no  punishment  is  inflicted; 
for  adultery,  the  woman  only  is  punished ' — sometimes  by  beating,  sometimes 
by  death.  Jones,  in  Smithsonian  Kept.,  18C6,  p.  325. 

224  Kutchin  'female  chastity  is  prized,  but  is  nearly  unknown.'  Jones,  in 
Smithsonian  Rept.,  1866,  p.  325.    Loucheux  mothers  had  originally  a  custom  of 
casting  away  their  female  children,  but  now  it  is  only  done  by  the  Mountain 
Indians.  Simpson's  Nar.,  p.  187.     The  Kutchin  '  women  are  much  fewer  in 
number  and  live  a  much  shorter  time  than  the  men.'  Kirby,  in  Smithsonian 
Kept.,  1864,  p.  418.     The  old  people  'are  not  ill-used,  but  simply  neglected.' 
Whymper's  Alaska,  p.  229.     The  children  are  carried  in  small  chairs  ma.de  of 
birch  bark.  Id.,  p.  232.     '  In  a  seat  of  birch  bark.'  Richardson's  Jour.,  vol.  i., 
p.  384. 

225  The  Loucheux  dances  '  abound  in  extravagant  gestures,  and  demand 
violent  exertion.'  Simpson's  Nar.,  p.  100.    See  Hardisty,  in  Smithsonian  Kept., 
1866,  p.  313.     '  Singing  is  much  practiced,  but  it  is,  though  varied,  of  a  very 
hum-drum  nature.'  Hooper's  Tuski,  p.  318.     'At  the  festivals  held  on  the 
meeting  of  friendly  tribes,  leaping  and  wrestling  are  practised.'  Richardson's 
Jour.,  vol.  i.,  p.  395. 


132  HYPERBOREANS. 

grease  and  tied,  the  head  is  powdered  with  finely  cut 
swan's  down,  which  adheres  to  the  greasy  hair.  The 
women  wear  few  ornaments,  perform  more  than  the  or 
dinary  amount  of  drudgery,  and  are  treated  more  like 
dogs  than  human  heings.  Chastity  is  scarcely  known 
among  them.  The  Kutcha  Kutchin,  'people  of  the  low 
land,'  are  cleaner  and  better  mannered. 

The  Kutchins  have  a  singular  system  of  totems.  The 
whole  nation  is  divided  into  three  castes,  called  re 
spectively  Chitcheah,  Tengmtsey,  and  Natsahi,  each  occu 
pying  a  distinct  territory.  Two  persons  of  the  same 
caste  are  not  allowed  to  marry ;  but  a  man  of  one  caste 
must  marry  a  woman  of  another.  The  mother  gives 
caste  to  the  children,  so  that  as  the  fathers  die  off  the 
caste  of  the  country  constantly  changes.  This  system 
operates  strongly  against  war  between  tribes ;  as  in  war, 
it  is  caste  against  caste,  and  not  tribe  against  tribe.  As 
the  father  is  never  of  the  same  caste  as  the  son,  who  re 
ceives  caste  from  his  mother,  there  can  never  be  inter 
tribal  war  without  ranging  fathers  and  sons  against  each 
other.  When  a  child  is  named,  the  father  drops  his 
former  name  and  substitutes  that  of  the  child,  so  that 
the  father  receives  his  name  from  the  child,  and  not  the 
child  from  the  father. 

They  have  scarcely  any  government;  their  chiefs  are 
elected  on  account  of  wealth  or  ability,  and  their  au 
thority  is  very  limited.226  Their  custom  is  to  burn  the 
dead,  and  enclose  the  ashes  in  a  box  placed  upon  posts; 
some  tribes  enclose  the  body  in  an  elevated  box  without 
burning.227 

The  Kenai  are  a  fine,  manly  race,  in  which  Baer  dis 
tinguishes  characteristics  decidedly  American,  and  clearly 

226  '  Irrespective  of  tribe,  they  are  divided  into  three  classes,  termed  re 
spectively,  Chit-sa,  Nate-sa,  and  Tanges-at-sa,  faintly  representing  the  aris 
tocracy,  the  middle  classes,  and  the  poorer  orders  of  civilized  nations,  the 
former  being  the  most  wealthy  and  the  latter  the  poorest. '  Kirby,  in  Smith 
sonian  Kept.,  1864,  p.  418. 

227  On  Peel  River  '  they  bury  their  dead  on  stages. '     On  the  Yukon  they 
burn  and  suspend  the  ashes  in  bags  from  the  top  of  a  painted  pole.  Kirby,  in 
Smithsonian  Kept.,  1864,  p.  419.     They  of  the  Yukon  '  do  not  inter  the  dead, 
but  put  them  in  oblong  boxes,  raised  on  posts.'   Whymper's  Alaska,  pp. 
207,  211. 


THE  KENAI.  133, 

distinct  from  the  Asiatic  Eskimos.  One  of  the  most  pow-1 
erf ul  Kenai  tribes  is  the  Unakatanas,  who  dwell  upon  the 
Koyukuk  River,  and  plant  their  villages  along  the  banks 
of  the  lower  Yukon  for  a  distance  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  miles.  They  are  bold  and  ferocious,  dominative 
even  to  the  giving  of  fashion  in  dress. 

That  part  of  the  Yukon  which  runs  through  their  ter 
ritory  abounds  with  moose,  which  during  the  summer 
frequent  the  water  in  order  to  avoid  the  mosquitos,  and 
as  the  animals  are  clumsy  swimmers,  the  Indians  easily 
capture  them.  Their  women  occupy  a  very  inferior  po 
sition,  being  obliged  to  do  more  drudgery  and  embellish 
their  dress  with  fewer  ornaments  than  those  of  the  upper 
tribes.  The  men  wear  a  heavy  fringe  of  beads  or  shells 
upon  their  dress,  equal  sometimes  to  two  hundred  mar 
ten-skins  in  value. 

At  Nuklukahyet,  where  the  Tananah  River  joins  the 
Yukon,  is  a  neutral  trading-ground  to  which  all  the  sur 
rounding  tribes  resort  in  the  spring  for  traffic.  Skins 
are  their  moneyed  currency,  the  beaver-skin  being  the 
standard ;  one  *  made '  beaver-skin  represents  two  marten- 
skins. 

The  Ingaliks  inhabiting  the  Yukon  near  its  mouth  call 
themselves  Kaeijah  Khatana.  Their  dialect  is  totally 
distinct  from  the  Malemutes,  their  neighbors  on  the 
west,  but  shows  an  affinity  with  that  of  the  Unakatanas 
to  their  east.  Tobacco  they  both  smoke  and  snuff.  The 
smoke  they  swallow;  snuff  is  drawn  into  the  nostrils 
through  a  wooden  tube.  They  manufacture  snuff  from 
leaf  tobacco  by  means  of  a  wooden  mortar  and  pestle, 
and  carry  bone  or  wooden  snuff-boxes.  They  are  de 
scribed  by  travelers  as  a  timid,  sensitive  people,  and 
remarkably  honest.  Ingalik  women  are  delivered  kneel 
ing,  and  without  pain,  being  seldom  detained  from  their 
household  duties  for  more  than  an  hour.  The  infant 
is  washed,  greased,  and  fed,  and  is  seldom  weaned  under 
two  or  three  years.  The  women  live  longer  than  the 
men ;  some  of  them  reaching  sixty,  while  the  men  rarely 
attain  more  than  forty-five  years. 


134  HYPERBOREANS. 

The  Koltschanes,  whose  name  in  the  dialect  of  the 
Kenai  signifies  i  guest/  and  in  that  of  the  Atnas  of  Cop 
per  River,  'stranger/  have  been  charged  with  great  cru- 
eltv,  and  even  cannibalism,  but  without  special  founda 
tion.  Wrangell  believes  the  Koltschanes,  Atnas,  and 
Kolosches  to  be  one  people. 

The  Kenai,  of  the  Kenaian  peninsula,  upon  recovery 
from  dangerous  illness,  give  a  feast  to  those  who  ex 
pressed  sympathy  during  the  affliction.  If  a  bounteous 
provision  is  made  upon  these  occasions,  a  chieftainship 
may  be  obtained  thereby;  and  although  the  power  thus 
acquired  does  not  descend  to  one's  heir,  he  may  be  con 
ditionally  recognized  as  chief.  Injuries  are  avenged  by 
the  nearest  relative,  but  if  a  murder  is  committed  by  a 
member  of  another  clan,  all  the  allied  families  rise  to 
avenge  the  wrong.  When  a  person  dies,  the  whole  com 
munity  assemble  and  mourn.  The  nearest  kinsman,  ar 
rayed  in  his  best  apparel,  with  blackened  face,  his  nose 
and  head  decked  with  eagle's  feathers,  leads  the  cere 
mony.  All  sit  round  a  fire  and  howl,  while  the  master 
of  the  lamentation  recounts  the  notable  deeds  of  the 
departed,  amidst  the  ringing  of  bells,  and  violent  stamp 
ings,  and  contortions  of  his  body.  The  clothing  is  then 
distributed  to  the  relatives,  the  body  is  burned,  the  bones 
collected  and  interred,  and  at  the  expiration  of  a  year  a 
feast  is  held  to  the  memory  of  the  deceased,  after  which 
it  is  not  lawful  for  a  relative  to  mention  his  name. 

The  lover,  if  his  suit  is  accepted,  must  perform  a 
year's  service  for  his  bride.  The  wooing  is  in  this  wise: 
early  some  morning  he  enters  the  abode  of  the  fair  one's 
father,  and  without  speaking  a  word  proceeds  to  bring 
water,  prepare  food,  and  to  heat  the  bath-room.  In  re 
ply  to  the  question  why  he  performs  these  services,  he 
answers  that  he  desires  the  daughter  for  a  wife.  At  the 
expiration  of  the  year,  without  further  ceremony,  he 
takes  her  home,  with  a  gift ;  but  if  she  is  not  well  treated 
by  her  husband,  she  may  return  to  her  father,  and  take 
with  her  the  dowry.  The  wealthy  may  have  several 
wives,  but  the  property  of  each  wife  is  distinct.  They 


TINNEH  CHARACTER.  135 

are  nomadic  in  their  inclinations  and  traverse  the  in 
terior  to  a  considerable  distance  in  pursuit  of  game. 

The  Atnas  are  a  small  tribe  inhabiting  the  Atna  or 
Copper  River.  They  understand  the  art  of  working 
copper,  and  have  commercial  relations  with  surrounding 
tribes.  In  the  spring,  before  the  breaking  up  of  ice  upon 
the  lakes  and  rivers,  they  hunt  reindeer,  driving  them 
into  angle-shaped  wicker-work  corrals,  where  they  are 
killed.  In  the  autumn  another  general  hunt  takes  place, 
when  deer  are  driven  into  lakes,  and  pursued  and  killed 
in  boats.  Their  food  and  clothing  depend  entirely  upon 
their  success  in  these  forays,  as  they  are  unable  to  obtain 
fish  in  sufficient  quantities  for  their  sustenance ;  and  when 
unsuccessful  in  the  chase,  whole  families  die  of  starva 
tion.  Those  who  can  afford  it,  keep  slaves,  buying  them 
from  the  Koltschanes.  They  burn  their  dead,  then  care 
fully  collect  the  ashes  in  a  new  reindeer-skin,  enclose  the 
skin  in  a  box,  and  place  the  box  on  posts  or  in  a  tree. 
Every  year  they  celebrate  a  feast  in  commemoration  of 
their  dead.  Baer  asserts  that  the  Atnas  divide  the  year 
into  fifteen  months,  which  are  designated  only  by  their 
numbers ;  ten  of  them  belong  to  autumn  and  winter,  and 
five  to  spring  and  summer. 

The  Tinneh  character,  if  we  may  accept  the  assertions 
of  various  travelers,  visiting  different  parts  under  widely 
different  circumstances,  presents  a  multitude  of  phases. 
Thus  it  is  said  of  the  Chipewyans  by  Mackenzie,  that 
they  are  "  sober,  timorous,  and  vagrant,  with  a  selfish 
disposition  which  has  sometimes  created  suspicions  of 
their  integrity.  They  are  also  of  a  quarrelous  disposi 
tion,  and  are  continually  making  complaints  which  they 
express  by  a  constant  repetition  of  the  word  edmy,  4t  is 
hard,'  in  a  wliiny  and  plaintive  tone  of  voice.  So  indo 
lent  that  numbers  perish  every  year  from  famine.  Sui 
cide  is  not  uncommon  among  them."  Hearne  asserts 
that  they  are  morose  arid  covetous;  that  they  have  no 
gratitude;  are  great  beggars;  are  insolent,  if  any  respect 
is  shown  them ;  that  they  cheat  on  all  opportunities ;  yet 
they  are  mild,  rarely  get  drunk,  and  "never  proceed  to 


136  HYPEKBOEEANS. 

violence  beyond  bad  language;"  that  they  steal  on  every 
opportunity  from  the  whites,  but  very  rarely  from  each 
other;  and  although  regarding  all  property,  including 
wives,  as  belonging  to  the  strongest,  yet  they  only  wres 
tle,  and  rarely  murder.  Of  the  same  people  Sir  John 
Franklin  says,  that  they  are  naturally  indolent,  selfish, 
and  great  beggars.  "  I  never  saw  men,"  he  writes,  "  who 
either  received  or  bestowed  a  gift  with  such  bad  grace." 
The  Dog-ribs  are  "  of  a  mild,  hospitable,  but  rather  in 
dolent  disposition,"  fond  of  dancing  and  singing.  Ac 
cording  to  the  same  traveler  the  Copper  Indians  are  su 
perior,  in  personal  character,  to  any  other  Chipewyans. 
"Their  delicate  and  humane  attentions  to  us,"  he  re 
marks,  uin  a  period  of  great  distress,  are  indelibly  en 
graven  on  our  memories."  Simpson  says  that  it  is  a 
general  rule  among  the  traders  not  to  believe  the  first 
story  of  an  Indian .  Although  sometimes  bearing  suffering 
with  fortitude,  the  least  sickness  makes  them  say,  "I  am 
going  to  die,"  and  the  improvidence  of  the  Indian  char 
acter  is  greatly  aggravated  by  the  custom  of  destroying 
all  the  property  of  deceased  relatives.  Sir  John  Rich 
ardson  accuses  the  Hare  Indians  of  timidity,  standing  in 
great  fear  of  the  Eskimos,  and  being  always  in  want 
of  food.  They  are  practical  socialists,  'great  liars/  but 
*  strictly  honest.'  Hospitality  is  not  a  virtue  with  them. 
According  to  Richardson,  neither  the  Eskimos,  Dog-ribs, 
nor  Hare  Indians,  feel  the  least  shame  in  being  detected 
in  falsehood,  and  invariably  practice  it  if  they  think 
that  they  can  thereby  gain  any  of  their  petty  ends. 
Even  in  their  familiar  intercourse  with  each  other,  the 
Indians  seldom  tell  the  truth  in  the  first  instance,  and  if 
they  succeed  in  exciting  admiration  or  astonishment, 
their  invention  runs  on  without  check.  From  the  man 
ner  of  the  speaker,  rather  than  by  his  words,  is  his  truth 
or  falsehood  inferred,  and  often  a  very  long  interrogation 
is  necessary  to  elicit  the  real  fact.  The  comfort,  and 
not  uiifrequently  even  the  lives  of  parties  of  the  timid 
Hare  Indians  are  sacrificed  by  this  miserable  propen 
sity.  The  Hare  and  Dog-rib  women  are  certainly  at  the 


TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES.  137 

bottom  of  the  scale  of  humanity  in  North  America. 
Ross  thinks  that  they  are  "tolerably  honest;  not  blood 
thirsty,  nor  cruel;"  "confirmed  liars,  far  from  being 
chaste." 

According  to  Harmon,  one  of  the  earliest  and  most 
observing  travelers  among  them,  the  Tacullies  "are  a 
quiet,  inoffensive  people,"  and  "perhaps  the  most  honest 
on  the  face  of  the  earth."  They  "are  unusually  talka 
tive,"  and  "take  great  delight  in  singing  or  humming 
or  whistling  a  dull  air."  "Murder  is  not  considered  as 
a  crime  of  great  magnitude."  He  considers  the  Sican- 
nis  the  bravest  of  the  Tacully  tribes. 

But  the  Kutchins  bear  off  the  palm  for  honesty.  Says 
Whymper:  "Finding  the  loads  too  great  for  our  dogs,  we 
raised  an  erection  of  poles,  and  deposited  some  bags 
thereon.  I  may  here  say,  once  for  all,  that  our  men 
often  left  goods,  consisting  of  tea,  flour,  molasses,  bacon, 
and  all  kinds  of  miscellaneous  articles,  scattered  in  this 
way  over  the  country,  and  that  they  remained  un 
touched  by  the  Indians,  who  frequently  traveled  past 
them."  Simpson  testifies  of  the  Loucheux  that  "  a 
bloody  intent  with  them  lurks  not  under  a  smile." 
Murray  reports  the  Kutchins  treacherous;  Richardson 
did  not  find  them  so.  Jones  declares  that  "they  differ 
entirely  from  the  Tinneh  tribes  of  the  Mackenzie,  being 
generous,  honest,  hospitable,  proud,  high-spirited,  and 
quick  to  revenge  an  injury." 

TRIBAL    BOUNDARIES. 

Accurately  to  draw  partition  lines  between  primitive  nations  is  impossible. 
Migrating  with  the  seasons,  constantly  at  war,  driving  and  being  driven  far 
past  the  limits  of  hereditary  boundaries,  extirpating  and  being  extirpated, 
overwhelming,  intermingling ;  like  a  human  sea,  swelling  and  surging  in  its 
wild  struggle  with  the  winds  of  fate,  they  come  and  go,  here  to-day,  yonder 
to-morrow.  A  traveler  passing  over  the  country  finds  it  inhabited  by  certain 
tribes;  another  coming  after  finds  all  changed.  One  writer  gives  certain 
names  to  certain  nations;  another  changes  the  name,  or  gives  to  the  nation 
a  totally  different  locality.  An  approximation,  however,  can  be  made  suffi 
ciently  correct  for  practical  purposes;  and  to  arrive  at  this,  I  will  give  at 
the  end  of  each  chapter  all  the  authorities  at  my  command;  that  from  the 


138  TKIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

statements  of  all,  whether  conflicting  or  otherwise,  the  truth  may  be  very 
nearly  arrived  at.  All  nations,  north  of  the  fifty-fifth  parallel,  as  before 
mentioned,  I  call  Hyperboreans. 

To  THE  ESKIMOS,  I  give  the  Arctic  sea-board  from  the  Coppermine  Rivei 
to  Kotzebue  Sound.  Late  travelers  make  a  distinction  between  the  Male- 
mutes  and  Kaveaks  of  Norton  Sound  and  the  Eskimos.  Whymper  calls  the 
former  '  a  race  of  tall  and  stout  people,  but  in  other  respect,  much  resem 
bling  the  Esquimaux.'  Alaska,  p.  159.  Sir  John  Richardson,  in  his  Journal, 
vol.  i.,  p.  341,  places  them  on  the  '  western  coast,  by  Cook's  Sound  and  Tchu- 
gatz  Bay,  nearly  to  Mount  St.  Elias;'  but  in  his  Polar  Regions,  p.  299,  he 
terminates  them  at  Kotzebue  Sound.  Early  writers  give  them  the  widest 
scope.  '  Die  siidlichsten  sind  in  Amerika,  auf  der  Kiiste  Labrador,  wo  nach 
Charlevoix  dieser  Volkerstamm  den  Nahmen  Esquimaux  bey  den  in  der  Nahe 
wohnenden  Abenaki  fiihrte,  und  auch  an  der  benachbarten  Ostseite  von  Neu- 
Fundland,  ferner  westlich  noch  unter  der  Halbinsel  Alaska.'  Valer,  Mithri- 
daies,  vol.  iii.,  pt.  iii.,  p.  425.  Dr  Latham,  in  his  Varieties  of  Man,  treats 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  as  Eskimos,  and  in  Native  Races 
of  the  Russian  Empire,  p.  289,  he  gives  them  '  the  whole  of  the  coast  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  and  the  coast  from  Behriug  Strait  to  Cook  Inlet. '  Prichard, 
Researches,  vol.  v.,  p.  371,  requires  more  complete  evidence  before  he  can 
conclude  that  the  Aleuts  are  not  Eskimos.  Being  entirely  unacquainted 
with  the  great  Kutchin  family  in  the  Yukon  Valley,  he  makes  the  Carriers  of 
New  Caledonia  conterminous  with  the  Eskimos.  The  boundary  lines  be 
tween  the  Eskimos  and  the  interior  Indian  tribes  '  are  generally  formed  by 
the  summit  of  the  watershed  between  the  small  rivers  which  empty  into  the 
sea  and  those  which  fall  into  the  Yukon.'  DalVs  Alaska,  p.  144.  Malte-Brun, 
Precis  dela  Geographie,  vol.  v.,  p.  317,  goes  to  the  other  extreme.  '  Les  Esqui 
maux,  '  he  declares,  '  habitent  depuis  le  golfe  Welcome  jusqu'au  fleuve  Macken 
zie,  et  probablement  jusqu'au  detroit  de  Bering ;  ils  s'etendent  au  sud  jusqu'au 
lac  de  1'Esclave. '  Ludewig,  Aboriginal  Languages,  p.  69,  divides  them  into  *  Es 
kimo  proper,  on  the  shores  of  Labrador,  and  the  Western  Eskimos. '  Gallatin 
sweepingly  asserts  that  '  they  are  the  sole  native  inhabitants  of  the  shores  of 
all  the  seas,  bays,  inlets,  and  islands  of  America,  north  of  the  sixtieth  de 
gree  of  north  latitude.'  Am.  Antiq.  Soc.  Transact.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  9.  The  Western 
Eskimos,  says  Beechey,  '  inhabit  the  north-west  coast  of  America,  from  60°  34' 
N.  to  71°  24'  N.'  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  299.  'Along  the  entire  coast  of  America.' 
Armstrong's  JVar.,  p.  191. 

The  tribal  subdivisions  of  the  Eskimos  are  as  follows:— At  Coppermine 
River  they  are  known  by  the  name  of  Naggeuktoomutes,  '  deer-horns.'  At  the 
eastern  outlet  of  the  Mackenzie  they  are  called  Kittear.  Between  the  Mac 
kenzie  River  and  Barter  Reef  they  call  themselves  Kangmali-Innuin.  The 
tribal  name  at  Point  Barrow  is  Nuwangmeun.  '  The  Nuna-tangmc-un  inhabit 
the  country  traversed  by  the  Nunatok,  a  river  which  falls  into  Kotzebue 
Sound.'  Richardson's  Pol.  Reg.  p.  300.  From  Cape  Lisburn  to  Icy  Cape  the 
tribal  appellation  is  Kitegues.  '  Deutsche  Kartell  zeigen  uns  noch  irn  Nord- 
west-Ende  des  russischen  Nordamerika's,  in  dieser  so  anders  gewandten 
Kiistenlinie,  nordlich  vom  Kotzebue-Sund :  im  westlichen  Theile  des  Kusten- 


ESKIMOS  AND  KONIAGAS.  139 

landes,  das  sie  West-Georgien  nennen,  vomCap  Lisburnbis  iiber  das  Eiscap; 
hinlaufend  das  Volk  der  Kiteguen.'  Buschmann,  Spuren  der  Aztek.  Sprache, 
p.  713.  '  The  tribes  appear  to  be  separated  from  each  other  by  a  neutral 
ground,  across  which  small  parties  venture  in  the  summer  for  barter.'  The 
Tusld,  Tschuktschi,  or  Tchutski,  of  the  easternmost  point  of  Asia,  have  also 
been  referred  to  the  opposite  coast  of  America  for  their  habitation.  The 
Tschuktchi  '  occupy  the  north-western  coast  of  Russian  Asia,  and  the  oppo 
site  shores  of  north-western  America.'  Ludewig,  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  191. 

THE  KONIAGAN  nation  occupies  the  shores  of  Bering  Sea,  from  Kotzebue 
Sound  to  the  Island  of  Kadiak,  including  a  part  of  the  Alaskan  Penin 
sula,  and  the  Koiiiagan  and  Chugatschen  Islands.  The  Koniagas  proper  in 
habit  Kadiak,  and  the  contiguous  islands.  Buschmann,  Spuren  der  Aztek. 
Sprache,  p.  676.  '  The  Konaegi  are  inhabitants  of  the  Isle  of  Kodiak.'  Prich- 
ard's  Researches,  vol.  v.,  p.  371.  '  Die  eigentlichen  Konjagen  oder  Bewohner 
der  Insel  Kadjak.'  Holmberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  4.  'Zu  den  letztern  rechnet 
man  die  Aleuten  von  Kadjack,  deren  Sprache  von  alien  Kiistenbewohnern 
von  der  Tschugatschen-Bay,  bis  an  die  Berings-Strasse  und  selbst  weiter 
noch  die  herschende  ist.'  Baer,  Stat.  u.  Ethn.,  p.  58.  'From  Iliamna  Lake 
to  the  159th  degree  of  west  longitude.'  DalVs  Alaska,  p.  401.  'La  cote  qui 
s'etend  depuis  le  golfe  Kamischezkaja  jusqu'au  Nouveau-Cornouaille,  est 
habitee  par  cinq  peuplades  qui  formeiit  autant  de  grandes  divisions  territori- 
ales  dans  les  colonies  de  la  Kussie  Americaine.  Leurs  noms  sont:  Koniagi, 
Kenayzi,  Tschugatschi,  Ugalachmiuti  et  Koliugi.'  Humboldt,  Essai  Pol.,  torn. 
i.,  p.  347. 

The  Chugaisches  inhabit  the  islands  and  shores  of  Prince  William  Sound. 
'  Die  Tchugatschen  bewohnen  die  grossten  Inseln  der  Bai  Tschugatsk,  wie 
Zukli,  Chtagaluk  u.  a.  und  ziehen  sich  an  der  Siidkiiste  der  Halbinsel  Kenai 
nach  Westen  bis  zur  Einfahrt  in  den  Kenaischen  Meerbusen.'  Holmberg, 
Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  4.  'Die  Tschugatschen  sind  Ankommlinge  von  der  Insel 
Kadjack,  die  wahrend  innerer  Zwistigkeiten  von  dort  vertrieben,  sich  zu 
ihren  jetzigen  Wohnsitzen  an  den  Ufern  von  Prince  William's  Sound  und 
gegen  Westen  bis  zum  Eingange  von  Cook's  Inlet  hingewendet  haben.'  Baer, 
Stat.  u.  Ethn.,  p.  116.  '  Les  Tschugatschi  occupent  le  pays  qui  s'etend  depuis 
1'extremite  septentrionale  de  1'entree  de  Cook  jusqu'a  Test  de  la  baie  du 
prince  Guillaume  (golfe  Tschugatskaja.)'  Humboldt,  Essai  Pol.,  torn,  i.,  p. 
348.  According  to  Latham,  Native  Races,  p.  290,  they  are  the  most  south 
ern  members  of  the  family.  The  Tschugazzi  'live  between  the  Ugalyach- 
mutzi  and  the  Kenaizi.'  Prichard's  Researches,  vol.  v.,  p.  371.  '  Occupy  the 
shores  and  islands  of  Chugach  Gulf,  and  the  southwest  coasts  of  the  penin 
sula  of  Kenai.'  DaWs  Alaska,  p.  401.  Tschugatschi,  '  Prince  William  Sound, 
and  Cook's  Inlet.'  Ludewig,  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  191.  Tchugatchih,  'claim  as  their 
hereditary  possessions  the  coast  lying  between  Bristol  Bay  and  Beering's 
Straits.'  Richardson's  Jour.,  vol.  i.,  p.  364. 

The  Aglegmutes  occupy  the  shores  of  Bristol  Bay  from  the  river  Nushagak 
along  the  western  coast  of  the  Alaskan  Peninsula,  to  latitude  56°.  'Die  Ag- 
legmjuten,  von  der  Miindung  des  Flusses  Nuschagakh  bis  zum  57°  oder  56° 
an  der  Westkiiste  der  Halbinsel  Aljaska;  haben  also  die  Ufer  der  Bristol-Bai 


140  TKIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

inne.'  Holmberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  4.  Dall  calls  them  Oglemutes,  and  says 
that  they  inhabit  '  the  north  coast  of  Aliaska  from  the  159th  degree  of  west 
longitude  to  the  head  of  Bristol  Bay,  and  along  the  north  shore  of  that  Bay 
to  Point  Etolin.'  Alaska,  p.  405.  Die  Agolegmiiten,  an  den  Ausmundungen 
der  Flusse  Nuschagack  und  Nackneck,  ungefahr  500  an  der  Zahl.'  Baer,  Stat. 
u.  Ethn.,  p.  121. 

The  Kijataigmutes  dwell  upon  the  banks  of  the  river  Nushagak  and  along 
the  coast  westward  to  Cape  Newenham.  'Die  Kijataigmjuten  wohnen  an 
den  Ufern  des  Flusses  Nuschagakh,  sowie  seines  Nebenflusses  Iligajakh.' 
Holmberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  5.  Dall  says  that  they  call  themselves  Nushergag- 
mut,  and  'inhabit  the  coast  near  the  mouth  of  the  Nushergak  River,  and 
westward  to  Cape  Newenham.'  Alaska,  p.  405.  'Die  Kijaten  order  Kijataig- 
miiten  an  den  Fliissen  Nuschagack  und  Ilgajack.'  J3aer,  Stat.  u.  Ethn.,  p.  121. 
'Am  Fl.  Nuschagak.'  Buschmann,  Spurender  Aztek.  Sprache,  p.  760. 

The  Agulmutes  inhabit  the  coast  between  the  rivers  Kuskoquim  and  Kish- 
unak.  'Die  Aguljmjuten  habeii  sowohl  den  Kiistenstrich  als  das  Innere 
des  Landes  zwischen  den  Miindungen  des  Kuskokwim  und  des  Kishunakh 
inne.'  Holmberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  5.  '  This  tribe  extends  from  near  Cape  Avi- 
noff  nearly  to  Cape  Romanzoff.'  Dall's  Alaska,  p.  406.  'Den  Agulmiiten, 
am  Flusse  Kwichliiwack. '  Baer,  Stat.  u.  Ethn.,  p.  122.  'An  der  Kwickpak- 
Miind.'  Buschmann,  Spuren  der  Aztek.  Sprache,  p.  719. 

The  Kuskoquigmutes  occupy  the  banks  of  Kuskoquim  River  and  Bay. 
'  Die  Kuskokwigmjuten  bewohnen  die  Ufer  des  Flusses  Kuskokwim  von 
seiner  Miiiidung  bis  zur  Ansiedelung  Kwygyschpainagmjut  in  der  Nahe  der 
Odiiiotschka  Kalmakow.'  Holmberg,  Eihn.  Skiz.,  p.  5.  The  Kuskwogmuts 
'  inhabit  both  shores  of  Kuskoquim  Bay,  and  some  little  distance  up  that 
river.'  Dallas  Alaska,  p.  405.  'Die  Kuskokwimer  an  dem  Flusse  Kuskokwim 
und  andern  kleinen  Zufllussen  desselben  und  an  den  Ufern  der  siidlich  von 
diesem  Flusse  gelegenen  Seen.'  Baer,  Stat.  u.  Ethn.,  p.  122.  'Between  the 
rivers  Nushagak,  Ilgajak,  Chulitna,  and  Kuskokwina,  on  the  sea-shore.' 
Ludgewig,  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  98. 

The  Magemutes  live  between  the  rivers  Kishunak  and  Kipunaiak.  '  Die 
Magmjuten  oder  Magagmjuten,  zwischen  den  Fliissen  Kiskunakh  und  Ki- 
punajakh.'  Holmberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  5.  'These  inhabit  the  vicinity  of  Cape 
Romanzoff  and  reach  nearly  to  the  Yukon-mouth.'  DalVs  Alaska,  p.  407. 
'  Magimuten,  am  Flusse  Kyschunack.'  Baer,  Stat.  u.  Ethn.,  p.  322.  '  Im  S  des 
Norton  Busens.'  Buschmann,  Spuren  der  Aztek.  Sprache,  p.  766. 

The  Kwichpagmules,  or  inhabitants  of  the  large  river,  dwell  upon  the  Kwich- 
pak  River,  from  the  coast  range  to  the  Uallik.  '  Die  Kwichpagmjuten,  haben 
ihre  Ansiedelungen  am  Kwickpakh  vom  Kiistengebirge  an  bis  zum  Neben- 
flusse  Uallik.'  Holmberg,  Ethn:  Skiz.,  p.  5.  '  Kuwichpackmliten,  am  Flusse 
Kuwichpack.'  Baer,  Stat.  u.  Ethn.,  p.  122.  'Tlagga  Silla,  or  little  dogs, 
nearer  to  the  mouth  of  the  Yukon,  and  probably  conterminous  with  the  Es 
kimo  Kwichpak-meut. '  Latham's  Nat.  Paces,  p.  293.  On  Whymper's  map 
are  the  Primoski,  near  the  delta  of  the  Yukon. 

The  Kwichluagmutes  dwell  upon  the  banks  of  the  Kwichluak  or  Crooked 
River,  an  arm  of  the  Kwichpak.  '  Die  Kwichljuagmjuten  an  den  Ufern  eines 


THE  ALEUTS.  141 

Miindungsarmes  des  Kwichpakh,  der  Kwichljuakh.'  Iloltnberg,  Ethn.  Skiz., 
p.  5.  'Inhabit  the  Kwikhpak  Slough.'  Ball's  Alaska,  p.  407. 

The  Pashtoliks  dwell  upon  the  river  Pashtolik.  '  Die  Paschtoligmjuten, 
an  den  TJfern  des  Pastolflusses. '  Holmberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  6.  '  Paschtolig- 
mttten,  am  Flusse  Paschtol.'  Baer,  Stat.  u.  Ethn.,  p.  122.  Whymper  places 
them  immediately  north  of  the  delta  of  the  Yukon. 

The  Chnagmutes  occupy  the  coast  and  islands  south  of  the  Unalaklik 
Kiver  to  Pashtolik  Bay.  '  Die  Tschnagmjuteii,  an  den  Ufern  der  Meerbuseu 
Pastol  imd  Schachtolik  zwischen  den  Fliissen  Pastol  an  Unalaklik.'  Holm- 
berg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  0.  'Den  Tschnagmiiten,  gegen  Norden  von  den  Pasch- 
tuligmuten  und  gegen  Westen  bis  zum  Kap  Eodney.'  Baer,  Stat.  u.  Ethn.,  p. 
122.  '  Am.  sdl.  Norton-Busen.'  Buschmann,  Spuren  der  Aztek.  Sprache,  p.  805. 

The  Anlygrtiutes  inhabit  the  shores  of  Golovnin  Bay  and  the  southern 
coast  of  the  Kaviak  peninsula.  'Die  Anlygmjuten,  an  den  Ufern  der  Bai 
Golownin  uordlich  vom  Nortonsunde.'  Holmberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  6.  'An- 
lygmuten,  an  der  Golownin'schen  Bai.'  Baer,  Stat.  u.  Ethn.,  p.  122.  'Ndl. 
vom  Norton-Sund.'  Buschmann,  Spuren  der  Aztek.  Sjirache,  p.  722. 

The  Kaviaks  inhabit  the  western  portion  of  the  Kaviak  peninsula.  'Ad 
jacent  to  Port  Clarence  and  Behring  Strait.'  Whymper' s  Alaska,  p.  167. 
'  Between  Kotzebue  and  Norton  Sounds.'  DalVs  Alaska,  p.  137. 

The  Malemutes  inhabit  the  coast  at  the  mouth  of  the  Unalaklik  River, 
and  northward  along  the  shores  of  Norton  Sound  across  the  neck  of  the 
Kaviak  Peninsula  at  Kotzebue  Sound.  '  Die  Maleigmjuteu  bewohnen  die 
Kiiste  des  Nortousundes  vom  Flusse  Unalaklik  an  und  gehen  durch  das  In* 
iiere  des  Landes  hinauf  bis  zum  Kotzebuesunde.'  Holmberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p. 
6.  '  From  Norton  Sound  and  Bay  north  of  Shaktolik,  and  the  neck  of  the 
Kaviak  Peninsula  to  Selawik  Lake.'  DalVs  Alaska,  p.  407.  'Den  Maliniiiten, 
nahe  an  den  Ufern  des  Golfes  Schaktulack  oder  Schaktol.'  Baer,  Stat.  u.  Ethn., 
p.  122.  The  Malemutes  'extend  from  the  island  of  St.  Michael  to  Golovin 
Sound.'  Wliymper's  Alaska,  p.  167.  'Ndl.  am  Norton-Busen  bis  zum  Kotze 
bue  Sund.'  Buwhmann,  Spuren  der  Aztek.  Sprache,  p.  766. 

THE  ALEUTS  inhabit  the  islands  of  the  Aleutian  archipelago,  and  part 
of  the  peninsula  of  Alaska  and  the  Island  of  Kadiak.  They  are  divided  into 
the  Atkahs,  who  inhabit  the  western  islands,  and  the  Unalaskans  or  east 
ern  division.  The  tribal  divisions  inhabiting  the  various  islands  are  as  fol 
lows  ;  namely,  on  the  Alaskan  peninsula,  three  tribes  to  which  the  Russians 
have  given  names — Morshewskojv,  Bjeljkowskoje,  and  Pawlowskoje;  on  the 
island  of  Unga,  the  Uynasiks;  on  the  island  of  Uiiimak,  the  Sesaguks;  the 
Tigaldas  on  Tigalda  Island;  the  Avatanaks  on  Avatanak  Island;  on  the  Island 
of  Akun,  three  tribes,  which  the  Russians  call  Arleljnowskoje,  JRjatscheschnoje, 
and  Seredkinskoje;  the  Akutans  on  the  Akutaii  Island;  the  Unalgas  on  the 
Unalga  Island;  the  Sidanaks  on  Spirkin  Island;  011  the  island  of  Unalashka, 
the  Uillulluk,  the  Nguyuk,  and  seven  tribes  called  by  the  Russians  Natykin- 
skoje,  Pestnjakow-sicoje,  Wesselowskoje,  Makuschinskoja,  Koschiginskoje,  Tscher- 
now-skoje,  and  Kalechinskoje;  and  on  the  island  of  Umnak  the  Tuliks.  La 
tham,  Nat.  Races,  p.  291,  assigns  them  to  the  Aleutian  Isles.  'Die  Una- 
laschkaer  oder  Fuchs-Aleuten  bewohnen  die  Gruppe  der  Fuchsinseln,  den 


142  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

siidwestliclien  Theil  der  Halbinsel  Aljaska,  und  die  Inselgruppe  Schttmaginsk. 
Die  Atchaer  oder  Andrejanowscheu  Aleuten  bewohnen  die  Andrejanowschen, 
die  Ratten,  und  die  Nahen-Inseln  der  Aleuten-Kette.'  Holmberg,  Ethn.  Skiz., 
pp.  7,  8.  Inhabit  '  the  islands  between  Alyaska  and  Kamschatka.'  Ludewig, 
Ab.  Lang.,  p.  4. 

THE  THLINKEETS,  or  Kolosches,  occupy  the  islands  and  shores  between 
Copper  River  and  the  river  Nass.  '  Die  eigentlichen  Thlinkithen  (Bewohner 
des  Archipels  von  den  Parallelen  des  Flusses  Nass  bis  zum  St.  Elias-berge).' 
Holmberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  4.  ' The  Kalosh  Indians  seen  at  Sitka  inhabit  the 
coast  between  the  Stekine  and  Chilcat  Rivers.'  Whymper's  Alaska,  p.  100. 
'  Kaloches  et  Kiganis.  Cotes  et  lies  de  1'Amerique  Russe.'  Mofras,  Explor., 
torn,  ii.,  p.. 335.  The  'Koloshians  live  upon  the  islands  and  coast  from  the 
latitude  50°  40'  to  the  mouth  of  the  Atna  or  Copper  River.'  Ind.  Aff.  Kept., 
1869,  p.  562.  'From  about  60°  to  45°  N.  Lat..  reaching  therefore  across  the 
Russian  frontier  as  far  as  the  Columbia  River.'  Mutter's  Chips,  vol.  L,  p.  334. 
'At  Sitka  Bay  and  Norfolk  Sound.'  Ludewig,  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  96.  'Between 
Jacootat  or  Behring's  Bay,  to  the  57th  degree  of  north  latitude.'  Lisiansky's 
Voy.,  p.  242.  'Die  Volker  eines  grossen  Theils  der  Nordwest-Kiiste  vom 
America.'  Vater,  Mithridates,  vol.  iii.,  pt.  iii.,  p.  218.  '  Les  Koliugi  habitent  le 
pays  montueux  du  Nouveau-Norfolk,  et  la  partie  septentrionale  du  Nouveau- 
Cornouaille.'  Humboldt,  Essai  Pol.,  torn,  i.,  p.  349. 

The  Ugalenzes  or  Ugalukmutes,  the  northernmost  Thlinkeet  tribe,  inhabit 
the  coast  from  both  banks  of  the  mouth  of  Copper  River,  nearly  to  Mount 
St  Elias.  'About  Mount  Elias.'  Latham's  Nat.  Races,  p.  292.  Adjacent  to 
Behring  Bay.  Prichard's  Researches,  vol.  v.,  p.  370.  'Die  Ugalenzen,  die 
im  Winter  eine  Bucht  des  Festlandes,  der  kleinen  Insel  Kajak  gegeniiber, 
bewohnen,  zum  Sommer  aber  ihre  Wohnungsplatze  an  dem  rechten  Ufer  des 
Kupferflusses  bei  dessen  Miindung  aufschlagen.'  Holmberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p. 
4.  'Das  Vorgebirge  St.  Elias,  kann  als  die  Granzscheide  der  Wohnsitze 
der  See-Koloschen  gegen  Nordwest  angesehn  werden.'  Baer,  Stat.  u.  Ethn., 
p.  96.  'Les  Ugalachmiuti  s'etendent  depuis  le  golfe  du  Prince  Guillaume, 
jusqua  la  baie  de  Jakutat.'  Humboldt,  Essai  Pol.,  torn,  i.,  p.  348.  '  Ugalenzen 
oder  Ugaljachmjuten.  An  der  russ.  Kiiste  ndwstl.  vom  St.  Elias  Berg. '  Busch- 
mann,  Spuren  der  Aztek.  Sprache,  p.  807.  '  West  of  Cape  St.  Elias  and  near 
the  island  of  Kadjak.'  Ludewig,  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  194. 

The  Yakutats  '  occupy  the  coast  from  Mount  Fairweather  to  Mount  St. 
Elias.'  DalVs  Alaska,  p.  428.  At  '  Behring  Bay.'  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1869,  p.  575. 

The  Chilkat  corne  next,  and  live  on  Lynn  Canal  and  the  Chilkat  River. 
'At  Chilkaht  Inlet.'  'At  the  head  of  Chatham  Straits.'  Ind.  Aff.  Rept., 
1869,  pp.  535,  575.  'Am  Lynn's-Canal,  in  russ.  Nordamerika.  Buschmann, 
Spuren  der  Aztek.  Sprache,  p.  736.  '  On  Lynn's  Canal.'  Schoolcraff  s  Archives, 
vol.  v.,  p.  489.  A  little  to  the  northward  of  the  Stakine-Koan.  Dunn's  Ore 
gon,  p.  288. 

The  Hoonids  inhabit  the  eastern  banks  of  Cross  Sound.  '  For  a  distance 
of  sixty  miles.'  'At  Cross  Sound  reside  the  Whinegas. '  'The  Hunnas  or 
Hooneaks,  who  are  scattered  along  the  main  land  from  Lynn  Canal  to  Cape 
Spencer.'  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1869,  pp.  535,  562,  575.  The  Huna  Cow  tribe 
is  situated  on  Cross  Sound.  SchoolcrafVs  Archives,  vol.  v.,  p.  489. 


THE  THLINKEETS.  143 

The  Hoodsinoos  'live  near  the  head  of  Chatham  Strait.'  '  On  Admiralty 
Island.'  'Rat  tribes  on  Kyro  and  Kespriano  Islands.'  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1869, 
pp.  335,  562,  575.  '  Hootsinoo  at  Hoodsinoo  or  Hood  Bay.'  Schoolcraft*s  Arch 
ives,  vol.  v.,  p.  489.  'Hoodsunhoo  at  Hood  Bay.'  Gallatln,  in  Am.  Antiq. 
Soc.  Transact.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  302.  '  Hoodsunhoo  at  Hood  Bay.'  '  Eclikimo  in 
Chatham's  Strait.'  Ludexig,  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  175. 

The  Takoos  dwell  '  at  the  head  of  Takoo  Inlet  on  the  Takoo  River. 
The  Sundowns  and  Takos  who  live  on  the  mainland  from  Port  Houghton  to 
the  Tako  River.'  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1869,  pp.  536,  562.  Tako  and  Samdan,  Tako 
River.  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  489. 

The  Auks  Indians  are  at  the  mouth  of  the  Takoo  River  and  on  Admiralty 
Island.  'North  of  entrance  Tako  River.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  p.  489.  'The 
Ark  and  Kake  on  Prince  Frederick's  Sound.'  Am.  Antiq.  Soc.  Transact.,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  302. 

.  The  Kakas  inhabit  the  shores  of  Frederick  Sound  and  Kuprianoff  Island. 
4  The  Kakus,  or  Kakes,  who  live  on  Kuprinoff  Island,  having  their  principal 
settlement  near  the  northwestern  side.'  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1869,  p.  562.  'The 
Ark  and  Kake  on  Prince  Frederick's  Sound.'  Am.  Antiq.  Soc.  Transact.,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  302. 

The  Sitkas  occupy  Baranoff  Island.  '  They  are  divided  into  tribes  or 
clans,  of  which  one  is  called  Coquontans.'  Buschmann,  Pima  Spr.  u.  d.  Spr. 
der  Koloschen,  p.  377.  'The  tribe  of  the  Wolf  are  called  Coquontans.'  Lisi- 
ansky's  Voy.,  p.  242.  'The  Sitka-Koan,'  or  the  people  of  Sitka.  'This  in 
cludes  the  inhabitants  of  Sitka  Bay,  near  New  Archangel,  and  the  neighbor 
ing  islands.'  Dall's  Alaska,  p.  412.  Simpson  calls  the  people  of  Sitka  '  Sitka- 
guouays.'  Overland  Jour.,  vol.  i.,  p.  226.  'The  Sitkas  or  Indians  on  Baronoff 
Island.'  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1869,  pp.  535,  562. 

The  Stikeen  Indians  inhabit  the  country  drained  by  the  Stikeen  River. 
'Do  not  penetrate  far  into  the  interior.'  DalVs  Alaska,  p.  411.  The  Stikein 
tribe  'live  at  the  top  of  Clarence's  Straits,  which  run  upwards  of  a  hundred 
miles  inland.'  Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  288.  'At  Stephens  Passage.'  'The  Stik- 
eens  who  live  on  the  Stackine  River  and  the  islands  near  its  mouth.'  Ind. 
Aff.  Kept.,  1869,  p.  562.  'Stikeen  Indians,  Stikeen  River,  Sicknaahutty, 
Taeeteetan,  Kaaskquatee,  Kookatee,  Naaneeaaghee,  Talquatee,  Kicksatee, 
Kaadgettee.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  489.  The  Secatquonays  occupy 
the  main  land  about  the  mouths  of  the  Stikeen  River,  and  also  the  neighboring 
islands.  Simpson's  Overland  Journ.,  vol.  i  ,  p.  210. 

The  Tungass,  '  live  on  Tongas  Island,  and  on  the  north  side  of  Portland 
Channel.'  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1869,  p.  562.  Southern  entrance  Clarence  Strait. 
Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  489.  The  Tongarses  or  Tun  Ghaase  'are  a 
small  tribe,  inhabiting  the  S.E.  corner  of  Prince  of  Wales's  Archipelago.' 
Scouler,  in  Lond.  Geo.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  218.  '  Tungass,  an  der  sdlst.  russ. 
Kiiste.'  Buschmann,  Spuren  der  Aztek.  Sprache,  p.  806.  'Tunghase  Indians 
of  the  south-eastern  part  of  Prince  of  Wales's  Archipelago.'  Ludewig,  Ab. 
Lang.,  p.  192.  Tongas  Indians,  lat.  54°  46'  N.  and  long.  130°  35'  W.  Dall's 
Alaska,  p.  251. 

THE  TINNEH  occupy  the  vast  interior  north  of  the  fifty-fifth  parallel,  and 
west  from  Hudson  Bay,  approaching  the  Arctic  and  Pacific  Coasts  to  within 


144  TKIBAL  BOUNDAKIES. 

from  fifty  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles:  at  Prince  William  Sound,  they 
even  touch  the  seashore.  Mackenzie,  Voy.,  p.  cxvii.,  gives  boundaries  upon 
the  basis  of  which  Gallatin,  Am.  Antiq.  Soc.  Transact.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  9,  draws  a 
line  from  the  Mississippi  to  within  one  hundred  miles  of  the  Pacific  at  52J 
30',  and  allots  them  the  northern  interior  to  Eskimos  lands.  '  Extend  across 
the  continent.'  Richardson's  Jour.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  2.  'Von  der  nordlichen  Hud- 
sonsbai  aus  fast  die  ganze  Breite  des  Continents  durchlauft— im  Norden  und 
Nordwesten  den  65ten  Gradu.  beinahe  die  Gestade  des  Polarmeers  erreicht.' 
Buschmann,  Athapask.  Sprachst.,  p.  313.  '  The  Athabascan  area  touches  Hud 
son's  Bay  on  the  one  side,  the  Pacific  on  the  other.'  Latham's  Comp.  Phil., 
p.  388.  '  Occupies  the  whole  of  the  northern  limits  of  North  America,  to 
gether  with  the  Eskimos.'  Ludewig,  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  14. 

The  Chepeicyans,  or  Athabascas  proper,  Mackenzie,  Voy.,  p.  cxvi.,  places  be 
tween  N.  latitude  60 J  and  65J,  and  W.  longitude  100 J  and  110J.  '  Between  the 
Athabasca  and  Great  Slave  Lakes  and  Churchill  River.'  Franklin's  Nar.,  vol. 
i.,  p.  241.  '  Frequent  the  Elk  and  Slave  Rivers,  and  the  country  westward  to 
Hay  River.'  Richardson's  Jour.,  vol.  ii.  p.  5.  The  Northern  Indians  occupy 
the  territory  immediately  north  of  Fort  Churchill,  on  the  Western  shore  of 
Hudson  Bay.  '  From  the  fifty-ninth  to  the  sixty-eighth  degree  of  North  lat 
itude,  and  from  East  to  West  is  upward  of  five  hundred  miles  wide.  Hearne's 
Jour.,  p.  326;  Martin's  Brit.  Col.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  524. 

The  Copper  Indians  occupy  the  territory  on  both  sides  of  the  Coppermine 
River  south  of  the  Eskimo  lands,  which  border  on  the  ocean  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river.  They  are  called  by  the  Athabascas  Tantsawhot-Dinneh.  Franklin's 
Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  76;  Gallatin,  in  Am.  Antiq.  Soc.  Transact.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  19. 

The  Horn  Mountain  Indians  'inhabit  the  country  betwixt  Great  Bear  Lake 
and  the  v/est  end  of  Great  Slave  Lake.'  Franklin's  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  82. 

The  Reaver  Indians  'inhabit  the  lower  part  of  Peace  River.'  Harmon's 
Jour.,  p.  309.  On  Mackenzie's  map  they  are  situated  between  Slave  and 
Martin  Lakes.  '  Between  the  Peace  River  and  the  West  branch  of  the  Mac 
kenzie.'  Richardson's  Jour.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  6.  Edchawtawhoot-dinneh,  Strong- 
bow,  Beaver  or  Thick-wood  Indians,  who  frequent  the  Riviere  aux  Liards,  or 
south  branch  of  the  Mackenzie  River.  Franklin's  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  85. 

The  Thlingcha-dinnehi  or  Dog-ribs,  '  inhabit  the  country  to  the  westward 
of  the  Copper  Indians,  as  far  as  Mackenzie's  River.'  Franklin's  Nar.,  vol.  ii., 
p.  80.  Gallatin,  in  Am.  Antiq.  Soc.  Transact.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  19.  'East  from  Mar 
tin  Lake  to  the  Coppermine  River.'  Richardson's  Jour.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  3.  At  Fort 
Confidence,  north  of  Great  Bear  Lake.'  Simpson's  Nar.,  p.  200.  'Between 
Martin's  Lake  and  the  Coppermine  River.'  Ludewig,  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  66. 

The  Kawcho-dinneh,  or  Hare  Indians,  are  'immediately  to  the  northward 
of  the  Dog-ribs  on  the  north  side  of  Bear  Lake  River.'  Franklin's  Nar.,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  83.  They  'inhabit  the  banks  of  the  Mackenzie,  from  Slave  Lake 
downwards.'  Richardson's  Jour.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  3.  Between  Bear  Lake  and 
Fort  Good  Hope.  Simpson's  Nar.,  p.  98.  On  Mackenzie  River,  below  Great 
Slave  Lake,  extending  towards  the  Great  Bear  Lake.  Gallatin,  in  Am.  Antiq. 
Soc.  Transact.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  19. 

'  To  the  eastward  of  the  Dog-ribs  are  the  Red-knives,  named  by  their  south 
ern  neighbors,  the  Tantsaut-'dtinne  (Birch-rind  people).  They  inhabit  a 


THE  TINNEH.  145 

stripe  of  country  running  northwards  from  Great  Slave  Lake,  and  in  breadth 
from  the  Great  Fish  River  to  the  Coppermine.'  Richardson's  Jour.,  vol.ii.  p.  4. 

The  Ambawtawhoot  Tinneh,  or  Sheep  Indians,  '  inhabit  the  Rocky  Mount 
ains  near  the  sources  of  the  Dawhoot-dinneh  River  which  flows  into  Mac 
kenzie's.'  Franklin's  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  84.  Further  down  the  Mackenzie, 
near  the  65°  parallel.  Richardson's -Jour.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  7. 

The  Sarsis,  Circees,  dries,  Sarsi,  Sorsi,  Sussees,  Sursees,  or  Surds,  'live 
near  the  Rocky  Mountains  between  the  sources  of  the  Athabasca  and  Sas 
katchewan  Rivers;  are  said  to  be  likewise  of  the  Tinne  stock.'  Richardson's 
Jour.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  6.  'Near  the  sources  of  one  of  the  branches  of  the  Saska- 
chawan.  Gallatin,  in  Am.  Antiq.  Soc.  Transact.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  19. 

The  Tsillawdawhoot  Tinneh,  or  Brush-wood  Indians,  inhabit  the  upper 
branches  of  the  Riviere  aux  Liards.  Franklin's  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  87.  On  the 
River  aux  Liards  (Poplar  River).  Gallatin,  in  Am.  Antiq.  Soc.  Transact.,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  19 

The  Nac/ailer,  or  Chin  Indians,  on  Mackenzie's  map,  latitude  52°  30'  longi 
tude  122 J  to  125 J,  '  inhabit  the  country  about  52°  30'  N.  L.  to  the  southward 
of  the  Takalli,  and  thence  extend  south  along  Fraser's  River  towards  the 
Straits  of  Fuca.'  Prichard's  Researches,  vol.  v..  p.  427. 

The  Slouacuss  Tinneh  on  Mackenzie's  are  next  north-west  from  the  Na- 
gailer.  "Vater  places  them  at  52 J  4'.  'Noch  naher  der  Kuste  um  den  52°  4' 
wohnten  die  Slua-cuss-dinais  d.  i.  Rothfisch-Manuer. '  Vater,  Mithridates,  vol. 
iii.,  pt.  iii.,  p.  421.  On  the  upper  part  of  Frazers  River  Cox's  Adven.,  p.  323. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  Indians  are  a  small  tribe  situated  to  the  south-west 
of  the  Sheep  Indians.  Franklin's  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  85.  'On  the  Unjigah  or 
Peace  River.'  Gallatin,  in  Am.  Antiq.  Soc.  Transact.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  19.  On  the 
upper  tributaries  of  Peace  River.  Mackenzie's  Voy.,  p,  163. 

The  Tacullies,  or  Carriers,  inhabit  New  Caledonia  from  latitude  52°  30'  to 
latitude  56 J.  '  A  general  name  given  to  the  native  tribes  of  New-Caledonia.' 
Morse's  Report,  p.  371.  'All  the  natives  of  the  Upper  Fraser  are  called  by 
the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  and  indeed  generally,  "Porteurs,"  or  Carriers.1 
Mayne's  B.  C.,  p.  298.  '  Tokalis,  Le  Nord  de  la  Nouvelle  Caledonie.'  Mofras, 
Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  335.  'Northern  part  of  New  Caledonia.'  Pickering's 
Races,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  p.  33.  '  On  the  sources  of  Fraser's  River.' 
Ludewig,  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  178.  '  Unter  den  Volkern  des  Tinne  Stammes,  welche 
das  Land  westlich  von  den  Rocky  Mountains  bewohnen,  nehmen  die  Ta- 
kuli  (Wasservolk)  oder  Carriers  den  grossten  Theil  von  Neu-Caledonien 
em.'  Jluschmann,  Athapask.  Sprachst.,  p.  152.  '  Greater  part  of  New  Caledo 
nia.  Richardson's  Jour.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  31.  'Latitude  of  Queen  Charlotte's 
Island.'  Prichard's  Researches,  vol.  v.,  p.  427.  '  From  latitude  52°  30',  where 
it  borders  on  the  country  of  the  Shoushaps,  to  latitude  56°,  including  Simp 
son's  River.'  Hole's  Ethnog.t  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  202.  '  South  of  the 
Sicannis  and  Straits  Lake.'  Harmon's  Jour.,  p.  196.  They  'are  divided  into 
eleven  clans,  or  minor  tribes,  whose  names  are — beginning  at  the  south — as 
follows:  the  Tautin,  or  Talkotin;  the  Tsilkotin  or  Chilcotin;  the  Naskotin; 
the  Thetliotin;  the  Tsatsnotin;  the  Nulaautin;  the  Ntshaautin;  the  Natliau- 
tin;  the  Nikozliautin;  the  Tatshiautin;  and  the  Babine  Indians.'  Hale's  Eth- 
VOL.  i.  10 


146  TKIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

nog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  202.  '  The  principal  tribes  in  the  country 
north  of  the  Columbia  regions,  are  the  Chilcotins  and  the  Talcotins.'  Green- 
how's  Hist.  Ogn. ,  p.  30 .  The  Talcotins  '  occupy  the  territory  above  Fort  Alexan 
dria  on  Frazer  River.'  Hazlitt's  B.  C.,  p.  79.  '  Spend  much  of  their  time  at 
Bellhoula.  in  the  Bentinck  Inlet.'  Mayne's  B.  (7.,  p.  299.  The  Calkobins  'in 
habit  New  Caledonia,  west  of  the  mountains.'  De  Smet's  Letters  and  Sketches, 
p.  157.  The  Nateotetains  inhabit  the  country  lying  directly  west  from  Stuart 
Lake  on  either  bank  of  the  Nateotetain  River.  Harmon's  Jour.,  p.  218.  The 
Naskootains  lie  along  Frazer  River  from  Frazer  Lake.  Id.,  p.  245. 

The  Sicannis  dwell  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  between  the  Beaver  Indians 
on  the  east,  and  the  Tacullies  and  Atnas  on  the  west  and  south.  Id.,  p.  190. 
They  live-  east  of  the  Tacullies  in  the  Rocky  Mountain.  Hale's  Ethnog.  in 
U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  202.  '  On  the  Rocky  Mountains  near  the  Rapid 
Indians  and  West  of  them.'  Morse's  Report,  p.  371. 

The  Kutchins  are  a  large  nation,  extending  from  the  Mackenzie  River 
westward  along  the  Yukon  Valley  to  near  the  mouth  of  the  river,  with  the 
Eskimos  on  one  side  and  the  Koltshanes  on  the  other.  Buschmann,  Spuren 
der  Aztek.  Sprache,  p.  713,  places  them  on  the  sixty-fifth  parallel  of  latitude, 
.and  from  130°  to  150 J  of  longitude  west  from  Greenwich.  '  Das  Volk  wohnt 
am  Flusse  Yukon  oder  Kwichpak  und  iiber  ihm;  es  dehnt  sich  nach  Rich 
ardson's  Karte  auf  dem  65ten  Parallelkreise  aus  vom  1 30-150 J  W.  L.  v.  Gr., 
und  gehort  daher  zur  Halfte  dem  britischen  und  zur  Halfte  dem  russischen 
Nordamerika  an.'  They  are  located  'immediately  to  the  northward  of  the 
Hare  Indians  on  both  banks  of  Mackenzie's  River.'  Franklin's  Nar.,  vol.  ii., 
p.  83.  Gallatin,  Am.  Antiq.  Soc.  Transact.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  83,  places  their  north 
ern  boundary  in  latitude  67°  27'.  To  the  west  of  the  Mackenzie  the  Lou 
cheux  interpose  between  the  Esquimaux  'and  the  Tinne,  and  spread  west 
ward  until  they  come  into  the  neighborhood  of  the  coast  tribes  of  Beering's 
Sea.'  Richardson's  Jour.,  vol.  i.,  p.  377.  'The  Kutchin  may  be  said  to  in 
habit  the  territory  extending  from  the  Mackenzie,  at  the  mouth  of  Peel's 
River,  lat.  68°,  long.  134°,  to  Norton's  sound,  living  principally  upon  the 
banks  of  the  Youcon  and  Porcupine  Rivers,  though  several  of  the  tribes  are 
situated  far  inland,  many  days'  journey  from  either  river.'  Jones,  in  Smithson 
ian  Kept.,  1866,  p.  320.  '  They  commence  somewhere  about  the  65th  degree  of 
north  latitude,  and  stretch  westward  from  the  Mackenzie  to  Behring's  straits.' 
'  They  are  divided  into  many  petty  tribes,  each  having  its  own  chief,  as  the  Tatlit- 
Kutchin  (Peel  River  Indians),  Ta-Kuth-Kutchin  (Lapiene's  House  Indians), 
Kutch-a-Kutchin  (Youcan  Indians),  Touchon-ta-Kutchin  (Wooded-country 
Indians),  and  many  others.'  JCirby,  in  Smithsonian  Kept.,  1864,  pp.  417,  418. 

The  Degothi-Kutchin,  or  Loucheux,  Quarrellers,  inhabit  the  west  bank  of 
the  Mackenzie  between  the  Hare  Indians  and  Eskimos.  The  Loucheux  are 
•  on  the  Mackenzie  between  the  Arctic  circle  and  the  sea.  Simpson's  Nar., 
p.  103. 

The  Vanta-Kutchin  occupy  '  the  banks  of  the  Porcupine,  and  the  country 
to  the  north  of  it.'  '  Vanta-kutshi  (people  of  the  lakes),  I  only  find  that 
they  belong  to  the  Porcupine  River.'  Latham's  Nat.  Races,  p.  294.  They 
'inhabit  the  territory  north  of  the  head- waters  of  the  Porcupine,  somewhat 
below  Lapierre's  House.'  Doll's  Alaska,  p.  430. 


THE  TINNEH.  147 

The  Natche-Kutchin,  or  Gens  de  Large,  dwell  to  the  '  north  of  the  Porcu 
pine  River. '  '  These  extend  on  the  north  bank  to  the  mouth  of  the  Porcupine. ' 
DalVs  Alaska,  pp.  109,  430. 

' Neyetse-Kutshi,  (people  of  the  open  country),  I  only  find  that  they  be 
long  to  the  Porcupine  river.'  Latham's  Nat.  Races,  p.  294.  Whymper's  map 
calls  them  Eat  Indians. 

'  The  Na-tsik-Kut-chin  inhabit  the  high  ridge  of  land  between  the  Yukon 
and  the  A'rctic  Sea.'  Hardisty,  in  DalVs  Alaska,  p.  197. 

The  Kukuth-Kutchin  '  occupy  the  country  south  of  the  head-waters  of  the 
Porcupine.'  DalVs  Alaska,  p.  430. 

The  Tutchone  Kutchin,  Gens  de  Foux,  or  crow  people,  dwell  upon  both 
sides  of  the  Yukon  about  Fort  Selkirk,  above  the  Han  Kutchin.  Id.,  pp. 
109,  429. 

'  Tathzey-Kutshi,  or  people  of  the  ramparts,  the  Gens  du  Fou  of  the  French 
Canadians,  are  spread  from  the  upper  parts  of  the  Peel  and  Porcupine  llivers, 
within  the  British  territory,  to  the  river  of  the  Mountain-men,  in  the  Russian. 
The  upper  Yukon  is  therefore  their  occupancy.  They  fall  into  four  bands : 
«,  the  Tratse-kutshi,  or  people  of  the  fork  of  the  river;  b,  the  Kutsha-kutshi ; 
c.,  the  Zeka-thaka  (Ziunka-kutshi),  people  on  this  side,  (or  middle  people;; 
and,  d.,  the  Tanna-kutshi,  or  people  of  the  bluffs.'  Latham's  Nat.  Races,  p.  293. 

The  Han-Kutchin,  An-Kutchin  Gens  de  Bois,  or  wood  people,  inhabit  the 
Yukon  above  Porcupine  River.  Whymper's  Alaska,  p.  254.  They  are  found 
on  the  Yukon  next  below  the  Crows,  and  above  Fort  Yukon.  DalVs  Alaska, 
p.  109.  'Han-Kutchi  residing  at  the  sources  of  the  Yukon.'  Richardson's 
Jour.,  vol.  i.,  p.  336. 

'  The  Artez-Kutshi,  or  the  tough  (hard)  people.  The  sixty-second  parallel 
cuts  through  their  country;  so  that  they  lie  between  the  head- waters  of  the 
Yukon  and  the  Pacific.'  Latham's  Nat.  Races,  p.  293.  See  also  Richardson's 
Jour.,  vol.  i.,  p.  397. 

The  Kutcha-Kutchins,  or  Kot-a-Kutchin,  '  are  found  in  the  country  near 
the  junction  of  the  Porcupine  and  the  Yukon.'  DalVs  Alaska,  p.  431. 

The  Tenan- Kutchin,  or  Tananahs,  Gens  de  Buttes,  or  people  of  the  mount 
ains,  occupy  an  unexplored  domain  south-west  of  Fort  Yukon.  Their  country 
is  drained  by  the  Tananah  River.  DalVs  Alaska,  p.  108.  They  are  placed  on 
Whymper's  map  about  twenty  miles  south  of  the  Yukon,  in  longitude  151° 
west  from  Greenwich.  On  Whymper's  map  are  placed:  the  Birch  Indians, 
or  Gens  de  Bouleau  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Yukon  at  its  junction  with 
Porcupine  River;  the  Gens  de  Milieu,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Yukon,  in 
longitude  150 y;  the  Nuclukayettes  on  both  banks  in  longitude  152°;  and  the 
Newicarguts,  on  the  south  bank  between  longitude  153°  and  155°. 

The  Kenais  occupy  the  peninsula  of  Kenai  and  the  surrounding  country. 
Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1869,  p.  562.  '  An  den  Uf em  und  den  Umgebungen  von  Cook's 
Inlet  und  um  die  Seen  Iliamna  und  Kisshick.  Baer,  Stat.  u.  Ethn.,  p.  103. 

The  Unakatana  Yunakakhotanas,  live  '  on  the  Yukon  between  Koyukuk 
and  Nuklukahyet. '  DalVs  Alaska,  p.  53. 

'  Junakachotana,  ein  Stamm,  welcher  auf  dem  Flusse  Jun-a-ka  wohnt.' 
Sagoskin,  in  Denkschr.  der  russ.  geo.  Gesell.,  p.  324.  'Die  Junnakachotana, 
am  Flusse  Jukchana  oder  Junna  (so  wird  der  obere  Lauf  des  Kwichpakh 


148  TBIBAL  BOUNDABIES. 

genannt)  zwischen  den  Nebenfiiissen  Nulato  und  Junnaka,  so  wie  am  untern 
Laufe  des  letztgenannten  Flusses.'  Holmberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  6. 

'  Die  Junnachotana  bewohnen  den  obern  Lauf  des  Jukchana  oder  Junna 
von  der  Miindung  des  Junnaka.'  Holmberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  6. 

'  Die  Jugelnuten  haben  ihre  Ansiedelungen  am  Kwichpakh,  am  Tschagel- 
juk  und  an  der  Miindung  des  Innoka.  Die  Iiikalichljuaten,  am  obern  Laufe 
des  Innoka.  Die  Thljegonchotana  am  Flusse  Thljegon,  der  nach  der  Ver- 
inigung  mit  dem  Tatschegno  den  Innoka  bildet.  Holmberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  pp. 
6,  7.  'They  extend  virtually  from  the  confluence  of  the  Co-Yukuk  River  to 
Nuchukayette  at  the  junction  of  the  Tanana  with  the  Yukon.'  'They  also 
inhabit  the  banks  of  the  Co-yukuk  and  other  interior  rivers.'  Whymper's 
Alaska,  p.  204. 

The  Ingaliks  inhabit  the  Yukon  from  Nulato  south  to  below  the  Anvic 
Biver.  See  Whymper's  Map.  '  The  tribe  extends  from  the  edge  of  the  wooded 
district  near  the  sea  to  and  across  the  Yukon  below  Nulato,  on  the  Yukon 
and  its  affluents  to  the  head  of  the  delta,  and  across  the  portage  to  the  Kus- 
koquim  Biver  and  its  branches.'  Ball's  Alaska,  p.  28.  'Die  Inkiliken,  am 
untern  Laufe  des  Junna  sudlich  von  Nulato.'  Holmberg,  Ethn.  Skiz,,  p.  6. 
'  An  dem  ganzen  Ittege  wohnt  der  Stamm  der  Inkiliken,  welcher  zu  dem 
Volk  der  Ttynai  gehort.'  Sagoskin,  in  Denkschr.  der  russ.  geo.  GeselL,  p. 
341.  'An  den  Fliissen  Kwichpack,  Kuskokwim  und  anderen  ihnen  zu- 
stromenden  Fliissen.'  Baer,  Stat.  u.  Ethn.,  p.  120.  'The  Ingaliks  living  on 
the  north  side  of  the  Yukon  between  it  and  the  Kaiyuh  Mountains  (known 
as  Takaitsky  to  the  Bussians),  bear  the  name  of  Kaiyuhkatana  or  "lowland 
people,"  and  the  other  branches  of  Ingaliks  have  similar  names,  while  pre 
serving  their  general  tribal  name.'  Dall's  Alaska,  p.  53.  On  "VVhymper's map 
they  are  called  T'kitskes  and  are  situated  east  of  the  Yukon  in  latitude  64° 
north. 

The  KoltscJianes  occupy  the  territory  inland  between  the  sources  of  the 
Kuskoquim  and  Copper  Bivers.  '  They  extend  as  far  inland  as  the  water 
shed  between  the  Copper-river  and  the  Yukon.'  Latham's  Nat.  Races,  p. 
292.  '  Die  Galzanen  oder  Koltschanen  (d.  h.  Fremdlinge,  in  der  Sprache 
der  Athnaer)  bewohnen  das  Innere  des  Landes  zwischen  den  Quellfliissen 
des  Kuskokwim  bis  zu  den  nordlichen  Zufliissen  des  Athna  oder  Kupfer- 
stromes.'  Holmberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  7.  'Diejenigen  Stamme,  welche  die 
nordlichen  und  ostlichen,  dem  Atna  zustromenden  Flusse  und  Fliisschen  be 
wohnen,  eben  so^die  noch  weiter,  jenseits  der  Gebirge  lebenden,  werden  von 
den  Atnaern  Koltschanen,  d.  h.  Fremdlinge,  genannt.'  Baer,  Stat.  u.  Ethn., 
p.  101.  'North  of  the  river  Atna.'  Ludewig,  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  96. 

The  Nehannes  occupy  the  territory  midway  between  Mount  St.  Elias  and 
the  Mackenzie  Biver,  from  Fort  Selkirk  and  the  Stakine  Biver.  '  According 
to  Mr.  Isbister,  range  the  country  between  the  Bussian  settlements  on  the 
Stikine  Biver  and  the  Bocky  Mountains.'  Latham's  Nat.  Races,  p.  295.  The 
Nohhannies  live  '  upon  the  upper  branches  of  the  Biviere  aux  Liards.'  Frank 
lin's  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  87.  They  'inhabit  the  angle  between  that  branch  and 
the  great  bend  of  the  trunk  of  the  river,  and  are  neighbours  of  the  Beaver 
Indians.'  Richardson's  Jour.,  vol.  ii.  p.  6.  The  region  which  includes  the 
Lewis,  or  Tahco,  and  Pelly  Bivers,  with  the  valley  of  the  Chilkaht  Biver,  is 


THE  TINNEH.  149 

occupied  by  tribes  known  to  the  Hudson  Bay  voyageurs  as  Nehannees. 
Those  on  the  Pelly  and  Macmillan  rivers  call  themselves  Affats-tena.  Some 
of  them  near  Liard's  River  call  themselves  Daho-tena  or  Acheto-tena,  and 
others  are  called  Sicannees  by  the  voyageurs.  Those  near  Francis  Lake 
are  known  as  Mauvais  Monde,  or  Slave  Indians.  About  Fort  Selkirk  they 
have  been  called  Gens  des  Foux. 

The  Kenai  proper,  or  Kenai-tena,  or  Thnaina,  inhabit  the  peninsula  of 
Kenai,  the  shores  of  Cook  Inlet,  and  thence  westerly  across  the  Chigmit 
Mountains,  nearly  to  the  Kuskoquim  River.  They  'inhabit  the  country  near 
Cook's  Inlet,  and  both  shores  of  the  Inlet  as  far  south  as  Chugachik  Bay.' 
DaU's  Alaska,  p.  430.  '  Die  eigentlichen  Thnaina  bewohnen  die  Halbinsel 
Kenai  und  ziehen  sich  von  da  westlich  uber  das  Tschigmit-Gebirge  zum  Man- 
taschtano  oder  Tchalchukh,  einem  sudlichen  Nebenflusse  des  Kuskokwim.' 
Holmberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  7.  'Dieses — an  den  Ufern  und  den  Umgebungen 
von  Cook's  Inlet  und  um  die  Seen  Iliamna  und  Kisshick  lebende  Volk  gehort 
zu  dem  selben  Stamme  wie  die  Galzanen  oder  Koltschanen,  Atnaer,  und  Ko- 
loschen.'  Baer,  Stat.  u.  Ethn.,  p.  103.  'Les  Kenayzi  habitent  la  cote  occiden- 
tale  de  1'entree  de  Cook  ou  du  golfe  Kenayskaja.'  Humboldt,  EssaiPoL,  torn. 
i..  p.  348.  '  The  Indians  of  Cook's  Inlet  and  adjacent  waters  are  called  "Ka- 
nisky."  They  are  settled  along  the  shore  of  the  inlet  and  on  the  east  shore 
of  the  peninsula.'  'East  of  Cook's  Inlet,  in  Prince  William's  Sound,  there 
are  but  few  Indians,  they  are  called  "Nuchusk."  '  Ind.  Aff.  Kept,  1869, 
p.  575. 

The  Atnas  occupy  the  Atna  or  Copper  Eiver  from  near  its  mouth  to  near  it* 
source.  'At  the  mouth  of  the  Copper  River.'  Latham's  Comp.  Phil.,  vol.  viii., 
p.  392.  '  Die  Athnaer,  am  Athnaoder  Kupferflusse.'  Holmberg,  Ethn.  Skiz.,  p.  7. 
'  On  the  upper  part  of  the  Atna  or  Copper  River  are  a  little-known  tribe  of 
the  above  name  [viz.,  Ah-tena].  They  have  been  called  Atnaer  and  Kolshina 
by  the  Russians,  and  Yellow  Knife  or  Nehaunee  by  the  English. '  Ball's  Alaska, 
p.  429.  '  Diese  kleine,  jetzt  ungefahr  aus  60  Familien  bestehende,  Volker- 
schaft  wohnt  an  den  Ufern  des  Flusses  Atna  und  iiennt  sich  Atnaer.'  JBaer, 
Stat.  u.  Ethn.,  p.  97. 


CHAPTER    III. 


COLUMBIANS. 

HABITAT  OF  THE  COLUMBIAN  GEOUP — PHYSICAL  GEOGEAPHT — SOURCES  OF 
FOOD-SUPPLY — INFLUENCE  OF  FOOD  AND  CLIMATE — FOUB  EXTREME  CLASSES 
— HAIDAHS — THEIR  HOME  —  PHYSICAL  PECULIARITIES — CLOTHING — SHEL 
TER  —  SUSTENANCE  —  IMPLEMENTS — MANUFACTURES — ARTS  —  PROPERTY — 
LAWS— SLAVERY — WOMEN — CUSTOMS— MEDICINE — DEATH — THE  NOOTKAS 
— THE  SOUND  NATIONS — THE  CHINOOKS— THE  SHUSHWAPS— THE  SALISH — 
THE  SAHAPTINS — TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

The  term  COLUMBIANS,  or,  as  Scouler1  and  others  have 
called  them,  Nootka- Columbians,  is,  in  the  absence  of  a 
native  word,  sufficiently  characteristic  to  distinguish  the 
aboriginal  nations  of  north-western  America  between  the 
forty-third  and  fifty-fifth  parallels,  from  those  of  the  other 
great  divisions  of  this  work.  The  Columbia  River,  which 
suggests  the  name  of  this  group,  and  Nootka  Sound  on 
the  western  shore  of  Vancouver  Island,  were  originally 
the  chief  centres  of  European  settlement  on  the  North 
west  Coast;  and  at  an  early  period  these  names  were 
compounded  to  designate  the  natives  of  the  Anglo-Amer 
ican  possessions  on  the  Pacific,  which  lay  between  the 
discoveries  of  the  Russians  on  the  north  and  those  of 
the  Spaniards  on  the  south.  As  a  simple  name  is  al 
ways  preferable  to  a  complex  one,  and  as  no  more  perti 
nent  name  suggests  itself  than  that  of  the  great  river 
which,  with  its  tributaries,  drains  a  large  portion  of  this 

1  The  Nootka-ColumUans  comprehend  'the  tribes  inhabiting  Quadra  and 
Vancouver's  Island,  and  the  adjacent  inlets  of  the  mainland,  down  to  the 
Columbia  Kiver,  and  perhaps  as  far  S.  as  Umpqua  River  and  the  northern 
part  of  New  California.'  Scoukr,  in  Lond.  Geog.  tioc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  221. 


COLUMBIAN  FAMILIES.  151 

territory,  I  drop  i  Nootka '  and  retain  only  the  word 
'Columbian.'2  These  nations  have  also  been  broadly 
denominated  Flatheads,  from  a  custom  practiced  more  or 
less  by  many  of  their  tribes,  of  compressing  the  cranium 
during  infancy;3  although  the  only  Indians  in  the  whole 
area,  tribally  known  as  Flatheads,  are  those  of  the  Salish 
family,  who  do  not  flatten  the  head  at  all. 

In  describing  the  Columbian  nations  it  is  necessary, 
as  in  the  other  divisions,  to  subdivide  the  group;  arbi 
trarily  this  may  have  been  done  in  some  instances,  but 
as  naturally  as  possible  in  all.  Thus  the  people  of  Queen 
Charlotte  Islands,  and  the  adjacent  coast  for  about  a 
hundred  miles  inland,  extending  from  55°  to  52°  of  north 
latitude,  are  called  Haidahs  from  the  predominant  tribe 
of  the  islands.  The  occupants  of  Vancouver  Island  and 
the  opposite  main,  with  its  labyrinth  of  inlets  from  52° 
to  49°,  I  term  Nootkas.  The  Sound  Indians  inhabit  the 
region  drained  by  streams  flowing  into  Puget  Sound,  and 
the  adjacent  shores  of  the  strait  and  ocean ;  the  ChinooJcs 
occupy  the  banks  of  the  Columbia  from  the  Dalles  to  the 
sea,  extending  along  the  coast  northward  to  Gray  Har 
bor,  and  southward  nearly  to  the  Californian  line.  The 
interior  of  British  Columbia,  between  the  Cascade  and 
Kocky  Mountains,  and  south  of  the  territory  occupied  by 
the  Hyperborean  Carriers,  is  peopled  by  the  Shushwaps, 
the  Kootenais,  and  the  0/canagans.  Between  49°  and  47°, 

2  Gilbert  Malcolm  Sproat,  a  close  observer  and  clear  writer,  thinks  '  this 
word  Nootkali — no  word  at  all — together  with  an  imaginary  word,  Columbian, 
denoting  a  supposed  original  North  American  race — is  absurdly  used  to  de 
note  all  the  tribes  which  inhabit  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  western  coast 
of  North  America,  from  California  inclusively  to  the  regions  inhabited  by  the 
Esquimaux.     In  this  great  tract  there  are  more  tribes,  differing  totally  in  lan 
guage  and  customs,  than  in  any  other  portion  of  the  American  continent; 
and  surely  a  better  general  name  for  them  could  be  found  than  this  meaning 
less  and  misapplied  term  Nootkah  Columbian.'  Sproat' s  Scenes,  p.  315.     Yet 
Mr  Sproat  suggests  no  other  name.     It  is  quite  possible  that  Cook,  Voy.  to 
the  Pacific,  vol.  ii.,  p.  288,  misunderstood  the  native  name  of  Nootka  Sound. 
It  is  easy  to  criticise  any  name  which  might  be  adopted,  and  even  if  it  were 
practicable  or  desirable  to  change  all  meaningless  and  misapplied  geograph 
ical  names,  the  same  or  greater  objections  might  be  raised  against  others, 
which  necessity  would  require  a  writer  to  invent. 

3  Kane's  Wand.,  p.  173;  Macfie's  Vane.  Isl.,  p.  441;  Catlin's  N.  Am.  Ind., 
vol.  ii.,  p.  108;  the  name  being  given  to  the  people  between  the  region  of  the 
Columbia  and  53 J  30'. 


152  COLUMBIANS. 

extending  west  from  the  Cascade  to  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
chiefly  on  the  Columbia  and  Clarke  Fork,  is  the  Salish  or 
Flathead  family.  The  nations  dwelling  south  of  47°  and 
east  of  the  Cascade  range,  on  the  Columbia,  the  lower  Snake, 
and  their  tributary  streams,  may  be  called  Sahaptins,  from 
the  name  of  the  Nez  Perce  tribes/  The  great  Shoshone 
family,  extending  south-east  from  the  upper  waters  of  the 
Columbia,  and  spreading  out  over  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
Great  Basin,  although  partially  included  in  the  Colum 
bian  limits,  will  be  omitted  in  this,  and  included  in  the 
Californian  Group,  which  follows.  These  divisions,  as 
before  stated,  are  geographic  rather  than  ethnographic.5 
Many  attempts  have  been  made  by  practical  ethnologists, 
to  draw  partition  lines  between  these  peoples  according 
to  race,  all  of  which  have  proved  signal  failures,  the  best 
approximation  to  a  scientific  division  being  that  of  phil 
ologists,  the  results  of  whose  researches  are  given  in  the 
third  volume  of  this  series;  but  neither  the  latter  divis 
ion,  nor  that  into  coast  and  inland  tribes — in  many  re 
spects  the  most  natural  and  clearly  defined  of  all6 — is 
adapted  to  my  present  purpose.  In  treating  of  the  Co 
lumbians,  I  will  first  take  up  the  coast  families,  going 
from  north  to  south,  and  afterward  follow  the  same  order 
with  those  east  of  the  mountains. 

No  little  partiality  was  displayed  by  the  Great  Spirit 
of  the  Columbians  in  the  apportionment  of  their  dwell 
ing-place.  The  Cascade  Mountains,  running  from  north 
to  south  throughout  their  whole  territory,  make  of  it  two 
distinct  climatic  divisions,  both  highly  but  unequally 
favored  by  nature.  On  the  coast  side — a  strip  which 

4  The  name  Nez  Perces,  '  pierced  noses, '  is  usually  pronounced  as  if  En 
glish,  Nez  Per-ces. 

5  For  particulars  and  authorities  see  TKIBAL  BOUNDAEIES  at  end  of  this 
chapter. 

6  '  The  Indian  tribes  of  the  North-western  Coast  may  be  divided  into  two 
groups,  the  Insular  and  the  Inland,  or  those  who  inhabit  the  islands  and 
adjacent  shores  of  the  mainland,  and  subsist  almost  entirely  by  fishing;  and 
those  who  live  in  the  interior  and  are  partly  hunters.     This  division  is  per 
haps  arbitrary,  or  at  least  imperfect,  as  there  are  several  tribes  whose  affini 
ties  with  either  group  are  obscure.'  Scouler,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol. 
xi.,  p.  217.    See  Stevens,  in  Pac.  7?.  R.  Ji'epf.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  147-8,  and  Mayne's 
B.  C.,  p.  242.    '  The  best  division  is  into  coast  and  inland  tribes.'  Lord's  Nat., 
vol.  ii.,  p.  226. 


HOME  OF  THE  COLUMBIANS.  153 

may  be  called  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  wide  and  one 
thousand  miles  long — excessive  cold  is  unknown,  and 
the  earth,  warmed  by  Asiatic  currents  and  watered  by 
numerous  mountain  streams,  is  thickly  wooded;  noble 
forests  are  well  stocked  with  game ;  a  fertile  soil  yields  a 
great  variety  of  succulent  roots  and  edible  berries,  which 
latter  means  of  subsistence  were  lightly  appreciated  by  the 
indolent  inhabitants,  by  reason  of  the  still  more  abund 
ant  and  accessible  food-supply  afforded  by  the.  fish  of 
ocean,  channel,  and  stream.  The  sources  of  material  for 
clothing  were  also  bountiful  far  beyond  the  needs  of  the 
people. 

Passing  the  Cascade  barrier,  the  climate  and  the  face 
of  the  country  change.  Here  we  have  a  succession  of 
plains  or  table-lands,  rarely  degenerating  into  deserts, 
with  a  good  supply  of  grass  and  roots ;  though  generally 
without  timber,  except  along  the  streams,  until  the 
heavily  wooded  western  spurs  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
are  reached.  The  air  having  lost  much  of  its  moisture, 
affords  but  a  scanty  supply  of  rain,  the  warming  and 
equalizing  influence  of  the  ocean  stream  is  no  longer  felt, 
and  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  undergone  accord 
ing  to  latitude  and  season.  Yet  are  the  dwellers  in  this 
land  blessed  above  many  other  aboriginal  peoples,  in  that 
game  is  plenty,  and  roots  and  insects  are  at  hand  in  case 
the  season's  hunt  prove  unsuccessful. 

Ethnologically,  no  well-defined  line  can  be  drawn  to 
divide  the  people  occupying  these  two  widely  different 
regions.  Diverse  as  they  certainly  are  in  form,  charac 
ter,  and  customs,  their  environment,  the  climate,  and  their 
methods  of  seeking  food  may  well  be  supposed  to  have 
made  them  so.  Not  only  do  the  pursuit  of  game  in  the 
interior  and  the  taking  of  fish  on  the  coast,  develop 
clearly  marked  general  peculiarities  of  character  and  life 
in  the  two  divisions,  but  the  same  causes  produce  grades 
more  or  less  distinct  in  each  division.  West  of  the  Cas 
cade  range,  the  highest  position  is  held  by  the  tribes  who 
in  their  canoes  pursue  the  whale  upon  the  ocean,  and  in 
the  effort  to  capture  Leviathan  become  themselves  great 


154  COLUMBIANS. 

and  daring  as  compared  with  the  lowest  order  who  live 
upon  shell-fish  and  whatever  nutritious  substances  may 
be  cast  by  the  tide  upon  the  beach.  Likewise  in  the  in 
terior,  the  extremes  are  found  in  the  deer,  bear,  elk,  and 
buffalo  hunters,  especially  when  horses  are  employed,  and 
in  the  root  and  insect  eaters  of  the  plains.  Between  these 
four  extreme  classes  may  be  traced  many  intermediate 
grades  of  physical  and  intellectual  development,  due  to 
necessity  and  the  abilities  exercised  in  the  pursuit  of  game. 

The  Columbians  hitherto  have  been  brought  in  much 
closer  contact  with  the  whites  than  the  Hyperboreans, 
and  the  results  of  the  association  are  known  to  all.  The 
cruel  treacheries  and  massacres  by  which  nations  have 
been  thinned,  and  flickering  remnants  of  once  powerful 
tribes  gathered  on  government  reservations  or  reduced 
to  a  handful  of  beggars,  dependent  for  a  livelihood  on 
charity,  theft,  or  the  wages  of  prostitution,  form  an  un 
written  chapter  in  the  history  of  this  region.  That  this 
process  of  duplicity  was  unnecessary  as  well  as  infa 
mous,  I  shall  not  attempt  to  show,  as  the  discussion  of 
Indian  policy  forms  no  part  of  my  present  purpose. 
Whatever  the  cause,  whether  from  an  inhuman  civilized 
policy,  or  the  decrees  of  fate,  it  is  evident  that  the  Co 
lumbians,  in  common  with  all  the  aborigines  of  America, 
are  doomed  to  extermination.  Civilization  and  savagism 
will  not  coalesce,  any  more  than  light  and  darkness ;  and 
although  it  may  be  necessary  that  these  things  come,  yet 
are  those  by  whom  they  are  unrighteously  accomplished 
none  the  less  culpable. 

Once  more  let  it  be  understood  that  the  time  of  which 
this  volume  speaks,  was  when  the  respective  peoples  were 
first  known  to  Europeans.  It  was  when,  throughout 
this  region  of  the  Columbia,  nature's  wild  magnificence 
was  yet  fresh;  primeval  forests  unprofaned;  lakes,  and 
rivers,  and  rolling  plains  unswept;  it  was  when  count 
less  villages  dotted  the  luxuriant  valleys;  when  from 
the  warrior's  camp-fire  the  curling  smoke  never  ceased 
to  ascend,  nor  the  sounds  of  song  and  dance  to  be  heard; 
when  bands  of  gaily  dressed  savages  roamed  over  every 


HAIDAH  NATIONS.  155 

hill-side;  when  humanity  unrestrained  vied  with  bird 
and  beast  in  the  exercise  of  liberty  absolute.  This  is 
no  history;  alas!  they  have  none;  it  is  but  a  sun-picture, 
and  to  be  taken  correctly  must  be  taken  quickly.  Nor 
need  we  pause  to  look  back  through  the  dark  vista  of 
unwritten  history,  and  speculate,  who  and  what  they  are, 
nor  for  how  many  thousands  of  years  they  have  been  com 
ing  and  going,  counting  the  winters,  the  moons,  and  the 
sleeps ;  chasing  the  wild  game,  basking  in  the  sunshine, 
pursuing  and  being  pursued,  killing  and  being  killed. 
All  knowledge  regarding  them  lies  buried  in  an  eternity 
of  the  past,  as  all  knowledge  of  their  successors  remains 
folded  in  an  eternity  of  the  future.  We  came  upon 
them  unawares,  unbidden,  and  while  we  gazed  they 
melted  away.  The  infectious  air  of  civilization  pene 
trated  to  the  remotest  corner  of  their  solitudes.  Their 
ignorant  and  credulous  nature,  unable  to  cope  with  the 
intellect  of  a  superior  race,  absorbed  only  its  vices,  yield 
ing  up  its  own  simplicity  and  nobleness  for  the  white 
man's  diseases  and  death. 

In  the  Haidah  family  I  include  the  nations  occupying 
the  coast  and  islands  from  the  southern  extremity  of 
Prince  of  Wales  Archipelago  to  the  Bentinck  Arms  in 
about  52°.  Their  territory  is  bounded  on  the  north  and 
east  by  the  Thlinkeet  and  Carrier  nations  of  the  Hyper 
boreans,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Nootka  family  of  the 
Columbians.  Its  chief  nations,  whose  boundaries  how 
ever  can  rarely  be  fixed  with  precision,  are  the  Massets, 
the  Skiddegats,  and  the  Cunishawas,  of  Queen  Charlotte 
Islands;  the  Kaiyanies,  of  Prince  of  Wales  Archipelago; 
the  Chimsyans,  about  Fort  Simpson,  and  on  Chatham 
Sound ;  the  Nass  and  the  Skeenas,  on  the  rivers  of  the 
same  names ;  the  Sebassas,  on  Pitt  Archipelago  and  the 
shores  of  Gardner  Channel ;  and  the  Millbank  Sound  In 
dians,  including  the  Hailtms  and  the  BeGacoolas,  the  most 
southern  of  this  family.  These  nations,  the  orthography 
of  whose  names  is  far  from  uniform  among  different  wri 
ters,  are  still  farther  subdivided  into  numerous  indefinite 
tribes,  as  specified  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 


156  COLUMBIANS. 

The  Haidah  territory,  stretching  on  the  mainland  three 
hundred  miles  in  length,  and  in  width  somewhat  over 
one  hundred  miles  from  the  sea  to  the  lofty  Chilkoten 
Plain,  is  traversed  throughout  its  length  by  the  northern 
extension  of  the  Cascade  Range.  In  places  its  spurs  and 
broken  foot-hills  touch  the  shore,  and  the  very  heart  of 
the  range  is  penetrated  by  innumerable  inlets  and  chan 
nels,  into  which  pour  short  rapid  streams  from  interior 
hill  and  plain.  The  country,  though  hilly,  is  fertile 
and  covered  by  an  abundant  growth  of  large,  straight 
pines,  cedars,  and  other  forest  trees.  The  forest  abounds 
with  game,  the  waters  with  fish.  The  climate  is  less  se 
vere  than  in  the  middle  United  States;  and  notwith 
standing  the  high  latitude  of  their  home,  the  Haidahs 
have  received  no  small  share  of  nature's  gifts.  Little 
has  been  explored,  however,  beyond  the  actual  coast, 
and  information  concerning  this  nation,  coming  from  a 
few  sources  only,  is  less  complete  than  in  the  case  of  the 
more  southern  Nootkas. 

Favorable  natural  conditions  have  produced  in  the  Hai 
dahs  a  tall,  comely,  and  well-formed  race,  not  inferior  to 
any  in  North-western  America;7  the  northern  nations  of 

7  '  By  far  the  best  looking,  most  intelligent  and  energetic  people  on  the 
N.  W.  Coast.'  Scouler,  in  Loud.  Geog.  8oc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  218.  Also  ranked 
by  Prichard  as  the  finest  specimens  physically  on  the  coast.  Researches,  vol. 
v. ,  p.  433.  The  Nass  people  '  were  peculiarly  comely,  strong,  and  well  grown. ' 
Simpson's  Overland  Journ.,  vol.  i.,  p.  207.  'Would  be  handsome,  or  at  least 
comely,'  were  it  not  for  the  paint.  'Some  of  the  women  have  exceedingly 
handsome  faces,  and  very  symmetrical  figures.'  'Impressed  by  the  manly 
beauty  and  bodily  proportions  of  my  islanders.'  Poole's  Queen  Charlotte  JsL, 
pp.  310,  314.  Mackenzie  found  the  coast  people  'more  corpulent  and  of 
better  appearance  than  the  inhabitants  of  the  interior.'  Voy.  pp.  322-3; 

see  pp.  370-1.      '  The  stature  (at  Burke's  Canal) was  much  more 

stout  and  robust  than  that  of  the  Indians  further  south.  The  prominence 
of  their  countenances  and  the  regularity  of  their  features,  resembled  the 
northern  Europeans.'  Vancouver's  Voy.  vol.ii.,p  262.  A  chief  of  'gigantic 
person,  a  stately  air,  a  noble  mien,  a  manly  port,  and  all  the  characteristics 
of  external  dignity,  with  a  symmetrical  figure,  and  a  perfect  order  of  Euro 
pean  contour.'  Dune's  Oregon,  pp.  279,  251,  283,  285.  Mayne  says,  their 
countenances  are  decidedly  plainer '  than  the  southern  Indians.  B.  C.,  p.  250. 

'A  tall,  well-formed  people.'  Bendd's  Alex.  Arch.,  p.  29.     'No  finer  men 

can  be  found  on  the  American  Continent. '  Sproat's  Scenes,  p.  23.  In  55°,  '  Son 
bien  corpulentos.'  Crespi,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  s.  iv.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  646.  '  The  best 
looking  Indians  we  had  ever  met.'  '  Much  taller,  and  in  every  way  superior 
to  the  Puget  Sound  tribes.  The  women  are  stouter  than  the  men,  but  not  so 
good-looking.'  Heed's  Nar. 


PHYSICAL  PECULIARITIES  OF  THE  HAIDAHS.  157 

the  family  being  generally  superior  to  the  southern,8 
and  having  physical  if  not  linguistic  affinities  with  their 
Thlinkeet  neighbors,  rather  than  with  the  Nootkas. 
Their  faces  are  broad,  with  high  cheek  bones;9  the  eyes 
small,  generally  black,  though  brown  and  gray  with  a 
reddish  tinge  have  been  observed  among  them.10  The 
few  who  have  seen  their  faces  free  from  paint  pronounce 
their  complexion  light,11  and  instances  of  Albino  charac 
teristics  are  sometimes  found.12  The  hair  is  not  uni 
formly  coarse  and  black,  but  often  soft  in  texture,  and  of 
varying  shades  of  brown,  worn  by  some  of  the  tribes  cut 
close  to  the  head.13  The  beard  is  usually  plucked  out 
with  great  care,  but  moustaches  are  raised  sometimes  as 
strong  as  those  of  Europeans;14  indeed  there  seems  to 

8  The  Sebassas  are   '  more  active  and  enterprising  than  the  Millbank 
tribes.'  Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  273.     The  Haeeltzuk  are  '  comparatively  effeminate 
in  their  appearance.'  Scouler,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  223.     The 
Kyganies  '  consider  themselves  more  civilised  than  the  other  tribes,  whom 
they  regard  with  feelings  of  contempt.'  Id.,  p.  219.     The  Chimsyans  'are 
much  more  active  and  cleanly  than  the  tribes  to  the  south.'  Id.,  p.  220.     'I 
have,  as  a  rule,  remarked  that  the  physical  attributes  of  those  tribes  coming 
from  the  north,  are  superior  to  those  of  the  dwellers  in  the  south.'  Barrett- 
Lennard's  Trav.,  p.  40. 

9  Mackenzie's  Voy.,  pp.  370-1,  322-3;   Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  262, 
320;  Hale's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  197.    '  Regular,  and  often  fine 
featiires.'  BendeVs  Alex.  Arch.,  p.  29. 

10  Mackenzie's  Voy.,  pp.  309-10,  322-3,  370-1;    Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p. 
229.     'Opening  of  the  eye  long  and  narrow.'  Hale's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex. 
Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  197. 

11  'Had  it  not  been  for  the  filth,  oil,  and  paint,  with  which,  from  their 
earliest  infancy,  they  are  besmeared  from  head  to  foot,  there  is  great  reason 
to  believe  that  their  colour  would  have  differed  but  little  from  such  of  the 
labouring  Europeans,  as  are  constantly  exposed  to  the  inclemency  and  alter 
ations  of  the  weather.'  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  262.     '  Between  the  olive 
and  the  copper.'  Mackenzie's  Voy.,  pp.  370-1.     '  Their  complexion,  when  they 
are  washed  free  from  paint,  is  as  white  as  that  of  the  people  of  the  S.  of  Eu 
rope.'  Scouler,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  218.     Skin  'nearly  as 
white  as  ours.'  Poole's  Q.  Char.  Isl.,  pp.  314-5.     '  Of  a  remarkable  light  color.' 
BendeVs  Alex.  Arch.,  p.  29.     'Fairer  in  complexion  than  the  Vancouverians.' 

Their  young  women's  skins  are  as  clear  and  white  as  those  of  Englishwomen/ 
Sproat's  Scenes,  pp.  23-4.  '  Fair  in  complexion,  sometimes  with  ruddy  cheeks. ' 
Hale's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  197.  '  De  buen  semblante,  coloi 
bianco  y  bermejos.'  Crespi,  in  Doc,  Hist.  Mex.,  s.  iv.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  646. 

12  Tolmie  mentions  several  instances  of  the  kind,  and  states  that  '  amongst 
the  Hydah  or  Queen  Charlotte  Island  tribes,  exist  a  family  of  coarse,  red-haired, 
light-brown  eyed,  square-built  people,  short-sighted,  and  of  fair  complexion.' 
Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  229-30. 

13  Mackenzie's   Voy.,  pp.  322-3,  371;   Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  370; 
Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  283;  Poole's  Q.  Char.  Isl.,  p.  315. 

14  Scouler,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  218;  Poole's  Q.  Char.  Isl., 
p.  74.     'What  is  very  unusual  among  the  aborigines  of  America,  they  have 


158  COLUMBIANS. 

be  little  authority  for  the  old  belief  that  the  North 
western  American  Indians  were  destitute  of  hair  except 
on  the  head.15  Dr  Scouler,  comparing  Chimsyan  skulls 
writh  those  of  the  Chinooks,  who  are  among  the  best 
known  of  the  north-western  nations,  finds  that  in  a  nat 
ural  state  both  have  broad,  high  cheek-bones,  with  a  re 
ceding  forehead,  but  the  Chimsyan  skull,  between  the 
parietal  and  temporal  bones,  is  broader  than  that  of  the 
Chinook,  its  vertex  being  remarkably  flat.16  Swollen  and 
deformed  legs  are  common  from  constantly  doubling  them 
under  the  body  while  sitting  in  the  canoe.  The  teeth  are 
frequently  worn  down  to  the  gums  with  eating  sanded 
salmon.17 

The  Haidahs  have  no  methods  of  distortion  peculiar 
to  themselves,  by  which  they  seek  to  improve  their  fine 
physique ;  but  the  custom  of  flattening  the  head  in  in 
fancy  obtains  in  some  of  the  southern  nations  of  this 
family,  as  the  Hailtzas  and  Bellacoolas,18  and  the  Thlin- 
keet  lip-piece,  already  sufficiently  described,  is  in  use 
throughout  a  larger  part  of  the  whole  territory.  It  was 
observed  by  Simpson  as  far  south  as  Mill  bank  Sound, 
where  it  was  highly  useful  as  well  as  ornamental,  afford 
ing  a  firm  hold  for  the  fair  fingers  of  the  sex  in  their 
drunken  fights.  These  ornaments,  made  of  either  wood, 
bone,  or  metal,  are  wrorn  particularly  large  in  Queen 

thick  beards,  which  appear  early  in  life.'  Hole's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol. 
vi.,  p.  197. 

15  '  After  the  age  of  puberty,  their  bodies,  in  their  natural  state,  are  cov 
ered  in  the  same  manner  as  those  of  the  Europeans.     The  men,  indeed, 
esteem  a  beard  very  unbecoming,  and  take  great  pains  to  get  rid  of  it,  nor 
is  there  any  ever  to  be  perceived  on  their  faces,  except  when  they  grow  old, 
and  become  inattentive  to  their  appearance.     Every  crinous  efflorescence  on 
the  other  parts  of  the  body  is  held  unseemly  by  them,  and  both  sexes  employ 
much  time  in  their  extirpation.    The  Nawdowessies,  and  the  remote  nations, 
pluck  them  out  with  bent  pieces  of  hard  wood,  formed  into  a  kind  of  nippers; 
whilst  those  who  have  communication  with  Europeans  procure  from  them 
wire,  which  they  twist  into  a  screw  or  worm;  applying  this  to  the  part,  they 
press  the  rings  together,  and  with  a  sudden  twitch  draw  out  all  the  hairs  that 
are  inclosed  between  them.'  Carver's  Trav.,  p.  225. 

16  Scouler,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  220. 

17  Mackenzie's  Voy.,  pp.  370-1;    Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  226;  Dunn's  Oregon, 
p.  287. 

is  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  232;  Scouler,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi., 
pp.  218,  220,  223.  '  The  most  northern  of  these  Flat-head  tribes  is  the  Haut- 
zuk.'  tichoolcrqft's  Arch.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  325. 


HAIDAH  DRESS  AND  ORNAMENT.  159 

Charlotte  Islands,  where  they  seem  to  be  not  a  mark  of 
rank,  but  to  be  worn  in  common  by  all  the  women.19  Be 
sides  the  regular  lip-piece,  ornaments,  various  in  shape 
and  material,  of  shell,  bone,  wood,  or  metal,  are  worn 
stuck  in  the  lips,  nose,  and  ears,  apparently  according  to 
the  caprice  or  taste  of  the  wearer,  the  skin  being  some 
times,  though  more  rarely,  tattooed  to  correspond.20  Both 
for  ornament  and  as  a  protection  against  the  weather,  the 
skin  is  covered  with  a  thick  coat  of  paint,  a  black  polish 
being  a  full  dress  uniform.  Figures  of  birds  and  beasts, 
and  a  coat  of  grease  are  added  in  preparation  for  a  feast, 
with  fine  down  of  duck  or  goose — a  stylish  coat  of  tar  and 
feathers — sprinkled  over  the  body  as  an  extra  attraction.21 
When  the  severity  of  the  weather  makes  additional  pro 
tection  desirable,  a  blanket,  formerly  woven  by  them 
selves  from  dog's  hair,  and  stained  in  varied  colors,  but 
now  mostly  procured  from  Europeans,  is  thrown  loosely 
over  the  shoulders.  Chiefs,  especially  in  times  of  feasting, 
wear  richer  robes  of  skins.22  The  styles  of  dress  and  orna 
ment  adopted  around  the  forts  from  contact  with  the  whites 
need  not  be  described.  Among  the  more  unusual  arti 
cles  that  have  been  noticed  by  travelers  are,  "a  large  hat, 
resembling  the  top  of  a  small  parasol,  made  of  the  twisted 
fibres  of  the  roots  of  trees,  with  an  aperture  in  the  in 
side,  at  the  broader  end"  for  the  head,  worn  by  a  Se- 
bassa  chief;  and  at  Millbank  Sound,  "masks  set  with 

w  Simpson's  Overland  Joum.,  vol.  i. ,  pp.  204,  233 .  '  This  wooden  ornament 
seems  to  be  wore  by  all  the  se.x  indiscriminately,  whereas  at  Norfolk  Sound  it 
is  confined  to  those  of  superior  rank.'  Dixon's  Voy.,  pp.  225,  208,  with  a  cut. 
A  piece  of  brass  or  copper  is  first  put  in,  and  '  this  corrodes  the  lacerated 
parts,  and  by  consuming  the  flesh  gradually  increases  the  orifice.'  Vancouver1  a 
Voy.,  vol.ii.,  pp.  279-80,  408.  Scouler,  in  Lond.  Geog.  &oc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  218; 
Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  276,  279;  Crespi,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  s.  iv.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  651; 
Cornwallis'  New  Eldorado,  p.  106;  Catlin's  N.  Am.  Ind.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  113,  with 
plate. 

20  Mayne's  B.  C.,  pp.  281-2;  Poole's  Q.  Char.  Isl.,  pp.  75,  311;  Barrett-Len- 
nard's  Trav.,  pp.  45-6;  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  279,  285. 

21  Poole's  ^.  Char.  Isl.,  pp.  82,' 106,  310,  322-3;  Mayne's  B.  C.,  pp.  282, 
283;  Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  251. 

22  Mayne's  B\  C.,  p.  282;  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  251,  276,  291;  Parker's  Explor. 
Tour.,  p.  263;  Poole's  Q.  Char.  Isl.,  p.  310.    'The  men  habitually  go  naked,  but 
when  they  go  off  on  a  journey  they  wear  a  blanket.'  Reed's  Nar.     'Cuero 
de  nutrias  y  lobo  marino ....  sombreros  de  junco  bien  tejidos  con  la  copa 
puntiaguda.'  Crespi,  in  Doc.  Ilist.  Mex.,  s.  iv.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  646. 


160  COLUMBIANS. 

seals'  whiskers  and  feathers,  which  expand  like  a  fan," 
with  secret  springs  to  open  the  mouth  and  eyes.23  Mac 
kenzie  and  Vancouver,  who  were  among  the  earliest  vis 
itors  to  this  region,  found  fringed  robes  of  bark-fibre, 
ornamented  with  fur  and  colored  threads.  A  circular 
mat,  with  an  opening  in  the  centre  for  the  head,  was 
worn  as  a  protection  from  the  rain;  and  war  garments 
consisted  of  several  thicknesses  of  the  strongest  hides 
procurable,  sometimes  strengthened  by  strips  of  wood  on 
the  inside.24 

The  Haidahs  use  as  temporary  dwellings,  in  their  fre 
quent  summer  excursions  for  war  and  the  hunt,  simple 
lodges  of  poles,  covered,  among  the  poorer  classes  by  ce 
dar  mats,  and  among  the  rich  by  skins.  Their  perma 
nent  villages  are  usually  built  in  strong  natural  posi 
tions,  guarded  by  precipices,  sometimes  on  rocks  detached 
from  the  main  land,  but  connected  with  it  by  a  narrow 
platform.  Their  town  houses  are  built  of  light  logs,  or 
of  thick  split  planks,  usually  of  sufficient  size  to  accom 
modate  a  large  number  of  families.  Poole  mentions  a 
house  on  Queen  Charlotte  Islands,  which  formed  a  cube  of 
fifty  feet,  ten  feet  of  its  height  being  dug  in  the  ground,  and 
which  accommodated  seven  hundred  Indians.  The  build 
ings  are  often,  however,  raised  above  the  ground  on  a 
platform  supported  by  posts,  sometimes  carved  into  hu 
man  or  other  figures.  Some  of  these  raised  buildings 
seen  by  the  earlier  visitors  were  twenty-five  or  thirty 
feet  from  the  ground,  solidly  and  neatly  constructed,  an 
inclined  log  with  notches  serving  as  a  ladder.  These 
houses  were  found  only  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Hai- 

23  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  253,  276-7;  CaUin's  N.  Am.  Ind.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  113. 

24  At  Salmon  Biver,  52°  58',  'their  dress  consists  of  a  single  robe  tied 
over  the  shoulders,  falling  down  behind,  to  the  heels,  and  before,  a  little  below 
the  knees,  with  a  deep  fringe  round  the  bottom.     It  is  generally  made  of  the 
bark  of  the  cedar  tree,  which  they  prepare  as  fine  as  hemp;  though  some  of 
these  garments  are  interwoven  with  strips  of  the  sea-otter  skin,  which  give 
them  the  appearance  of  a  fur  on  one  side.     Others  have  stripes  of  red  and  yel 
low  threads  fancifully  introduced  towards  the  borders.'     Clothing  is  laid 
aside  whenever  convenient.     '  The  women  wear  a  close  fringe  hanging  down 
before  them  about  two  feet  in  length,  and  half  as  wide.     When  they  sit  down 
they  draw  this  between  their  thighs.'  Mackenzie's  Voy.,  pp.  322-3,  371;    Van 
couver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  280,  339. 


HAIDAH  HOUSES.  161 

dah  territory.  The  fronts  were  generally  painted  with 
figures  of  men  and  animals.  There  were  no  windows  or 
chimney ;  the  floors  were  spread  with  cedar  mats,  on  which 
the  occupants  slept  in  a  circle  round  a  central  fire,  whose 
smoke  in  its  exit  took  its  choice  between  the  hole  which 
served  as  a  door  and  the  wall-cracks.  On  the  south 
eastern  boundary  of  this  territory,  Mackenzie  found  in 
the  villages  large  buildings  of  similar  but  more  careful 
construction,  and  with  more  elaborately  carved  posts,  but 
they  were  not  dwellings,  being  used  probably  for  religious 
purposes.25 

Although  game  is  plentiful,  the  Haidahs  are  not  a  race 
of  hunters,  but  derive  their  food  chiefly  from  the  innu 
merable  multitude  of  fish  and  sea  animals,  which,  each 

25  A  house  '  erected  on  a  platform, raised  and  supported  near  thirty  feet 

from  the  ground  by  perpendicular  spars  of  a  very  large  size ;  the  whole  occu 
pying  a  space  of  about  thirty -five  by  fifteen  (yards),  was  covered  in  by  a  roof 
of  boards  lying  nearly  horizontal,  and  parallel  to  the  platform;  it  seemed  to 
be  divided  into  three  different  houses,  or  rather  apartments,  each  having  a 
separate  access  formed  by  a  long  tree  in  an  inclined  position  from  the  plat 
form  to  the  ground,  with  notches  cut  in  it  by  way  of  steps,  about  a  foot  and 
a  half  asunder.'  Vancouver's  I'oy.,  \ol.ii.,  p.  274.  See  also  pp.  137,  207-8, 
272,  284.  'Their  summer  and  winter  residences  are  built  of  split  plank, 
similar  to  those  of  the  Chenooks.'  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  p.  263.  'Us  habi- 
tent  dans  des  loges  de  soixante  pieds  de  long,  construites  avec  des  troncs  de 
sapin  et  recouvertes  d'ecorces  d'arbres.'  Jllofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  337. 
'Their  houses  are  neatly  constructed,  standing  in  a  row;  having  large  im 
ages,  cut  out  of  wood,  resembling  idols.  The  dwellings  have  all  painted 
fronts,  showing  imitations  of  men  and  animals.  Attached  to  their  houses. 


observed  several  oblong  squares,  of  about  twenty  feet  by  eight.  They  were 
made  of  thick  cedar  boards,  which  were  joined  with  so  much  neatness,  that 
I  at  first  thought  they  were  one  piece.  They  were  painted  with  hieroglyphics, 
and  figures  of  different  animals.'  probably  for  purposes  of  devotion,  as 
was  'a large  building  in  the  middle  of  the  village. . .  .The  ground-plot  was 
fifty  feet  by  forty-five;  each  end  is  formed  by  four  stout  posts,  fixed  perpendic 
ularly  in  the  ground.  The  corner  ones  are  plain,  and  support  a  beam  of  the 
whole  length,  having  three  intermediate  props  on  each  side,  but  of  a  larger 
size,  and  eight  or  nine  feet  in  height.  The  two  centre  posts,  at  each  end,  are 
two  and  a  half  feet  in  diameter,  and  carved  into  human  figures,  supporting 
two  ridge  poles  on  their  heads,  twelve  feet  from  the  ground.  The  figures  at 
the  upper  part  of  this  square  represent  two  persons,  with  their  hands  upon 
their  knees,  as  if  they  supported  the  weight  with  pain  and  difficulty:  the 
others  opposite  to  them  stand  at  their  ease,  with  their  hands  resting  on  their 
hips.  .  .  .Posts,  poles,  and  figures,  were  painted  red  and  black,  but  the  sculp 
ture  of  these  people  is  superior  to  their  painting.'  Mackenzie's  Voy.,  p.  331. 
See  also  pp.  307,  318,  328-30,  339,  345;  Poole's  Q.  Char.  M.,  pp.  Ill,  113-4; 
Reed's  Nar.;  Marchand,  Fo?/.,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  127-31. 
VOL.  I.  11 


162  COLUMBIANS. 

variety  in  its  season,  fill  the  coast  waters.  Most  of  the 
coast  tribes,  and  all  who  live  inland,  kill  the  deer  and 
other  animals,  particularly  since  the  introduction  of  fire 
arms,  but  it  is  generally  the  skin  and  not  the  flesh  that 
is  sought.  Some  tribes  about  the  Bentinck  channels,  at 
the  time  of  Mackenzie's  visit,  would  not  taste  flesh  ex 
cept  from  the  sea,  from  superstitious  motives.  Birds  that 
burrow  in  the  sand-banks  are  enticed  out  by  the  glare 
of  torches,  and  knocked  down  in  large  numbers  with 
clubs.  They  are  roasted  without  plucking  or  cleaning, 
the  entrails  being  left  in  to  improve  the  flavor.  Potatoes, 
and  small  quantities  of  carrots  and  other  vegetables,  are 
now  cultivated  throughout  this  territory,  the  crop  being 
repeated  until  the  soil  is  exhausted,  when  a  new  place  is 
cleared.  Wild  parsnips  are  abundant  on  the  banks  of 
lakes  and  streams,  and  their  tender  tops,  roasted,  fur 
nish  a  palatable  food;  berries  and  bulbs  abound,  and 
the  inner  tegument  of  some  varieties  of  the  pine  and 
hemlock  is  dried  in  cakes  and  eaten  with  salmon-oil. 
The  varieties  of  fish  sent  by  nature  to  the  deep  inlets 
and  streams  for  the  Haidah's  food,  are  very  numerous; 
their  standard  reliance  for  regular  supplies  being  the  sal 
mon,  herring,  eulacbon  or  candle-fish,  round-fish,  and 
halibut.  Salmon  are  speared ;  dipped  up  in  scoop-nets ; 
entangled  in  drag-nets  managed  between  two  canoes  and 
forced  by  poles  to  the  bottom;  intercepted  in  their  pur 
suit  of  smaller  fish  by  gill-nets  with  coarse  meshes,  made 
of  cords  of  native  hemp,  stretched  across  the  entrance  of 
the  smaller  inlets ;  and  are  caught  in  large  wicker  bask 
ets,  placed  at  openings  in  weirs  and  embankments  which 
are  built  across  the  rivers.  The  salmon  fishery  differs 
little  in  different  parts  of  the  Northwest.  The  candle- 
fish,  so  fat  that  in  frying  they  melt  almost  completely 
into  oil,  and  need  only  the  insertion  of  a  pith  or  bark 
wick  to  furnish  an  excellent  lamp,  are  impaled  on  the 
sharp  teeth  of  a  rake,  or  comb.  The  handle  of  the  rake 
is  from  six  to  eight  feet  long,  and  it  is  swept  through 
the  water  by  the  Haidahs  in  their  canoes  by  moon 
light.  Herring  in  immense  numbers  are  taken  in  April 


FOOD  OF  THE  HAIDAHS.  163 

by  similar  rakes,  as  well  as  by  dip-nets,  a  large  part 
of  the  whole  take  being  used  for  oil.  Seals  are  speared 
in  the  water  or  shot  while  on  the  rocks,  and  their  flesh 
is  esteemed  a  great  delicacy.  Clams,  cockles,  and  shell 
fish  are  captured  by  squaws,  such  an  employment  be 
ing  beneath  manly  dignity.  Fish,  when  caught,  are 
delivered  to  the  women,  whose  duty  it  is  to  prepare 
them  for  winter  use  by  drying.  No  salt  is  used,  but  the 
fish  are  dried  in  the  sun,  or  smoke-dried  by  being  hung 
from  the  top  of  dwellings,  then  wrapped  in  bark,  or 
packed  in  rude  baskets  or  chests,  and  stowed  on  high 
scaffolds  out  of  the  reach  of  dogs  and  children.  Salmon 
are  opened,  and  the  entrails,  head,  and  back-bone  removed 
before  drying.  During  the  process  of  drying,  sand  is 
blown  over  the  fish,  and  the  teeth  of  the  eater  are  often 
worn  down  by  it  nearly  even  with  the  gums.  The  spawn 
of  salmon  and  herring  is  greatly  esteemed,  and  besides 
that  obtained  from  the  fish  caught,  much  is  collected  on 
pine  boughs,  which  are  stuck  in  the  mud  until  loaded 
with  the  eggs.  This  native  caviare  is  dried  for  preser 
vation,  and  is  eaten  prepared  in  various  ways;  pounded 
between  two  stones,  and  beaten  with  water  into  a  creamy 
consistency;  or  boiled  with  sorrel  and  different  berries, 
and  moulded  into  cakes  about  twelve  inches  square  and 
one  inch  thick  by  means  of  wooden  frames.  After  a 
sufficient  supply  of  solid  food  for  the  winter  is  secured, 
oil,  the  great  heat- producing  element  of  all  northern 
tribes,  is  extracted  from  the  additional  catch,  by  boiling 
the  fish  in  wooden  vessels,  and  skimming  the  grease  from 
the  water  or  squeezing  it  from  the  refuse.  The  arms  and 
breast  of  the  women  are  the  natural  press  in  which  the 
mass,  wrapped  in  mats,  is  hugged ;  the  hollow  stalks  of  an 
abundant  sea-weed  furnish  natural  bottles  in  which  the 
oil  is  preserved  for  use  as  a  sauce,  and  into  which  nearly 
everything  is  dipped  before  eating.  When  the  stock  of 
food  is  secured,  it  is  rarely  infringed  upon  until  the 
winter  sets  in,  but  then  such  is  the  Indian  appetite — ten 
pounds  of  flour  in  the  pancake-form  at  a  meal  being 
nothing  for  the  stomach  of  a  Haidah,  according  to  Poole 


164  COLUMBIANS. 


—that  whole  tribes  frequently  suffer  from  hunger  before 
spring.26 

The  Haidah  weapons  are  spears  from  four  to  sixteen 
feet  long,  some  with  a  movable  head  or  barb,  which  comes 
oft'  when  the  seal  or  whale  is  struck ;  bows  and  arrows ; 
hatchets  of  bone,  horn,  or  iron,  with  which  their  planks 
are  made ;  and  daggers.  Both  spears  and  arrows  are  fre 
quently  pointed  with  iron,  which,  whether  it  found  its 
way  across  the  continent  from  the  Hud  son- Bay  settle 
ments,  down  the  coast  from  the  Russians,  or  was  ob 
tained  from  wrecked  vessels,  was  certainly  used  in  Brit 
ish  Columbia  for  various  purposes  before  the  coming  of 
the  whites.  Bows  are  made  of  cedar,  with  sinew  glued 
along  one  side.  Poole  states  that  before  the  introduc 
tion  of  fire-arms,  the  Queen  Charlotte  Islanders  had  no 
weapon  but  a  club.  Brave  as  the  Haidah  warrior  is 
admitted  to  be,  open  fair  fight  is  unknown  to  him,  and 
in  true  Indian  style  he  resorts  to  night  attacks,  supe 
rior  numbers,  and  treachery,  to  defeat  his  foe.  Cut 
ting  off  the  head  as  a  trophy  is  practiced  instead  of 
scalping,  but  though  unmercifully  cruel  to  all  sexes  and 
ages  in  the  heat  of  battle,  prolonged  torture  of  captives 
seems  to  be  unknown.  Treaties  of  peace  are  arranged 
by  delegations  from  the  hostile  tribes,  following  set  forms, 
and  the  ceremonies  terminate  with  a  many  days'  feast.27 
Nets  are  made  of  native  wild  hemp  and  of  cedar-bark 
fibre ;  hooks,  of  two  pieces  of  wood  or  bone  fastened  to 
gether  at  an  obtuse  angle ;  boxes,  troughs,  and  household 
dishes,  of  wood;  ladles  and  spoons,  of  wood,  horn,  and 
bone.  Candle-fish,  with  a  wick  of  bark  or  pith,  serve  as 


26  On  food  of  the  Haidahs  and  the  methods  of  procuring  it,  see  Lord's 
Nat.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  41,  152;  Mackenzie's  Voy.,  pp.  306,  313-14,  319-21,  327,  333, 
339,  369-70;  Poole' s  Q.  Char.  Isl.,  pp.  148,  284-5,  315-16;   Vancouver's  Voy., 
vol.  ii.,  p.  273;  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  251,  267,  274,  290-1;  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn, 
ii.,  p.  337;  Pemberton's  Vancouver  Island,  p.  23;  Parker's  Explor.  Tour.,  p.  263; 
Iteed's  Nar. 

27  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  339;  Poke's  Q.  Char.  JsL,  p.  316;  Macken 
zie's  Voy.,  p.  372-3.     '  Once  I  saw  a  party  of  Kaiganys  of  about  two  hundred 
men  returning  from  war.     The  paddles  of  the  warriors  killed  in  the  fight 
were  lashed  upright  in  their  various  seats,  so  that  from  a  long  distance  the 
number  of  the  fallen  could  be  ascertained;  and  on  each  mast  of  the  canoes — 
and  some  of  them  had  three — was  stuck  the  head  of  a  slain  foe.'  Benders 
Alex.  Arch.,  p.  30. 


HAIDAH  MANUFACTURES.  165 

lamps;  drinking  vessels  and  pipes  are  carved  with  great 
skill  from  stone.  The  Haidahs  are  noted  for  their  skill 
in  the  construction  of  their  various  implements,  particu 
larly  for  sculptures  in  stone  and  ivory,  in  which  they 
excel  all  the  other  tribes  of  Northern  America.28 

The  cedar-fibre  and  wild  hemp. were  prepared  for  use 
by  the  women  by  beating  on  the  rocks;  they  were  then 
spun  with  a  rude  distaff  and  spindle,  and  woven  on  a 
frame  into  the  material  for  blankets,  robes,  and  mats, 
or  twisted  by  the  men  into  strong  and  even  cord,  be- 

28  The  Kaiganies  '  are  noted  for  the  beauty  and  size  of  their  cedar  canoes, 
and  their  skill  in  carving.  Most  of  the  stone  pipes,  inlaid  with  fragments  of 
Haliotis  or  pearl  shells,  so  common  in  ethnological  collections,  are  their 
handiwork.  The  slate  quarry  from  which  the  stone  is  obtained  is  situated  on 
Queen  Charlotte's  Island.'  DalVs  Alaska,  p.  411.  The  Chimsyans  'make  fig 
ures  in  stone  dressed  like  Englishmen ;  plates  and  other  utensils  of  civiliza 
tion,  ornamented  pipe  stems  and  heads,  models  of  houses,  stone  flutes, 
adorned  with  well-carved  figures  of  animals.  Their  imitative  skill  is  as 
noticeable  as  their  dexterity  in  carving.'  Sproat's  Scenes,  p.  317.  The  sup 
porting  posts  of  their  probable  temples  were  carved  into  human  figures,  and 
all  painted  red  and  black,  '  but  the  sculpture  of  these  people  (52°  40')  is  supe 
rior  to  their  painting. '  Mackenzie's  Voy.,  pp.  330-1 ;  see  pp.  333-4.  *  One  man 
(near  Fort  Simpson)  known  as  the  Arrowsmith  of  the  north-east  coast,  had 
gone  far  beyond  his  compeers,  having  prepared  very  accurate  charts  of  most 
parts  of  the  adjacent  shores.'  Simpson's  Overland  Journ.,  vol.  i.,  p.  207.  '  The 
Indians  of  the  Northern  Family  are  remarkable  for  their  ingenuity  and  me 
chanical  dexterity  in  the  construction  of  their  canoes,  houses,  and  different 
warlike  or  fishing  implements.  They  construct  drinking-vessels,  tobacco- 
pipes,  &c.,  from  a  soft  argillaceous  stone,  and  these  articles  are  remarkable 
for  the  symmetry  of  their  form,  and  the  exceedingly  elaborate  and  intricate 
figures  which  are  carved  upon  them.  With  respect  to  carving  and  a  faculty 
for  imitation,  the  Queen  Charlotte's  Islanders  are  equal  to  the  most  ingenious 
of  the  Polynesian  Tribes.'  Scouler,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  218. 
'Like  the  Chinese,  they  imitate  literally  anything  that  is  given  them  to  do; 
so  that  if  you  give  them  a  cracked  gun-stock  to  copy,  and  do  not  warn  them, 
they  will  in  their  manufacture  repeat  the  blemish.  "Many  of  their  slate-carv 
ings  are  very  good  indeed,  and  their  designs  most  curious.'  Mayne's  B.  C., 
p.  278.  See  also,  Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  293;  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  337, 
and  plate  p.  387.  The  Skidagates  '  showed  me  beautifully  wrought  articles 
of  their  own  design  and  make,  and  amongst  them  some  flutes  manufactured 
from  an  unctuous  blue  slate ....  The  two  ends  were  inlaid  with  lead,  giving 
the  idea  of  a  fine  silver  mounting.  Two  of  the  keys  perfectly  represented 

frogs  in  a  sitting  posture,  the  eyes  being  picked  out  with  burnished  lead It 

would  have  done  credit  to  a  European  modeller.'  Poole's  Q.  Char.  Isl.,  p.  258. 
'  Their  talent  for  carving  has  made  them  famous  far  beyond  their  own  country. ' 
Bendel's  Alex*  Arch. ,  p.  29.  A  square  wooden  box,  holding  one  or  two  bushels, 
is  made  from  three  pieces,  the  sides  being  from  one  piece  so  mitred  as  to 
bend  at  the  corners  without  breaking.  'During  their  performance  of  this 
character  of  labor,  (carving,  etc.)  their  superstitions  will  not  allow  any  spec 
tator  of  the  operator's  work.'  Heed's  Nar.;  Jnd.  Life,  p.  96.  '  Of  a  very  fine 
and  hard  slate  they  make  cups,  plates,  pipes,  little  images,  and  various  orna 
ments,  wrqught  with  surprising  elegance  and  taste.'  Hale's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S. 
Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  197.  ' Us  peignent  aussi  avec  le  meme  gout.'  Rossi,  Souve 
nirs,  p.  298;  Anderson,  in  Hist.  May.,  vol.  vii.,  pp.  74-5. 


166  COLUMBIANS. 

tween  the  hand  and  thigh.  Strips  of  otter-skin,  bird- 
feathers,  and  other  materials,  were  also  woven  into  the 
blankets.  Dogs  of  a  peculiar  breed,  now  nearly  extinct, 
were  shorn  each  year,  furnishing  a  long  white  hair,  which, 
mixed  with  fine  hemp  and  cedar,  made  the  best  cloth. 
By  dyeing  the  materials,  regular  colored  patterns  were 
produced,  each  tribe  having  had,  it  is  said,  a  peculiar 
pattern  by  which  its  matting  could  be  distinguished. 
Since  the  coming  of  Europeans,  blankets  of  native  man 
ufacture  have  almost  entirely  disappeared.  The  Bella- 
coolas  made  very  neat  baskets,  called  zeilusqua,  as  wrell 
as  hats  and  water-tight  vessels,  all  of  fine  cedar-roots. 
Each  chief  about  Fort  Simpson  kept  an  artisan,  whose 
business  it  was  to  repair  canoes,  make  masks,  etc.29 

The  Haidah  canoes  are  dug  out  of  cedar  logs,  and 
are  sometimes  sixty  feet  long,  six  and  a  half  wide, 
and  four  and  a  half  deep,  accommodating  one  hundred 
men.  The  prow  and  stern  are  raised,  and  often  grace 
fully  curved  like  a  swan's  neck,  with  a  monster's  head 
at  the  extremity.  Boats  of  the  better  class  have  their 
exteriors  carved  and  painted,  with  the  gunwale  inlaid 
in  some  cases  with  otter- teeth.  Each  canoe  is  made  of 
a  single  log,  except  the  raised  extremities  of  the  larger 
boats.  They  are  impelled  rapidly  and  safely  over  the 
often  rough  waters  of  the  coast  inlets,  by  shovel-shaped 
paddles,  and  when  on  shore,  are  piled  up  and  covered 
with  mats  for  protection  against  the  rays  of  the  sun. 
Since  the  coming  of  Europeans,  sails  have  been  added 
to  the  native  boats,  and  other  foreign  features  imitated.30 

29  Mackenzie's  Voy.,  p.  338;  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  63;  vol.  ii.,  pp.  215-17, 
254,  258;  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  251,  253,  291,  293.  'They  boil  the  cedar  root 
until  it  becomes  pliable  to  be  worked  by  the  hand  and  beaten  with  sticks, 
when  they  pick  the  fibres  apart  into  threads.  The  warp  is  of  a  different  ma 
terial — sinew  of  the  whale,  or  dried  kelp-thread.'  Heed's  Nar.  'Petatito  de 
vara  en  cuadro  bien  vistoso,  tejido  de  palma  fina  de  dos  colores  bianco  y  negro 
que  tejido  en  cuadritos.'  Crespi,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  s.  iv.,  vol.  vi.,  pp.  647, 
650-1. 

30. Pook's  Q.  Char.  Isl,  p.  269,  and  cuts  on  pp.  121,  291;  Mackenzie's 
Voy.,  p.  335;  Simpson's  Overland  Journ.,  vol.  i.,  p.  204;  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  303;  Sutily  Mexicana,  Viage,  p.  cxxv;  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  174;  lieed's 
Nar.;  Catlin's  N.  Am.  Ind.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  113,  with  plate.  The  Bellabellahs 
'  promised  to  construct  a  steam-ship  on  the  model  of  ours ....  Some  time  after 
this  rude  steamer  appeared.  She  was  from  20  to  30  feet  long,  all  in  one 


TEADE  AND  GOVEBNMENT.  167 

Rank  and  power  depend  greatly  upon  wealth,  which 
consists  of  implements,  wives,  and  slaves.  Admission 
to  alliance  with  medicine-men,  whose  influence  is  greatest 
in  the  tribe,  can  only  be  gained  by  sacrifice  of  private 
property.  Before  the  disappearance  of  sea-otters  from 
the  Haidah  waters,  the  skins  of  that  animal  formed  the 
chief  element  of  their  trade  and  wealth;  now  the  po 
tatoes  cultivated  in  some  parts,  and  the  various  manu 
factures  of  Queen  Charlotte  Islands,  supply  their  slight 
necessities.  There  is  great  rivalry  among  the  islanders 
in  supplying  the  tribes  on  the  main  with  potatoes,  fleets 
of  forty  or  fifty  canoes  engaging  each  year  in  the  trade 
from  Queen  Charlotte  Islands.  Fort  Simpson  is  the  great 
commercial  rendezvous  of  the  surrounding  nations,  who 
assemble  from  all  directions  in  September,  to  hold  a  fair, 
dispose  of  their  goods,  visit  friends,  fight  enemies,  feast, 
and  dance.  Thus  continue  trade  and  merry-making  for 
several  weeks.  Large  fleets  of  canoes  from  the  north  also 
visit  Victoria  each  spring  for  trading  purposes.31 

Very  little  can  be  said  of  the  government  of  the  Hai- 
dahs  in  distinction  from  that  of  the  other  nations  of  the 
Northwest  Coast.  Among  nearly  all  of  them  rank  is  nom 
inally  hereditary,  for  the  most  part  by  the  female  line, 
but  really  depends  to  a  great  extent  on  wealth  and  ability 
in  war.  Females  often  possess  the  right  of  chieftainship. 
In  early  intercourse  with  whites  the  chief  traded  for  the 
whole  tribe,  subject,  however,  to  the  approval  of  the  several 
families,  each  of  which  seemed  to  form  a  kind  of  subordi 
nate  government  by  itself.  In  some  parts  the  power  of  the 

piece — a  large  tree  hollowed  out — resembling  the  model  of  our  steamer.  She 
was  black,  with  painted  ports;  decked  over;  and  had  paddles  painted  red, 
and  Indians  under  cover,  to  turn  them  round.  The  steersman  was  not  seen. 
She  was  floated  triumphantly,  and  went  at  the  rate  of  three  miles  an  hour. 
They  thought  they  had  nearly  come  up  to  the  point  of  external  structure; 
but  then  the  enginery  baffled  them;  and  this  they  thought  they  could  imi 
tate  in  time,  by  perseverance,  and  the  helping  illumination  of  the  Great 
Spirit.'  Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  272.  See  also,  p.  291.  'A  canoe  easily  distanced 
the  champion  boat  of  the  American  Navy,  belonging  to  the  man-of-war  Sar- 
emac.'  Bender  s  Alex.  Arch.,  p.  29. 

si  Scouler,  in  Lond.  Geog  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  219;  Macfie's  B.  C.,  pp. 
429,  437,  458;  Simpson's  Overland  Journ.,  vol.  i.,  p.  206;  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i., 
p.  174;  Anderson,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  vii.,  p.  74;  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  279,  281-3, 
292;  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  p.  cxxv. 


1G8  COLUMBIANS. 

chief  seems  absolute,  and  is  wantonly  exercised  in  the 
commission  of  the  most  cruel  acts  according  to  his  pleas 
ure.  The  extensive  embankments  and  weirs  found  by 
Mackenzie,  although  their  construction  must  have  re 
quired  the  association  of  all  the  labor  of  the  tribe,  were 
completely  under  the  chief's  control,  and  no  one  could 
fish  without  his  permission.  The  people  seemed  all  equal, 
but  strangers  must  obey  the  natives  or  leave  the  village. 
Crimes  have  no  punishment  by  law ;  murder  is  settled  for 
with  relatives  of  the  victim,  by  death  or  by  the  payment  of 
a  large  sum ;  and  sometimes  general  or  notorious  offenders, 
especially  medicine-men,  are  put  to  death  by  an  agree 
ment  among  leading  men.32  Slavery  is  universal,  and  as 
the  life  of  the  slave  is  of  no  value  to  the  owner  except  as 
property,  they  are  treated  with  extreme  cruelty.  Slaves 
the  northern  tribes  purchase,  kidnap,  or  capture  in  war 
from  their  southern  neighbors,  who  obtain  them  by  like 
means  from  each  other,  the  course  of  the  slave  traffic  be 
ing  generally  from  south  to  north,  and  from  the  coast  in 
land?3 

Polygamy  is  everywhere  practiced,  and  the  number  of 
wives  is  regulated  only  by  wealth,  girls  being  bought  of 
parents  at  any  price  which  may  be  agreed  upon,  and 
returned,  and  the  price  recovered,  when  after  a  proper 
trial  they  are  not  satisfactory.  The  transfer  of  the 
presents  or  price  to  the  bride's  parents  is  among  some 
tribes  accompanied  by  slight  ceremonies  nowhere  fully 
described.  The  marriage  ceremonies  at  Millbank  Sound 
are  performed  on  a  platform  over  the  water,  supported 
by  canoes.  While  jealousy  is  not  entirely  unknown, 
chastity  appears  to  be  so,  as  women  who  can  earn  the 


32  Mackenzie's  Voy.,  pp.  374-5;  Tolmieand  Anderson,  in  Lord's  Nat.,  vol. 
ii.,  pp.  240-2,  235;  Macjie's  1L  C.,  p.  429;  /Simpson's  Overland  Journ.,  vol.  i., 
p.  205 ;  Dixon's  Voy.,  p.  227.    '  There  exists  among  them  a  regular  aristocracy.' 
'  The  chiefs  are  always  of  unquestionable  birth,  and  generally  count  among 
their  ancestors  men  who  were  famous  in  battle  and  council.'     'The  chief  is 
regarded  with  all  the  reverence  and  respect  which  his  rank,  his  birth,  and 
his  wealth  can  claim,'  but  'his  power  is  by  no  means  unlimited.'  Bendel's 
Alex.  Arch.,  p.  30. 

33  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  273-4,  283;  Parker's  Explor.  Tour.,  p.  263;  BendeVs 
Alex.  Arch.,  p.  30;  Kane's  Wand.,  p.  220. 


H  AID  AH  GAMBLERS.  169 

greatest  number  of  blankets  win  great  admiration  for 
themselves  and  high  position  for  their  husbands.  Abor 
tion  and  infanticide  are  not  uncommon.  Twin  births 
are  unusual,  and  the  number  of  children  is  not  large,  al 
though  the  age  of  bearing  extends  to  forty  or  forty-six 
years.  Women,  except  in  the  season  of  preparing  the 
winter  supply  of  fish,  are  occupied  in  household  affairs 
and  the  care  of  children,  for  whom  they  are  not  without 
some  affection,  and  whom  they  nurse  often  to  the  age  of 
two  or  three  years.  Many  families  live  together  in  one 
house,  with  droves  of  filthy  dogs  and  children,  all  sleep 
ing  on  mats  round  a  central  fire.34 

The  Haidahs,  like  all  Indians,  are  inveterate  gamblers, 
the  favorite  game  on  Queen  Charlotte  Islands  being  odd 
and  even,  played  with  small  round  sticks,  in  which  the 
game  is  won  when  one  player  has  all  the  bunch  of  forty 
or  fifty  sticks  originally  belonging  to  his  opponent.  Far 
ther  south,  and  inland,  some  of  the  sticks  are  painted 
with  red  rings,  and  the  player's  skill  or  luck  consists 
in  naming  the  number  and  marks  of  sticks  previously 
wrapped  by  his  antagonist  in  grass.  All  have  become 
fond  of  whisky  since  the  coming  of  whites,  but  seem  to 
have  had  no  intoxicating  drink  before.  At  their  annual 
trading  fairs,  and  on  other  occasions,  they  are  fond  of 
visiting  and  entertaining  friends  with  ceremonious  inter 
change  of  presents,  a  suitable  return  being  expected  for 
each  gift.  At  these  reception  feasts,  men  and  wromen 

34  '  Polygamy  is  universal,  regulated  simply  by  the  facilities  for  subsist- 
;e.'  Anderson,  in  Lord's  Kat.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  235.     See  pp.  231-5,  and  vol.  i., 


and  her  father.  Poole's  Q.  Char.  IsL,  pp.  312- 15,  115-10,  155.  '  The  Indians 
are  in  general  very  jealous  of  their  women.'  Dixon's  Voy.,  p.  225-6.  '  Tous 
les  individus  d'une  famille  couchent  pele-mele  sur  le  sol  plancheye  de  Fhabi- 
tation.'  Marchand,  Voy.,  tom.ii.,  p.  144.  'Soon  after  I  had  retired.  . .  .the  chief 
paid  me  a  visit  to  insist  on  my  going  to  his  bed-companion,  and  taking  my 
place  himself.'  Mackenzie's  Voy.,  p.  331.  See  pp.  300,  371-2.  Parker's  Ex- 
plor.  Tour.,  p.  263.  '  On  the  weddingday  they  have  a  public  feast,  at  which 
they  dance  and  sing.'  Dunn' ft  Oregon,  pp.  '252-3,  289-90.  'According  to  a 
custom  of  the  Bellabollahs,  the  widow  of  the  deceased  is  transferred  to  his 
brother's  harem.'  Simpson's  Overland  Jo-urn.,  vol.  i.,  p.  203-4.  'The  tempo 
rary  present  of  a  wife  is  one  of  the  greatest  honours  that  can  be  shown  there 
to  a  guest.'  Sproat's  Scenes,p.  95. 


170  COLUMBIANS. 

are  seated  on  benches  along  opposite  walls ;  at  wedding 
feasts  both  sexes  dance  and  sing  together.  In  dancing, 
the  body,  head,  and  arms  are  thrown  into  various  atti 
tudes  to  keep  time  with  the  music,  very  little  use  being 
made  of  the  legs.  On  Queen  Charlotte  Islands  the  wom 
en  dance  at  feasts,  while  the  men  in  a  circle  beat  time 
with  sticks,  the  only  instruments,  except  a  kind  of  tam 
bourine.  For  their  dances  they  deck  themselves  in  their 
best  array,  including  plenty  of  birds'  down,  which  they 
delight-  to  communicate  to  their  partners  in  bowing,  and 
which  they  also  blow  into  the  air  at  regular  intervals, 
through  a  painted  tube.  Their  songs  are  a  simple  and 
monotonous  chant,  with  which  they  accompany  most  of 
their  dances  and  ceremonies,  though  Mackenzie  heard 
among  them  some  soft,  plaintive  tones,  not  unlike  church 
music.  The  chiefs  in  winter  give  a  partly  theatrical, 
partly  religious  entertainment,  in  which,  after  prepara 
tion  behind  a  curtain,  dressed  in  rich  apparel  and  wear 
ing  masks,  they  appear  on  a  s,tage  and  imitate  different 
spirits  for  the  instruction  of  the  hearers,  who  meanwhile 
keep  up  their  songs.35 

After  the  salmon  season,  feasting  and  conjuring  are 
in  order  The  chief,  whose  greatest  authority  is  in  his 
character  of  conjurer,  or  tzeetzaiak  as  he  is  termed  in 
the  Hailtzuk  tongue,  pretends  at  this  time  to  live  alone 
in  the  forest,  fasting  or  eating  grass,  and  while  there  is 
known  as  taamish.  When  he  returns,  clad  in  bear-robe, 
chaplet,  and  red-bark  collar,  the  crowd  flies  at  his  ap 
proach,  except  a  few  brave  spirits,  who  boldly  present 
their  naked  arms,  from  which  he  bites  and  swallows 
large  mouthfuls.  This,  skillfully  done,  adds  to  the  repu 
tation  of  both  biter  and  bitten,  and  is  perhaps  all  the 
foundation  that  exists  for  the  report  that  these  people  are 

35  '  The  Queen  Charlotte  Islanders  surpass  any  people  that  I  ever  saw  in 
passionate  addiction '  to  gambling.  Poole's  Q.  Char.  JsL,  p.  318-20.  See  pp. 
186-87,  232-33.  Mackenzie's  Voy.,  pp.  288,  311.  The  Sebassas  are  great 
gamblers,  and  'resemble  the  Chinooks  in  their  games.'  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp. 
25-7,  252-9,  281-3,  293.  'The  Indian  mode  of  dancing  bears  a  strange 
resemblance  to  that  in  use  among  the  Chinese.'  Poole's  Q.  Char.  JsL,  p.  82. 
Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  258;  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  p.  263;  Ind.  Life,  p.  63. 


MAGICIANS  AND  MEDICINE-MEN.  171 

cannibals;  although  Mr  Duncan,  speaking  of  the  Chim- 
syans  in  a  locality  not  definitely  fixed,  testifies  to  the 
tearing  to  pieces  and  actual  devouring  of  the  body  of  a 
murdered  slave  by  naked  bands  of  cannibal  medicine 
men.  Only  certain  parties  of  the  initiated  practice  this 
barbarism,  others  confining  their  tearing  ceremony  to 
the  bodies  of  dogs.36 

None  of  these  horrible  orgies  are  practiced  by  the 
Queen  Charlotte  Islanders.  The  performances  of  the 
Haidah  magicians,  so  far  as  they  may  differ  from  those  of 
the  Nbotkas  have  not  been  clearly  described  by  travelers. 
The  magicians  of  Chatham  Sound  keep  infernal  spirits 
shut  up  in  a  box  away  from  the  vulgar  gaze,  and  pos 
sess  great  power  by  reason  of  the  implicit  belief  on  the 
part  of  the  people,  in  their  ability  to  charm  away  life. 
The  doctor,  however,  is  not  beyond  the  reach  of  a  kins 
man's  revenge,  and  is  sometimes  murdered.37  With  their 
ceremonies  and  superstitions  there  seems  to  be  mixed 
very  little  religion,  as  all  their  many  fears  have  refer 
ence  to  the  present  life.  Certain  owls  and  squirrels  are 
regarded  with  reverence,  and  used  as  charms;  salmon 
must  not  be  cut  across  the  grain,  or  the  living  fish  will 
leave  the  river ;  the  mysterious  operations  with  astronom 
ical  and  other  European  instruments  about  their  rivers 
caused  great  fear  that  the  fisheries  would  be  ruined ;  fogs 
are  conjured  away  without  the  slightest  suspicion  of  the 
sun's  agency.38  European  navigators  they  welcome  by 
paddling  their  boats  several  times  round  the  ship,  mak 
ing  long  speeches,  scattering  birds'  down,  and  singing.39 

36  Scouler,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  223;  Duncan,  in  Mayne's 
B.  C.,  pp.  285-8,  and  in  Macfie's  Vane.  Isl.,  pp.  434-7;   White's  Oregon,  p. 
246;  Simpson's  Overland  Journ.,\o\.  i.,  p.  205;  Hutchings'  Cal.  Mag.,  Nov.  1860, 
pp.  222-8;  Ind.  Life,  p.  68;  Reed's  flar.;  Anderson  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  vii., 
p.  79. 

37  The  Indians  of  Millbank  Sound  became  exasperated  against  me,  *  and 
they  gave  me  the  name  of  "  Schloapes,"  i.  e.,  "stingy:"  and  when  near  them, 
if  I  should  spit,  they  would  run  and  try  to  take  up  the  spittle  in  something; 
for,  according  as  they  afterwards  informed  me,  they  intended  to  give  it  to  their 
doctor  or  magician;  and  he  would  charm  my  life  away.'  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp. 
246-7.     See  pp.  279-80;  Pooie's  Q.  Char.  Isl.,  pp.  320-1. 

S3  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  32-4,  53-4;  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  267,  274-5. 
39  Vancouver's  Voy.t  vol.  ii.,  pp.  385-9. 


172  COLUMBIANS. 

Ordinary  presents,  like  tobacco  or  trinkets,  are  gladly  re 
ceived,  but  a  written  testimonial  is  most  highly  prized  by 
the  Haidahs,  who  regard  writing  as  a  great  and  valuable 
mystery.  They  have  absolutely  no  methods  of  recording 
events.  Although  living  so  constantly  on  the  water,  I 
find  no  mention  of  their  skill  in  swimming,  while  Poole 
states  expressly  that  they  have  no  knowledge  of  that 
art.40 

Very  slight  accounts  are  extant  of  the  peculiar  methods 
of  curing  diseases  practiced  by  the  Haidahs.  Their  chief 
reliance,  as  in  the  case  of  all  Indian  tribes,  is  on  the  in 
cantations  and  conjurings  of  their  sorcerers,  who  claim 
supernatural  powers  of  seeing,  hearing,  and  extracting 
disease,  and  are  paid  liberally  when  successful.  Bark, 
herbs,  and  various  decoctions  are  used  in  slight  sickness, 
but  in  serious  cases  little  reliance  is  placed  on  them.  To 
the  bites  of  the  sorcerer-chiefs  on  the  main,  eagle-down 
is  applied  to  stop  the  bleeding,  after  which  a  pine-gum 
plaster  or  sallal-bark  is  applied.  On  Queen  Charlotte 
Islands,  in  a  case  of  internal  uneasiness,  large  quantities 
of  sea-water  are  swallowed,  shaken  up,  and  ejected  through 
the  mouth  for  the  purpose,  as  the  natives  say,  of  'washing 
themselves  inside  out.'41 

Death  is  ascribed  to  the  ill  will  and  malign  influence 
of  an  enemy,  and  one  suspected  of  causing  the  death  of 
a  prominent  individual,  must  make  ready  to  die.  As 
a  rule,  the  bodies  of  the  dead  are  burned,  though  ex 
ceptions  are  noted  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  territory. 
In  the  disposal  of  the  ashes  and  larger  bones  which 
remain  unburned,  there  seems  to  be  no  fixed  usage. 
Encased  in  boxes,  baskets,  or  canoes,  or  wrapped  in 

4°  Poolers  Q.  Char.  Isl,  pp.  109-10,  116;  Anderson,  in  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii., 
p.  242. 

41  At  about  52°  40',  between  the  Fraser  River  and  the  Pacific,  Mackenzie 
observed  the  treatment  of  a  man  with  a  bad  ulcer  on  his  back.  They  blew 
on  him  and  whistled,  pressed  their  fingers  on  his  stomach,  put  their  fists  into 
his  rnouth,  and  spouted  water  into  his  face.  Then  he  was  carried  into  the 
woods,  laid  down  in  a  clear  spot,  and  a  fire  was  built  against  his  back  while 
the  doctor  scarified  the  ulcer  with  a  blunt  instrument.  Voy.,  pp.  331-33; 
Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  258,  284;  Pooled  Q.  Char.  M.,  pp.  316-18;  Duncan,  in 
Mayne's  B.  C.,  289-91;  Reed's  Nar.,  in  Olympia  Wash.  Stand.,  May  16,  1868. 


HAIDAH  BURIALS.  173 

mats  or  bark,  they  are  buried  in  or  deposited  on  the 
ground,  placed  in  a  tree,  on  a  platform,  or  hung  from  a 
pole.  Articles  of  property  are  frequently  deposited  with 
the  ashes,  but  not  uniformly.  Slaves'  bodies  are  simply 
thrown  into  the  river  or  the  sea.  Mourning  for  the  dead 
consists  usually  of  cutting  the  hair  and  blackening  anew 
the  face  and  neck  for  several  months.  Among  the  Kai- 
ganies,  guests  at  the  burning  of  the  bodies  are  wont  to 
lacerate  themselves  with  knives  and  stones.  A  tribe 
visited  by  Mackenzie,  kept  their  graves  free  from  shrub 
bery,  a  woman  clearing  that  of  her  husband  each  time 
she  passed.  The  Nass  Indians  paddle  a  dead  chief,  gaily 
dressed,  round  the  coast  villages.42 

The  Haidahs,  compared  with  other  North  American 
Indians,  may  be  called  an  intelligent,  honest,  and  brave 
race,  although  not  slow  under  European  treatment  to  be 
come  drunkards,  gamblers,  and  thieves.  Acts  of  unpro 
voked  cruelty  or  treachery  are  rare;  missionaries  have 
been  somewhat  successful  in  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Simp 
son,  finding  in  civilized  liquors  their  chief  obstacle.43 

42  At  Boca  de  Quadra,  Vancouver  found  '  a  box  about  three  feet  square,  and 
a  foot  and  a  half  deep,  in  which  were  the  remains  of  a  human  skeleton,  which 
appeared  from  the  confused  situation  of  the  bones,  either  to  have  been  cut  to 
pieces,  or  thrust  with  great  violence  into  this  small  space.' . . . . '  I  was  inclined 
to  suppose  that  this  mode  of  depositing  their  dead  is  practised  only  in  respect 
to  certain  persons  of  their  society.'   Voy..  vol.  ii.,  p.  351.     At  Cape  North 
umberland,  in  54°  45',  '  was  a  kind  of  vault  formed  partly  by  the  natural 
cavity  of  the  rocks,  and  partly  by  the  rude  artists  of  the  country.     It  was 
lined*  with  boards,  and  contained  some  fragments  of  warlike  implements, 
lying  near  a  square  box  covered  with  mats  and  very  curiously  corded  down.' 
Id. ,  p.  370 ;  Cornwattis'  New  El  Dorado,  pp.  106-7.   On  Queen  Charlotte  Islands, 
'  Ces  monumens  sont  de  deux  especes:  les  premiers  et  les  plus  simples  ne 
sont  composes  que  d'un  seul  pilier  d'environ  dix  pieds  d'elevation  et  d'un 
pied  de  diarm'tre,  sur  le  sommet  duquel  sont  fixees  des  planches  formant  un 
plateau ;  et  dans  quelques-uns  ce  plateau  est  supporte  par  deux  piliers.     Le 
corps,  depose  sur  cette  plate-forme,  est  reconvert  de  mousse  et  de  grosses 
pierres  '....'  Les  mausolees  de  la  seconde  espece  sont  plus  composes:  quatre 
poteaux  plank's  en  terre,  et  eleves  de  deux  pieds  seulement  au-dessus  du  sol 
portent  un  sarcophage  travaille  avec  art,  et  hermetiquement  clos.'  Marchand, 

Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  135-6.  'According  to  another  account  it  appeared  that 
they  actually  bury  their  dead ;  and  when  another  of  the  family  dies,  the  re 
mains  of  the  person  who  was  last  interred,  are  taken  from  the  grave  and 
burned.'  Mackenzie's  Voy.,  p.  308.  See  also  pp.  374,  295-98;  Simpson's  Over 
land  Journ.,  vol.i.,  pp.  203-4;  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.272,  276,  280;  Mayne'sB.  <?., 
pp.  272,  293;  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  235;  Macfie's  Vane.  Isl.,  pp.  440-41;  DalVs 
Alaska,  p.  417. 

43  On  the  coast,  at  52°  12',  Vancouver  found  them  '  civil,  good-humoured 
and  friendly.'    At  Cascade  Canal,  about  52°  24',  '  in  traffic  they  proved  them- 


174  COLUMBIANS. 

THE  NOOTKAS,  the  second  division  of  the  Columbian 
group,  are  immediately  south  of  the  Haidah  country; 
occupying  Yancouver  Island,  and  the  coast  of  the  main 
land,  between  the  fifty-second  and  the  forty-ninth  paral 
lels.  The  word  nootka  is  not  found  in  any  native  dialect 
of  the  present  day.  Captain  Cook,  to  whom  we  are  in 
debted  for  the  term,  probably  misunderstood  the  name 
given  by  the  natives  to  the  region  of  Nootka  Sound.44 

selves  to  be  keen  traders,  but  acted  with  the  strictest  honesty;'  at  Point 
Hopkins  '-they  all  behaved  very  civilly  and  honestly;'  while  further  north,  at 
Observatory  Inlet,  '  in  their  countenances  was  expressed  a  degree  of  savage 
ferocity  infinitely  surpassing  any  thing  of  the  sort  I  had  before  observed, ' 
presents  being  scornfully  rejected.  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  281,  269,  303,  337. 
The  Kitswinscolds  on  Skeena  River  '  are  represented  as  a  very  superior 
race,  industrious,  sober,  cleanly,  and  peaceable.'  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1869,  p. 
563.  The  Chimsyans  are  fiercer  and  more  uncivilized  than  the  Indians  of 
the  South.  Sprout's  Scenes,  .p.  317.  '  Finer  and  fiercer  men  than  the  Indians 
of  the  South.'  Mayne's  B.  C.,  p.  250.  'They  appear  to  be  of  a  friendly  dis 
position,  but  they  are  subject  to  sudden  gusts  of  passion,  which  are  as  quickly 
composed;  and  the  transition  is  instantaneous,  from  violent  irritation  to 
the  most  tranquil  demeanor.  Of  the  many  tribes...  .whom  I  have  seen, 
these  appear  to  be  the  most  susceptible  of  civilization.'  Mackenzie's  Voy  ,  p. 
375,  322.  At  Stewart's  Lake  the  natives,  whenever  there  is  any  advantage 
to  be  gained  are  just  as  readily  tempted  to  betray  each  other  as  to  deceive 
the  colonists.  Macfie's  Vane.  IsL,  pp.  466-68,  458-59;  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i., 
p.  174.  A  Kygarnie  chief  being  asked  to  go  to  America  or  England,  refused 
to  go  where  even  chiefs  were  slaves — that  is,  had  duties  to  perform — while 
he  at  home  was  served  by  slaves  and  wives.  The  Sebassas  '  are  more  active 
and  enterprising  than  the  Milbank  tribes,  but  the  greatest  thieves  and  rob 
bers  on  the  coast.'  Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  287,  273.  'All  these  visitors  of  Fort 
Simpson  are  turbulent  and  fierce.  Their  broils,  which  are  invariably  at 
tended  with  bloodshed,  generally  arise  from  the  most  trivial  causes.'  Simp 
son's  Overland  Journ.,  vol.  i.,  p.  206.  The  Kygarnies  'are  very  cleanly,  fierce 
and  daring.'  The  islanders,  '  when  they  visit  the  mainland,  they  are  bold 
and  treacherous,  and  always  ready  for  mischief.'  Scouler,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc. 
Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  219.  The  Kygarnies  '  are  a  very  fierce,  treacherous  race,  and 


have  not  been  improved  by  the  rum  and  fire-arms  sold  to  them.'  Dall's  Alaska, 
p.  411.  Queen  Charlotte  Islanders  look  upon  white  men  as  superior  beings, 
but  conceal  the  conviction.  The  Skidagates  are  the  most  intelligent  race 


upon  the  islands.     Wonderfully  acute  in  reading  character,  yet  clumsy  in 

their  own  dissimulation '  Not  revengeful  or  blood-thirsty,  except  when 

smarting  under  injury  or  seeking  to  avert  an  imaginary  wrong.' . . . . '  I  never 
met  with  a  really  brave  man  among  them.'  The  Acoltas  have  'given  more 
trouble  to  the  Colonial  Government  than  any  other  along  the  coast.'  Poole's 
Q.  Char.  IsL,  pp.  83,  151-2,  185-6,  208,  214,  233,  235,  245,  257,  271-72,  289, 
309,  320-21.  '  Of  a  cruel  and  treacherous  disposition.'  Hale's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  8. 
Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  197.  They  will  stand  up  and  fight  Englishmen  with  their 
fists.  Sproat's  Scenes,  p.  23.  Intellectually  superior  to  the  Puget  Sound 
tribes.  Reed's  Nar.  'Mansos  y  de  buena  indole.'  Orespi,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex., 
B.  iv.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  646.  On  Skeena  River,  'the  worst  I  have  seen  in  all  my 
travels.'  Downie,  in  B.  C.  Papers,  vol.  iii.,  p.  73.  'As  rogues,  where  all  are 
rogues,'  preeminence  is  awarded  them.  Anderson,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  vii., 
pp.  74-5. 

44  '  On  my  arrival  at  this  inlet,  I  had  honoured  it  with  the  name  of  King 
George's  Sound;  but  I  afterward  found,  that  it  is  called  Nootka  by  the  na- 


THE  NOOTKAS.  175 

The  first  European  settlement  in  this  region  was  on  the 
Sound,  which  thus  became  the  central  point  of  early  En 
glish  and  Spanish  intercourse  with  the  Northwest  Coast ; 
but  it  was  soon  abandoned,  and  no  mission  or  trading 
post  has  since  taken  its  place,  so  that  no  tribes  of  this 
family  have  been  less  known  in  later  times  than  those 
on  the  west  coast  of  Vancouver  Island.  The  chief  tribes 
of  the  Nootka  family,  or  those  on  whose  tribal  existence, 
if  not  on  the  orthography  of  their  names  authors  to  some 
extent  agree,  are  as  follows.45  The  Nitinats,  Cldyoquots, 
and  Nootkas,  on  the  sounds  of  the  same  names  along  the 
west  coast  of  Vancouver  Island ;  the  Quackolls  and  Ne- 
wittees*6  in  the  north ;  the  CowichinSj  Ucktas,  and  Comux, 
on  the  east  coast  of  Vancouver  and  on  the  opposite  main ; 
the  Saukaulutuchs* ',  in  the  interior  of  the  island ;  the  CM- 
lumsf*  Sokes,  and  Patcheena,  on  the  south  end ;  and  the 
Kwantlums  and  Teets®  on  the  lower  Fraser  River.  These 
tribes  differ  but  little  in  physical  peculiarities,  or  manners 
and  customs,  but  by  their  numerous  dialects  they  have 
been  classed  in  nations.  No  comprehensive  or  satisfac 
tory  names  have,  however,  been  applied  to  them  as  na 
tional  divisions.50 

tives.'  Cook's  Voy.  to  Pac.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  288.  'No  Aht  Indian  of  the  present 
day  ever  heard  of  such  a  name  as  Nootkah,  though  most  of  them  recognize 
the  other  words  in  Cook's  account  of  their  language.'  Sprout's  Scenes,  p.  315. 
Sproat  conjectures  that  the  name  may  have  come  from  Noochee!  Noochee  ! 
the  Aht  word  for  mountain.  A  large  proportion  of  geographical  names  origi 
nate  in  like  manner  through  accident. 

*5  For  full  particulars  see  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES  at  end  of  this  chapter. 

46  '  The  Newatees,  mentioned  in  many  books,  are  not  known  on  the  west 
coast.  Probably  the  Klah-oh-quahts  are  meant.'  Sprout's  Scenes,  p.  314. 

<7  There  are  no  Indians  in  the  interior.  Fitzucilliam's  Evidence,  in  Hud. 
B.  Co.,  Re.pt.  Spec.  Com.,  1857,  p.  115. 

48  The  same  name  is  also  applied  to  one  of  the  Sound  nations  across  the 
strait  in  Washington. 

49  The  Teets  or  Haitlins  are  called  by  the  Tacullies,  '  Sa-Chinco '  strangers. 
Anderson,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  vii.,  pp.  73-4. 

50  Sproat's  division  into  nations,   'almost  as  distinct  as  the  nations  of 
Europe,'  is  into  the  Quoquoulth  (Quackoll)  or  Fort  Kupert,  in  the  north  and 
north-east;  the  Kowitchan,  or  Thongeith,  on  the  east  and  south;  Aht  on  the 
west  coast;  and  Komux,  a  distinct  tribe  also  on  the  east  of  Vancouver. 
'  These  tribes  of  the  Ahts  are  not  confederated;  and  I  have  no  other  warrant 
for  calling  them  a  nation  than  the  fact  of  their  occupying  adjacent  territories, 
and  having  the  same  superstitions  and  language.'  Sproat's  Scenes,  pp.  18-19, 
311.     Mayne  makes  by  language  four  nations;  the  first  including  the  Cow- 
itchen  in  the  harbor  and  valley  of  the  same  name  north  of  Victoria,  with  the 
Nanaimo  and  Kwantlum  Indians  about  the  mouth  of  the  Fraser  River,  and 


176  COLUMBIANS. 

Between  the  Nootka  family  and  its  fish-eating  neigh 
bors  on  the  north  and  south,  the  line  of  distinction  is 
not  clearly  marked,  but  the  contrast  is  greater  with  the 
interior  hunting  tribes  on  the  east.  Since  their  first  in 
tercourse  with  whites,  the  Nootkas  have  constantly  de 
creased  in  numbers,  and  this  not  only  in  those  parts 
where  they  have  been  brought  into  contact  with  traders 
and  miners,  but  on  the  west  coast,  where  they  have  re 
tained  in  a  measure  their  primitive  state.  The  savage 
fades  before  the  superior  race,  and  immediate  intercourse 
is  not  necessary  to  produce  in  native  races  those  l  baleful 
influences  of  civilization,'  which  like  a  pestilence  are 
wafted  from  afar,  as  on  the  wings  of  the  wind.51 

The  Nootkas  are  of  less  than  medium  height,  smaller 
than  the  Haidahs,  but  rather  strongly  built;  usually 
plump,  but  rarely  corpulent;52  their  legs,  like  those  of 

the  Songhies;  the  second  comprising  the  Comoux,  Nanoose,  Nimpkish,  Quaw- 
guult,  etc.,  on  Vancouver,  and  the  Squawmisht,  Sechelt,  Clahoose,  Ucle-tah, 
Mama-lil-a-culla,  etc.,  on  the  main,  and  islands,  between  Nanaimo  and  Fort 
Kupert;  the  third  and  fourth  groups  include  the  twenty-four  west-coast  tribes 
who  speak  two  distinct  languages,  not  named.  Mayne's  Vane.  IsL,  pp.  243-51. 
Grant's  division  gives  four  languages  on  Vancouver,  viz.,  the  Quackoll,  from 
Clayoquot  Sound  north  to  C.  Scott,  and  thence  S.  to  Johnson's  Strait;  the 
Cowitchin,  from  Johnson's  Strait  to  Sanetch  Arm;  the  Tsclallum,  or  Clel- 
lum,  from  Sanetch  to  Soke,  and  on  the  opposite  American  shore;  and  the 
Macaw,  from  Patcheena  to  Clayoquot  Sound.  '  These  four  principal  lan 
guages  are  totally  distinct  from  each  other,  both  in  sound,  formation, 

and  modes  of  expression.'  Grant,  in  Land.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xxvii.,  p.  295. 
Scouler  attempts  no  division  into  nations  or  languages.  Lond.  Geo.  Soc.  Jour., 
vol.  xi.,  pp.  221,  224.  Mofras  singularly  designates  them  as  one  nation  of 
20,000  souls,  under  the  name  of  Ouakich.  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  343. 
Recent  investigations  have  shown  a  somewhat  different  relationship  of  these 
languages,  which  I  shall  give  more  particularly  in  a  subsequent  volume. 

51  See  Sproat's  Scenes,  pp.  272-86,  on  the  '  effects  upon  savages  of  inter 
course  with  civilized  men.'    '  Hitherto,  (1856)  in  Vancouver  Island,  the  tribes 
who  have  principally  been  in  intercourse  with  the  white  man,  have  found  it 
for  their  interest  to  keep  up  that  intercourse  in  amity  for  the  purposes  of  trade, 
and  the  white  adventurers  have  been  so  few  in  number,  that  they  have  not 
at  all  interfered  with  the  ordinary  pursuits  of  the  natives.'  Grant,  in  Lond. 
Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xxvii.,  p.  303. 

52  '  Muy  robustos  y  bien  apersonados.'    'De  mediana  estatura,  excepto  los 
Xefes  cuya  corpulencia  se  hace  notar.'  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  pp.  55,  124. 
'  The  young  princess  was  of  low  stature,  very  plump.'  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  i., 
p.  395.    Macquilla,  the  chief  was  five  feet  eight  inches,  with  square  shoulders 
and  muscular  limbs;  his  son  was  five  feet  nine  inches.  Belcher's  Voy.,  vol.  i., 
pp.  110-12.     The  seaboard  tribes  have  '  not  much  physical  strength.'  Poole's 
Q.  Char.  IsL,  p.  73.     'La  gente  dicen  ser  muy  robusta.'  Perez,  Eel.  del  Viage, 
MS.,  p.  20.    ' Leur  taille  est  moyenne.'  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  343.    '  In 
general,  robust  and  well  proportioned.'  Mearcs'  Voy.,  p.  249.    Under  the  com 
mon  stature,  pretty  full  and  plump,  but  not  muscular — never  corpulent,  old 


NOOTKA  PHYSIQUE.  177 

all  the  coast  tribes,  short,  small,  and  frequently  deformed, 
with  large  feet  and  ankles;53  the  face  broad,  round,  and 
full,  with  the  usual  prominent  cheek-bone,  a  low  fore 
head,  flat  nose,  wide  nostrils,  small  black  eyes,  round 
thickish-lipped  mouth,  tolerably  even  well-set  teeth ;  the 
whole  forming  a  countenance  rather  dull  and  expression 
less,  but  frequently  pleasant.54  The  Nootka  complexion, 

people  lean — short  neck  and  clumsy  body;  women  nearly  the  same  size  as 
the  men.  Cook's  Voy.  to  Pac.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  301-3.  'Of  smaller  stature  than 
the  Northern  Tribes;  they  are  usually  fatter  and  more  muscular.'  Scouler,  in 
Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  '221.  In  the  north,  among  the  Clayoquots 
and  Quackolls,  men  are  often  met  of  five  feet  ten  inches  and  over;  on  the 
south  coast  the  stature  varies  from  five  feet  three  inches  to  five  feet  six  inches. 
Grant,  in  Loud.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xxvii.,  p.  297.  'The  men  are  in  gen 
eral  from  about  five  feet  six  to  five  feet  eight  inches  in  height;  remarkably 
straight,  of  a  good  form,  robust  and  strong.'  Only  one  dwarf  was  seen.  Jew- 
itt's  Nar.,  pp.  60-(51.  The  Klah-oh-quahts  are  '  as  a  tribe  physically  the  finest. 
Individuals  may  be  found  in  all  the  tribes  who  reach  a  height  of  five  feet 
eleven  inches,  and  a  weight  of  180  pounds,  without  much  flesh  on  their 
bodies.'  Extreme  average  height:  men,  five  feet  six  inches,  women,  five  feet 
one-fourth  inch.  '  Many  of  the  men  have  well-shaped  forms  and  limbs.  None 
are  corpulent.'  'The  men  generally  have  well-set,  strong  frames,  and,  if 
they  had  pluck  and  skill,  could  probably  hold  their  own  in  a  grapple  with 
Englishmen  of  the  same  stature.  SproaVs  Scenes,  pp.  2:2-3.  'Rather  above 
the  middle  stature,  copper-colored  and  of  an  athletic  make.'  Spark's  Life  of 
Ledyard,  p.  71 ;  Prichard's  Researches,  vol.  v.,  p.  442.  '  Spare  muscular  forms.' 
Barrett- Lennard's  Trav.,  pp.  44;  Gordon's  Hist,  and  Geog.  Mem.,  pp.  14-22. 

53  Limbs  small,  crooked,  or  ill-made;  large  feet;  badly  shaped,  and  pro 
jecting  ankles  from  sitting  so  much  on  their  hams  and  knees.  Cook's  Voy. 
to  Pac.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  301-3.     'Their  limbs,  though  stout  and  athletic,  are 
crooked  and  ill-shaped.'  Meares'  Voy.,  p.  250.     'Us  ont  les  membres  infe- 
rieures  legerement  arques,  les  chevilles  tres-saillantes,  et  la  pointe  des  pieds 
tournee  en  dedans,  difformite  qui  provient  de  la  maniere  dont  ils  sont  assis 
dans  leurs  canots.'  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  343-4.    'Stunted,  and  move 
with  a  lazy  waddling  gait.'  Macfie's  Vane.  M.,  p.  428.     '  Skeleton  shanks.  . . . 
not  much  physical  strength. . .  .bow-legged — defects  common  to  the  seaboard 
tribes.'  Poole's  Q.   Char.  Isl.,  pp.  73-^L    All  the  females  of  the  Northwest 
Coast  are  very  short-limbed.     '  Earo  es  el  que  no  tiene  muy  salientes  los  to- 
billos  y  las  puntas  de  los  pies  inclinadas  hacia  dentro . . . .  y  una  especie  de 
entumecimiento  que  se  advierte,  particularmente  en  las  mugeres.'  Sutil  y 
Mexicana,  Viage,  pp.  124,  30,  62-3.     They  have  great  strength  in  the  fingers. 
Sproat's  Scenes,  p.  33.    Women,  short-limbed,  and  toe  in.  Id.,  p.  22;  Mayne's 
B.  C.,  pp.  282-3.      '  The  limbs  of  both  sexes  are  ill-formed,  and  the  toes 
turned  inwards.'     'The  legs  of  the  women,  especially  those  of  the  slaves, 
are  often  swollen  as  if  oedematous,  so  that  the  leg  appears  of  an  uniform 
thickness  from  the  ankle  to  the  calf, '  from  wearing  a  garter.  Scouler,  in  Lond. 
Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  221. 

54  '  The  different  Aht  tribes  vary  in  physiognomy  somewhat — faces  of  the 
Chinese  and  Spanish  types  may  be  seen.'     'The  face  of  the  Ahts  is  rather 
broad  and  flat;  the  mouth  and  lips  of  both  men  and  women  are  large,  though 
to  this  there  are  exceptions,  and  the  cheekbones  are  broad  but  not  high. 
The  skull  is  fairly  shaped,  the  eyes  small  and  long,  deep  set,  in  colour  a 
lustreless  inexpressive  black,  or  very  dark  hazel,  none  being  blue,  grey,  or 

brown One  occasionally  sees  an  Indian  with  eyes  distinctly  Chinese.    The 

nose. . .  .in  some  instances  is  remarkably  well-shaped.'     '  The  teeth  are  reg- 

VOL.  I.     12 


178  COLUMBIANS. 

so  far  as  grease  and  paint  have  allowed  travelers  to  ob 
serve  it,  is  decidedly  light,  but  apparently  a  shade  darker 
than  that  of  the  Haidah  family.55  The  hair,  worn  long, 

ular,  but  stumpy,  and  are  deficient  in  enamel  at  the  points,'  perhaps  from 
eating  sanded  salmon.  Sprout's  Scents,  pp.  19,  27.  "iheir  faces  are  large 
and  full,  their  cheeks  high  and  prominent,  with  small  black  eyes;  their  noses 
are  broad  and  flat;  their  lips  thick,  and  they  have  generally  very  fine  teeth, 
and  of  the  most  brilliant  whiteness.'  Meares'  Voy.,  pp.  249-50;  Barrett-Len- 
nard's  Trav.,  p.  44.  '  La  fisonomia  de  estos  (Nitinats)  era  difference  cle  la  de 
los  habitantes  de  Nutka:  tenian  el  craneo  de  figura  natural,  los  ojos  chicos 
muy  proximos,  cnrgados  los  parpados.'  Many  have  a  languid  look,  but  few 
a  stupid- appearance.  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  pp.  28,  30,  62-3,  124.  'Dull 
and  inexpressive  eye.'  '  Unprepossessing  and  stupid  countenances.'  Pooled 
Q.  Char.  IsL,  pp.  74,  80.  The  Wickinninish  have  'a  much  less  open  and 
pleasing  expression  of  countenance  '  than  the  Klaizzarts.  The  Newchemass 
'  were  the  most  savage  looking  and  ugly  men  that  I  ever  saw. '  '  The  shape 
of  the  face  is  oval;  the  features  are  tolerably  regular,  the  lips  being  thin  and 
the  teeth  very  white  and  even:  their  eyes  are  black  but  rather  small,  and  the 
nose  pretty  well  formed,  being  neither  flat  nor  very  prominent.'  The  women 
'are  in  general  very  well-looking,  and  some  quite  handsome.'  Jeicitt's  Aar., 
pp.  76,  77,  61.  '  Features  that  would  have  attracted  notice  for  their  delicacy 
and  beauty,  in  those  parts  of  the  world  where  the  qualities  of  the  human 
form  are  best  understood.'  Meares'  Voy.,  p.  250.  Face  round  and  full,  some 
times  broad,  with  prominent  cheek-bones falling  in  between  the  temples, 

the  nose  flattening  at  the  base,  wide  nostrils  and  a  rounded  point.  . .  .forehead 
low;  eyes  small,  black  and  languishing;  mouth  round,  with  large,  round, 
thickish  lips;  teeth  tolerably  equal  and  well-set,  but  not  very  white.  Re 
markable  sameness,  a  dull  phlegmatic  want  of  expression;  no  pretensions  to 
beauty  among  the  women.  Cook's  Voy.  to  Pac.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  301-2.  See  por 
traits  of  Nootkas  in  Belcher's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  108;  Cook's  Atlas,  pi.  38-9;  Sutil 
y  Mexicana,  Viage,  Atlas;  Whytnper's  Alaska,  p.  75.  'Long  nose,  high  cheek 
bones,  large  ugly  mouth,  very  long  eyes,  and  foreheads  villainously  low.' 
'  The  women  of  Vancouver  Island  have  seldom  or  ever  good  features ;  they 
are  almost  invariably  pug-nosed;  they  have  however,  frequently  a  pleasing 
expression,  and  there  is  no  lack  of  intelligence  in  their  dark  hazel  eyes.'  Grant, 
in  Lond.  Geog.  8oc.  Jour.,  vol.  xxvii.,  pp.  297-8.  'Though  without  any  pre 
tensions  to  beauty,  could  not  be  considered  as  disagreeable.'  Vancouver's  Voy., 
vol.  i.,  p.  395.  'Have  the  common  facial  characteristics  of  low  foreheads, 
high  cheek-bones,  aquiline  noses,  and  large  mouths.'  'Among  some  of  the 
tribes  pretty  women  may  be  seen.'  Mayne's  B.  C.,  p.  277. 

55  'Her  skin  was  clean,  and  being  nearly  white, '  etc.  Vancouver's  Voy., 
vol.  i.,  p.  395.  'Reddish  bro\\n,  like  that  of  a  dirty  copper  kettle.'  Some, 
when  washed,  have  'almost  a  florid  complexion.'  Grant,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc. 
Jour.,  vol.  xxvii.,  pp.  297,  299.  '  Brown,  somewhat  inclining  to  a  copper 
cast.'  The  women  are  much  whiter,  'many  of  them  not  being  darker 
than  those  in  some  of  the  Southern  parts  of  Europe.'  The  Newchemass 
are  much  darker  than  the  other  tribes.  Jewitt's  Nar.,  pp.  61,  77.  'Their 
complexion,  though  light,  has  more  of  a  copper  hue '  than  that  of  the  Hai- 
dahs.  Kcouhr,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  221.  Skin  white,  with 
the  clear  complexion  of  Europe.'  Meares'  Voy.,  p.  250.  The  color  hard  to 
tell  on  account  of  the  paint,  but  in  a  few  cases  '  the  whiteness  of  the  skin 
appeared  almost  to  equal  that  of  Europeans;  though  rather  of  that  pale  effete 
cast. . .  .of  our  southern  nations. . .  .Their  children. . .  .also  equalled  ours  in 
•whiteness.'  Cook's  Voy.  to  Pac.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  303.  'Their  complexion  is  a 
dull  brown, '  darker  than  the  Haidahs.  '  Cook  and  Meares  probably  men 
tioned  exceptional  cases.'  Sproat's  Scenes,  pp.  23-4.  '  Tan  blancos  como  el 
mejor  Espanol.'  Perez,  Ed.  del  Viage,  MS.  p.  20.  'For  lo  que  se  puede  in- 
ferir  del  (color)  de  los  ninos,  parece  menos  obscuro  que  el  de  los  Mexicanos,' 


NOOTKA  HAIK  AND  BEARD.  179 

is  as  a  rule  black  or  dark  brown,  coarse,  and  straight, 
though  instances  are  not  wanting  where  all  these  quali 
ties  are  reversed.56  The  beard  is  carefully  plucked  out 
by  the  young  men,  and  this  operation,  repeated  for  gen 
erations,  has  rendered  the  beard  naturally  thin.  Old 
men  often  allow  it  to  grow  on  the  chin  and  upper  lip. 

To  cut  the  hair  short  is  to  the  Nootka  a  disgrace. 
Worn  at  full  length,  evened  at  the  ends,  and  sometimes 
cut  straight  across  the  forehead,  it  is  either  allowed  to 
bang  loosely  from  under  a  band  of  cloth  or  fillet  of  bark, 
or  is  tied  in  a  knot  on  the  crown.  On  full-dress  occa 
sions  the  top-knot  is  secured  with  a  green  bough,  and 
after  being  well  saturated  with  whale-grease,  the  hair  is 
powdered  plentifully  with  white  feathers,  which  are  re 
garded  as  the  crowning  ornament  for  manly  dignity  in  all 
these  regions.  Both  sexes,  but  particularly  the  women, 
take  great  pains  with  the  hair,  carefully  combing  and 
plaiting  their  long  tresses,  fashioning  tasteful  head-dresses 
of  bark-fibre,  decked  with  beads  and  shells,  attaching 

but  judging  by  the  chiefs'  daughters  they  are  wholly  white.  Sutil  y  Mexicana, 
Viage,  p.  125.  'A  dark,  swarthy  copper-coloured  figure.'  Lord's  Nat.,  vol. 
i.,  p.  143.  They  '  have  lighter  complexions  than  other  aborigines  of  America. ' 
Greenhow'x  Hist.  Ogn.,  p.  116.  'Sallow  complexion,  verging  towards  copper 
colour.'  Barrett- Lennard's  Trav.,  pp.  44-6.  Copper-coloured.  Spark's  Life 
of  Ledyard,  p.  71. 

56  '  The  hair  of  the  natives  is  never  shaven  from  the  head.  It  is  black  pr 
dark  brown,  without  gloss,  coarse  and  lank,  but  not  scanty,  worn  long .... 
Slaves  wear  their  hair  short.  Now  and  then,  but  rarely,  a  light-haired  native 
is  seen.  There  is  one  woman  in  the  Opechisat  tribe  at  Alberni  who  had 
curly,  or  rather  wavy,  brown  hair.  Few  grey-haired  men  can  be  noticed  in 
any  tribe.  The  men's  beards  and  whiskers  are  deficient,  probably  from  the 
old  alleged  custom,  now  seldom  practiced,  of  extirpating  the  hairs  with  small 
shells  Several  of  the  Nootkah  Sound  natives  (Moouchahts)  have  large 
moustaches  and  whiskers.1  Sproat's  Scenes,  pp.  25-7.  'El  cabello  es  largo 
lacio  y  grueso,  variando  su  color  entre  rubio,  obscuro,  castano  y  negro.  La 
barba  sale  a  los  mozos  con  la  inisma  regularidad  que  a  los  de  otros  paises,  y 
llega  a  ser  en  los  ancianos  tan  poblada  y  larga  como  la  de  los  Turcos ;  pero 
los  jdvenes  parecen  imberbes  porque  se  la  arrancan  con  los  dedos,  6  mas  com- 
unmente  con  pinzas  formadas  de  pequenas  conchas.'  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage, 
pp.  124-5,  57.  '  Hair  of  the  head  is  in  great  abundance,  very  coarse,  and 
strong;  and  without  a  single  exception,  black,  straight  and  lank.'  No  beards 
at  all,  or  a  small  thin  one  on  the  chin,  not  from  a  natural  defect,  but  from 
plucking.  Old  men  often  have  beards.  Eyebrows  scanty  and  narrow.  Cook's 
Voy.  to  Pac.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  301-3.  'Neither  beard,  whisker,  nor  moustache 
ever  adorns  the  face  of  the  redskin.'  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  143;  Jewitt's  Nar., 
pp.  61,  75,  77.  Hair  'invariably  either  black  or  dark  brown.'  Grant,  in  Lond. 
Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xxvii.,  p.  297;  Meares'  Voy.,  p.  250;  Maynes*  B.  C.,  pp. 
277-8;  Macfie's  Vane.  Isl.,  p.  442;  Spark's  Life  of  Ledyard,  p.  71. 


180  COLUMBIANS. 

leaden  weights  to  the  braids  to  keep  them  straight.  The 
bruised  root  of  a  certain  plant  is  thought  by  the  Ahts  to 
promote  the  growth  of  the  hair.57 

The  custom  of  flattening  the  head  is  practiced  by  the 
Nootkas,  in  common  with  the  Sound  and  Chinook  fami 
lies,  but  is  not  universal,  nor  is  so  much  importance  at 
tached  to  it  as  elsewhere ;  although  all  seem  to  admire  a 
flattened  forehead  as  a  sign  of  noble  birth,  even  among 
tribes  that  do  not  make  this  deformity  a  sign  of  freedom. 
Among  the  Quatsinos  and  Quackolls  of  the  north,  the 
head,  besides  being  flattened,  is  elongated  into  a  conical 
sugar-loaf  shape,  pointed  at  the  top.  The  flattening  pro 
cess  begins  immediately  after  birth,  and  is  continued 
until  the  child  can  walk.  It  is  effected  by  compressing 
the  head  with  tight  bandages,  usually  attached  to  the 
log  cradle,  the  forehead  being  first  fitted  with  a  soft  pad, 
a  fold  of  soft  bark,  a  mould  of  hard  wood,  or  a  flat  stone. 
Observers  generally  agree  that  little  or  no  harm  is  done 
to  the  brain  by  this  infliction,  the  traces  of  which  to  a 
great  extent  disappear  later  in  life.  Many  tribes,  in 
cluding  the  Aht  nations,  are  said  to  have  abandoned  the 
custom  since  they  have  been  brought  into  contact  with 
the  whites.58 

The  body  is  kept  constantly  anointed  with  a  reddish 
clayey  earth,  mixed  in  train  oil,  and  consequently  little 
affected  by  their  frequent  baths.  In  war  and  mourning 
the  whole  body  is  blackened;  on  feast  days  the  head, 
limbs,  and  body  are  painted  in  fantastic  figures  with  va 
rious  colors,  apparently  according  to  individual  fancy, 
although  the  chiefs  monopolize  the  fancy  figures,  the 

57  Cook's  Voy.  to  Pac.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  304-8;  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  pp. 
126-7;  SproaVs  Scenes,  pp.  26-7;  Meares1  Voy.,  p.  254;  Macfie's  Vane.  IsL,  p. 
442;  Jewitt's  Nar.,  pp.  21,  23,  62,  65,  77-8;  Grant,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour., 
vol.  xxvii.,  p.  297;  Mayne's  B.  C.,  pp.  277-8;  Barrett-Lennard's  Trav.,  p.  44. 

58  Mayne's  B.  C.,  pp.  242,  277,  with  cut  of  a  child  with  bandaged  head, 
and  of  a  girl  with  a  sugar-loaf  head,  measuring  eighteen  inches  from  the 
eyes  to  the  summit.  Sproat's  Scenes,  pp.  28-30;  Grant,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc. 

-f  1  ••  .  C\f\C\  .        O 7 •  T J        n O T 1        •          \  C\C\C\  _ 


Jour.,  vol.  xxvii.,  p.  298;  Scouler,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  222; 

s'  Voy.,  p.  2 
124;  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  171;  vol.  ii.,  p.  103,  cut  of"  three  skulls  of"  flat- 


Meares'  Voy.,  p.  249;  Macfie's  Vane.  IsL,  p.  441;  Sutil  y  Mexicana,   Viage,  p. 


tened,  conical,  and  natural  form;  Kane's  Wand.,  p.  241;  Jewitt's  Nar.,  p.  76; 
Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  325;  Barrett-Lennard' s  Trav.,  p.  45;  Gordon's 
Hist,  and  Geog.  Mem.,  p.  115. 


NOOTKA  FACE-PAINTING.  181 

common  people  being  restricted  to  plain  colors.  Solid 
grease  is  sometimes  applied  in  a  thick  coating,  and  carved 
or  moulded  in  alto-relievo  into  ridges  and  figures  after 
wards  decorated  with  red  paint,  while  shining  sand  or 
grains  of  mica  are  sprinkled  over  grease  and  paint  to 
impart  a  glittering  appearance.  The  women  are  either 
less  fond  of  paint  than  the  men,  or  else  are  debarred  by 
their  lords  from  the  free  use  of  it;  among  the  Ahts,  at 
least  of  late,  the  women  abandon  ornamental  paint  after 
the  age  of  twenty-five.  In  their  dances,  as  in  war, 
masks  carved  from  cedar  to  represent  an  endless  variety 
of  monstrous  faces,  painted  in  bright  colors,  with  mouth 
and  eyes  moveable  by  strings,  are  attached  to  their  heads, 
giving  them  a  grotesquely  ferocious  aspect.59  The  nose 

59  At  Valdes  Island,  '  the  faces  of  some  were  made  intirely  white,  some 
red,  black,  or  lead  colour.'  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  307,  341.  At  Nunez 
Gaona  Bay,  'se  pintan  de  encarnado  y  negro.'  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  p.  30. 
At  Nootka  Sound,  '  Con  esta  grasa  (de  ballena)  se  untan  todo  el  cuerpo,  y 
despues  se  pintan  con  una  especie  de  barniz  compuesto  de  la  misma  grasa  6 
aceyte,  y  de  almagre  en  terminos  que  parece  este  su  color  natural.'  Chiefs 
only  may  paint  in  varied  colors,  plebeians  being  restricted  to  one.'  Id.,  pp. 
125-7.  '  Many  of  the  females  painting  their  faces  on  all  occasions,  but  the 
men  only  at  set  periods.'  Vermilion  is  obtained  by  barter.  Black,  their 
war  and  mourning  color,  is  made  by  themselves.  Mamie's  Vane.  IsL,  p.  442. 
'  Ces  Indiens  enduisent  leur  corps  d'huile  de  baleine,  et  se  peignent  avec 
des  ocres.'  Chiefs  only  may  wear  different  colors,  and  figures  of  animals. 
Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  344.  'Rub  their  bodies  constantly  with  a  red 

paint,  of  a  clayey  or  coarse  ochry  substance^  mixed  with  oil Their  faces 

are  often  stained  with  a  black,  a  brighter  red,  or  a  white  colour,  by  way  of  orna 
ment They  also  strew  the  brown  martial  mica  upon  the  paint,  which  makes 

it  glitter.'  Cook's  Voy.  to  Pac.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  305.  'A  line  of  vermilion  extends 
from  the  centre  of  the  forehead  to  the  tip  of  the  nose,  and  from  this  "trunk 
line  "  others  radiate  over  and  under  the  eyes  and  across  the  cheeks.  Between 
these  red  lines  white  and  blue  streaks  alternately  fill  the  interstices.  A  sim 
ilar  pattern  ornaments  chest,  arms,  and  back,  the  frescoing  being  artistically 
arranged  to  give  apparent  width  to  the  chest.'  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  143. 
'  They  paint  the  face  in  hideous  designs  of  black  and  red  (the  only  colours 
nsed),  and  the  parting  of  the  hair  is  also  coloured  red.'  Mayne's  B.  C.,  p.  277. 
'  At  great  feasts  the  faces  of  the  women  are  painted  red  with  vermilion  or 
berry-juice,  and  the  men's  faces  are  blackened  with  burnt  wood.  About  the 
age  of  twenty-five  the  women  cease  to  use  paint. . .  .Some  of  the  young  men 
streak  their  faces  with  red,  but  grown-up  men  seldom  now  use  paint,  unless 
on  particular  occasions ...  The  leader  of  a  war  expedition  is  distinguished 
by  a  streaked  visage  from  his  black-faced  followers.'  Sproat's  Scenes,  p.  27-8. 
The  manner  of  painting  is  often  a  matter  of  whim.  '  The  most  usual  method 
is  to  paint  the  eye-brows  black,  in  form  of  a  half  moon,  and  the  face  red  in 
email  squares,  with  the  arms  and  legs  and  part  of  the  body  red;  sometimes 
one  half  of  the  face  is  painted  red  in  squares,  and  the  other  black;  at  others, 
dotted  with  red  spots,  or  red  and  black  instead  of  squares,  with  a  variety  of 
other  devices,  such  as  painting  one  half  of  the  face  and  body  red,  and  the 
other  black.'  JewiWs  Nar.,  p.  64;  Meares'  Voy.,  p.  252;  Barrett-Lennard's 
Trav.,  p.  46;  Spark's  Life  of  Ledyard,  p.  71. 


182  COLUMBIANS. 

and  ears  are  regularly  pierced  in  childhood,  with  from  one 
to  as  many  holes  as  the  feature  will  hold,  and  from  the 
punctures  are  suspended  bones,  shells,  rings,  beads,  or  in 
fact  any  ornament  obtainable.  The  lip  is  sometimes, 
though  more  rarely,  punctured.  Bracelets  and  anklets 
of  any  available  material  are  also  commonly  worn.60 

The  aboriginal  dress  of  the  Nootkas  is  a  square  blanket, 
of  a  coarse  yellow  material  resembling  straw  matting, 
made  by  the  women  from  cypress  bark,  with  a  mixture  of 
dog's  hair.  This  blanket  had  usually  a  border  of  fur ;  it 
sometimes  had  arm-holes,  but  was  ordinarily  thrown  over 
the  shoulders,  and  confined  at  the  waist  by  a  belt,  Chiefs 
wore  it  painted  in  variegated  colors  or  unpainted,  but 
the  common  people  wore  a  coarser  material  painted  uni 
formly  red.  Women  wore  the  garment  longer  and  fast 
ened  under  the  chin,  binding  an  additional  strip  of  cloth 
closely  about  the  middle,  and  showing  much  modesty 
about  disclosing  the  person,  while  the  men  often  went 
entirely  naked.  Besides  the  blanket,  garments  of  many 
kinds  of  skin  were  in  use,  particularly  by  the  chiefs  on 
public  days.  In  war,  a  heavy  skin  dress  was  worn  as  a 
protection  against  arrows.  The  Nootkas  usually  went 
bareheaded,  but  sometimes  wore  a  conical  hat  plaited  of 
rushes,  bark,  or  flax.  European  blankets  have  replaced 
those  of  native  manufacture,  and  many  Indians  about 
the  settlements  have  adopted  also  the  shirt  and  breeches.61 

60  '  The  habit  of  tattooing  the  legs  and  arms  is  common  to  all  the  women 
of  Vancouver's  Island;  the  men  do  not  adopt  it.'  Grant,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc. 
Jour.,  vol.  xxvii.,  p.  307.      '  No  such  practice  as  tattooing  exists  among  these 
natives.'  Sproat's  Scenes,  p.  27.     'The  ornament  on  which  they  appear  to  set 
the  most  value,  is  the  nose-jewel,  if  such  an  appellation  may  be  given  to  the 
wooden  stick,  which  some  of  them  employ  for  this  purpose ....  I  have  seen 
them  projecting  not  less  than  eight  or  nine  inches  beyond  the  face  on  each 
side ;  this  is  made  fast  or  secured  in  its  place  by  little  wedges  on  each  side 
of  it.'  JewiWs  Nar.,  pp.  65-6,  75;  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  344.  Cook's 

Voy.  toPac.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  304-8;  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viaye,  pp.  30,  126-7;  Mac- 
fie's  Vane.  IsL,  p.  442;  Whymper's  Alaska,  pp.  37,  74,  with  cut  of  mask. 
Mayne's  B.  C.,  p.  268;  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  221-2,  and  illustration  of  a  hair 
medicine-cap. 

61  '  Their  cloaks,  which  are  circular  capes  with  a  hole  in  the  centre,  edged 
with  sea-otter  skin,  are  constructed  from  the  inner  bark  of  the  cypress.    It 
turns  the  rain,  is  very  soft  and  pliable, '  etc.  Belcher's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  112.    The 
usual  dress  of  the  Newchemass   '  is  a  kootsuck  made  of  wolf  skin,  with  a 

number  of  the  tails  attached  to  it hanging  from  the  top  to  the  bottom; 

though  they  sometimes  wear  a  similar  mantle  of  bark  cloth,  of  a  much  coarser 


DWELLINGS  OF  THE  NOOTKAS.  183 

The  Nootkas  choose  strong  positions  for  their  towns  and 
encampments.  At  Desolation  Sound,  Vancouver  found  a 
village  built  on  a  detached  rock  with  perpendicular  sides, 
only  accessible  by  planks  resting  on  the  branches  of  a 
tree,  and  protected  on  the  sea  side  by  a  projecting  plat 
form  resting  on  timbers  fixed  in  the  crevices  of  the 
precipice.  The  Nimkish  tribe,  according  to  Lord,  build 
their  homes  on  a  table-land  overhanging  the  sea,  and 
reached  by  ascending  a  vertical  cliff  on  a  bark-rope  lad 
der.  Each  tribe  has  several  villages  in  favorable  loca 
tions  for  fishing  at  different  seasons.  The  houses,  when 
more  than  one  is  needed  for  a  tribe,  are  placed  with 
regularity  along  streets;  they  vary  in  size  according  to 
the  need  or  wealth  of  the  occupants,  and  are  held  in 
common  under  the  direction  of  the  chief.  They  are  con 
structed  in  the  manner  following.  A  row  of  large  posts, 
from  ten  to  fifteen  feet  high,  often  grotesquely  carved, 
supports  an  immense  ridge-pole,  sometimes  two  and  a 
half  feet  thick  and  one  hundred  feet  long.  Similar  but 
smaller  beams,  on  shorter  posts,  are  placed  on  either  side 
of  the  central  row,  distant  from  it  fifteen,  twenty,  or 
twenty-five  feet,  according  to  the  dimensions  required. 
This  frame  is  then  covered  with  split  cedar  planks,  about 
two  inches  thick,  and  from  three  to  eight  feet  wide.  The 

texture  than  that  of  Nootka.'  Jewitt's  Nar.,  pp.  77-8,  21-3,  56-8,  62-6.  'Their 
common  dress  is  a  flaxen  garment,  or  mantle,  ornamented  on  the  upper  edge 
by  a  narrow  strip  of  fur,  and  at  the  lower  edge,  by  fringes  or  tassels.  It 
passes  under  the  left  arm,  and  is  tied  over  the  right  shoulder,  by  a  string  be 
fore,  and  one  behind,  near  its  middle ....  Over  this,  which  reaches  below  the 
knees,  is  worn  a  small  cloak  of  the  same  substance,  likewise  fringed  at  the 
lower  part ....  Their  head  is  covered  with  a  cap,  of  the  figiire  of  a  truncated 
cone,  or  like  a  flower-pot,  made  of  fine  matting,  having  the  top  frequently 
ornamented  with  a  round  or  pointed  knob,  or  bunch  of  leathern  tassels. '  Cook's 
Voy.  to  Pac.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  304-8,  270-1,  280.  '  The  men's  dress  is  a  blanket; 
the  women's  a  strip  of  cloth,  or  shift,  and  blanket.  The  old  costume  of  the 
natives  was  the  same  as  at  present,  but  the  material  was  different.1  Sproat's 
Scenes,  pp.  25,  315.  'Their  clothing  generally  consists  of  skins,'  but  they 
have  two  other  garments  of  bark  or  dog's  hair.  '  Their  garments  of  all  kinds 
are  worn  mantlewise,  and  the  borders  of  them  are  fringed'  with  wampum. 
Spark's  Life  of  Ledyard,  pp.  71-2;  Colyer,  in  InclsAff.  Rept.,  1869,  p.  533; 
Sutily  Mexicana,  Viage,  pp.  30-1,  38,  56-7,  126-8;  Meares'  Voy.,  pp.  251-4; 
Grant,  in.  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xxvii.,  p.  297;  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  pp. 
143-4;  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  344-5;  V/Tiympers  Alaska,  p.  37;  Greeii- 
how's  Hist.  Ogn.,  p.  116;  Macfie's  Van.  Isl.,  pp.  431,  443;  Barrett-Lennard's. 
Trav.,  p.  46.  '  See  portraits  in  Cook's  Atlas,  Belcher's  Voy.,  Sutil  y  Mexicanat 
Atlas,  and  Whymper's  Alaska. 


184  COLUMBIANS. 

side  planks  are  tied  together  with  bark,  and  supported 
by  slender  posts  in  couples  just  far  enough  apart  to  re 
ceive  the  thickness  of  the  plank.  A  house  like  this, 
forty  by  one  hundred  feet,  accommodates  many  families, 
each  of  which  has  its  allotted  space,  sometimes  parti 
tioned  off  like  a  double  row  of  stalls,  with  a  wide  passage 
in  the  middle.  In  the  centre  of  each  stall  is  a  circle  of 
stones  for  a  fire-place,  and  round  the  walls  are  raised 
couches  covered  with  mats.  In  rainy  weather,  cracks  in 
the  roof  and  sides  are  covered  with  mats.  No  smoke  or 
window  holes  are  left,  and  when  smoke  becomes  trouble 
some  a  roof-plank  is  removed.  The  entrance  is  at  one  end. 
These  dwellings  furnish,  according  to  Nootka  ideas,  a 
comfortable  shelter,  except  when  a  high  wind  threatens 
to  unroof  them,  and  then  the  occupants  go  out  and  sit 
on  the  roof  to  keep  it  in  place.  Frequently  the  outside 
is  painted  in  grotesque  figures  of  various  colors.  Only 
the  frame  is  permanent ;  matting,  planks,  and  all  utensils 
are  several  times  each  year  packed  up  and  conveyed  in 
canoes  to  another  locality  where  a  frame  belonging  to 
the  tribe  awaits  covering.  The  odor  arising  from  fish- 
entrails  and  other  filth,  which  they  take  no  pains  to  re 
move,  appears  to  be  inoffensive,  but  the  Nootkas  are  often 
driven  by  mosquitos  to  sleep  on  a  stage  over  the  water.62 

62  On  the  east  side  of  Vancouver  was  a  village  of  thirty-four  houses,  ar 
ranged  in  regular  streets.  The  house  of  the  leader  'was  distinguished  by- 
three  rafters  of  stout  timber  raised  above  the  roof,  according  to  the  archi 
tecture  of  Nootka,  though  much  inferior  to  those  I  had  there  seen,  in  point 
of  size.'  Bed-rooms  were  separated,  and  more  decency  observed  than  at 
Nootka  Sound.  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  346-7,  with  a  view  of  this  vil 
lage;  also  pp.  324-5,  description  of  the  village  on  Desolation  Sound;  p.  338, 
on  Valdes  Island;  p.  326,  view  of  village  on  Bute  Canal;  and  vol.  iii.,  pp. 
310-11,  a  peculiarity  not  noticed  by  Cook — 'immense  pieces  of  timber  which 
are  raised,  and  horizontally  placed  on  wooden  pillars,  about  eighteen  inches 
above  the  roof  of  the  largest  houses  in  that  village;  one  of  which  pieces  of 
timber  was  of  a  size  sufficient  to  have  made  a  lower  mast  for  a  third  rate 
man  of  war.'  See  Cook's  Voy.  to  Pac.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  281,  313-19,  and  Atlas, 
plate  40.  A  sort  of  a  duplicate  inside  building,  with  shorter  posts,  furnishes 
on  its  roof  a  stage,  where  all  kinds  of  property  and  supplies  are  stored. 
Sproat's  Scenes,  pp.  37-43.  '  The  planks  or  boards  which  they  make  use  of 
for  building  their  houses,  and  for  other  uses,  they  prociire  of  different 
lengths,  as  occasion  requires,  by  splitting  them  out,  with  hard  wooden 
wedges  from  pine  logs,  and  afterwards  dubbing  them  down  with  their  chiz- 
zels.'  Jewitt's  Nar.,  pp.  52-4.  Grant  states  that  the  Nootka  houses  are 
palisade  inclosures  formed  of  stakes  or  young  fir-trees,  some  twelve  or  thir 
teen  feet  high,  driven  into  the  ground  close  together,  roofed  in  with  slabs  of 


FOOD  OF  THE  NOOTKAS.  185 

The  Nootkas,  like  the  Haidahs,  live  almost  wholly  on 
the  products  of  the  sea,  and  are  naturally  expert  fisher 
men.     Salmon,  the  great  staple,  are  taken  in  August  and 
September,  from  sea,  inlet,  and  river,  by  nets,  spears, 
pots  or  baskets,  and  even  by  hooks.     Hooks  consist  of 
sharp  barbed  bones  bound  to  straight  pieces  of  hard 
wood;  sea- wrack,  maple-bark,  and  whale-sinew  furnish 
lines,  which  in  salmon-fishing  are  short  and  attached  to 
the  paddles.      The  salmon-spear  is  a  forked  pole,  some 
fifteen   feet   long,   the  detachable  head  having  prongs 
pointed  with  fish-bone  or  iron,  and  the  fish  in  deep 
water  is  sometimes  attracted  within  its  reach  by  a  wood 
en  decoy,  forced  down  by  a  long  pole,  and  then  detached 
and  allowed  to  ascend  rapidly  to  the  surface.     Spearing 
is  carried  on  mostly  by  torch-light.      A  light-colored 
Btone  pavement  is  sometimes  laid  upon  the  bottom  of 
the  stream,  which  renders  the  fish  visible  in  their  pass 
age  over  it.     Nets  are  made  of  nettles  or  of  wild  flax, 
found  along  Fraser  River.     They  are  small  in  size,  and 
used  as  dip-nets,  or  sunk  between  two  canoes  and  lifted 
as  the  fish  pass  over.     A  pot  or  basket  fifteen  to  twen 
ty  feet  long,  three  to  five  feet  in  diameter  at  one  end, 
and  tapering  to  a  point  at  the  other,  is  made  of  pine 
splinters  one  or  two  inches  apart,  with  twig-hoops;  and 
placed,  large  end  up  stream,  at  the  foot  of  a  fall  or  at 
an  opening  in  an  embankment,     The  salmon  are  driven 
down  the  Ml  with  poles,  and  entering  the  basket  are 
taken  out  by  a  door  in  the  small  end.     This  basket  is 
sometimes  enclosed  in  another  one,  similar  but  of  uni 
form  diameter,  and  closed  at  one  end.     Fences  of  stakes 
across  the  river  oblige   the  salmon  to  enter  the  open 
mouth  in  their  passage  up,  and  passing  readily  through 

fir  or  cedar.  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xxvii.,  p.  299.  The  Teets  have  pal 
isaded  enclosures.  Anderson,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  vii.,  p.  74.  'The  chief  re 
sides  at  the  upper  end,  the  proximity  of  his  relatives  to  him  being  according 
to  their  degree  of  kindred.'  Macfie's  Vane.  Isl.,  pp.  443-4;  Dunn's  Oregon,  p. 
243;  Belcher's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  112;  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  158,  164-5,  167, 
320-21;  Seemann's  Voy.  of  Herald,  vol.  i.,  pp.  105-6.  The  carved  pillars  are 
not  regarded  by  the  natives  as  idols  in  any  sense.  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  pp. 
128-9,  102;  Barrett- Lennard's  Trav.,  pp.  47,  73-4.  Some  houses  eighty  by 
two  hundred  feet.  Colyer,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1869,  p.  533;  Mayne's  B.  €.,  p. 
296;  Gordon's  Hist,  and  Geog.  Mem.',  pp.  120-1. 


186  COLUMBIANS. 

an  opening  left  in  the  point  of  the  inner  basket,  they 
find  themselves  entrapped.  In  March,  herring  appear  on 
the  coast  in  great  numbers,  and  in  April  and  May  they 
enter  the  inlets  and  streams,  where  they  are  taken  with 
a  dip-net,  or  more  commonly  by  the  fish-rake — a  pole 
armed*  with  many  sharp  bones  or  nails.  Early  in  the 
season  they  can  be  taken  only  by  torch-light.  Halibut 
abound  from  March  to  June,  and  are  caught  with  hooks 
and  long  lines,  generally  at  some  distance  from  shore. 
For  all  other  fish,  European  hooks  were  early  adopted, 
but  the  halibut,  at  least  among  the  Ahts,  must  still  be 
taken  with  the  native  hook.  Many  other  varieties  of 
fish,  caught  by  similar  methods,  are  used  as  food,  but 
those  named  supply  the  bulk  of  the  Nootka's  provision. 
In  May  or  June,  whales  appear  and  are  attacked  in 
canoes  by  the  chief,  with  the  select  few  from  each  tribe 
who  alone  have  the  right  to  hunt  this'  monarch  of  the 
sea.  The  head  of  their  harpoon  is  made  ,of  two  barbed 
bones  and  pointed  with  muscle-shell;  it  is  fastened  to  a 
whale-sinew  line  of  a  few  feet  in  length,  and  this  short 
line  to  a  very  long  bark  rope,  at  one  end  of  which  are 
seal-skin  air-bags  and  bladders,  to  keep  it  afloat.  The 
point  is  also  fastened  to  a  shaft  from  ten  to  twenty-five 
feet  in  length,  from  which  it  is  easily  detached.  With 
many  of  these  buoys  in  tow  the  whale  cannot  dive,  and 
becomes  an  easy  prey.  Whale-blubber  and  oil  are  great 
delicacies,  the  former  being  preferred  half  putrid,  while 
the  oil  with  that  of  smaller  denizens  of  the  sea  preserved 
in  bladders,  is  esteemed  a  delicious  sauce,  and  eaten  with 
almost  everything.  Sea-otters  and  seals  are  also  speared, 
the  former  with  a  weapon  more  barbed  and  firmly  at 
tached  to  the  handle,  as  they  are  fierce  fighters ;  but  when 
found  asleep  on  the  rocks,  they  are  shot  with  arrows. 
Seals  are  often  attracted  within  arrow- shot  by  natives 
disguised  as  seals  in  wooden  masks. 

Clams  and  other  shell-fish,  which  are  collected  in  great 
numbers  by  the  women,  are  cooked,  strung  on  cypress- 
bark  cords,  and  hung  in  the  houses  to  dry  for  winter 
use.  Fish  are  preserved  by  drying  only,  the  use  of  salt 


FOOD  OF  THE  NOOTKAS.  187 

being  unknown.     Salmon,  after  losing  their  heads  and 
tails,  which  are  eaten  in  the  fishing  season,  are  split  open 
and  the  back-bone  taken  out  before  drying ;  smaller  fry 
are  sometimes  dried  as  they  come  from  their  element; 
but  halibut  and  cod  are  cut  up  and  receive  a  partial  dry 
ing  in  the  sun.     The  spawn  of  all  fish,  but  particularly 
of  salmon  and  herring,  is  carefully  preserved  by  stowing 
it  away  in  baskets,  where  it  ferments.     Bear,  deer,  and 
other  land  animals,  as  well  as  wild  fowl,  are  sometimes 
taken  for  food,  by  means  of  rude  traps,  nets,  and  covers, 
successful  only  when  game  is  abundant,  for  the  Nootkas 
are  but  indifferent  hunters.    In  the  time  of  Jewitt,  three 
peculiarities  were  observable  in  the  Nootka  use  of  ani 
mal   food,  particularly  bear-meat.      When  a  bear  was 
killed,  it  was  dressed  in  a  bonnet,  decked  with  fine  down, 
and  solemnly  invited  to  eat  in  the  chief's  presence,  be 
fore  being  eaten;  after  partaking  of  bruin's  flesh,  which 
was  appreciated  as  a  rarity,  the  Nootka  could  not  taste 
fresh  fish  for  two  months ;  and  while  fish  to  be  palatable 
must  be  putrid,  meat  when  tainted  was  no  longer  fit  for 
food.    The  Nootka  cuisine  furnished  food  in  four  styles ; 
namely,  boiled — the  mode  par  excellence,  applicable  to 
every  variety  of  food,  and  effected,  as  by  the  Haidahs, 
by  hot  stones  in  wooden  vessels;  steamed — of  rarer  use, 
applied  mostly  to  heads,  tails,  and  fins,  by  pouring  water 
over  them  on  a  bed  of  hot  stones,  and  covering  the  whole 
tightly  with  mats;  roasted — rarely,  in  the  case  of  some 
smaller  fish  and  clams ;  and  raw — fish-spawn  and  most 
other  kinds  of  food,  when  conveniences  for  cooking  were 
not  at  hand.    Some  varieties  of  sea- weed  and  lichens,  as 
well  as  the  camass,  and  other  roots,  were  regularly  laid 
up  for  winter,  while  berries,  everywhere  abundant,  were 
eaten  in  great  quantities  in  their  season,  and  at  least  one 
variety  preserved  by  pressing  in  bunches.     In  eating, 
they  sit  in  groups  of  five  or  six,  with  their  legs  doubled 
under  them  round  a  large  wooden  tray,  and  dip  out  the 
food  nearly  always  boiled  to  a  brothy  consistency,  with 
their  fingers  or  clam-shells,  paying  little  or  no  attention 
to  cleanliness.     Chiefs  and  slaves  have  trays  apart,  and 


188  COLUMBIANS. 

the  principal  meal,  according  to  Cook,  was  about  noon. 
Feasting  is  the  favorite  way  of  entertaining  friends, 
so  long  as  food  is  plentiful ;  and  by  a  curious  custom,  of 
the  portion  allotted  them,  guests  must  carry  away  what 
they  cannot  eat.  Water  in  aboriginal  days  was  the  only 
Nootka  drink ;  it  is  also  used  now  when  whisky  is  not  to 
be  had.63 

Lances  and  arrows,  pointed  with  shell,  slate,  flint, 
or  bone,  and  clubs  and  daggers  of  wood  and  bone,  were 
the  weapons  with  which  they  met  their  foes;  but  fire 
arms  and  metallic  daggers,  and  tomahawks,  have  long 
since  displaced  them,  as  they  have  to  a  less  degree  the 
original  hunting  and  fishing  implements.64  The  Nootka 
tribes  were  always  at  war  with  each  other,  hereditary 

63  '  Their  heads  and  their  garments  swarm  with  vermin,  which, ...  .we  used 
to  see  them  pick  off  with  great  composure,  and  eat.'  Cook's  Voy.  to  Pac.,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  305.  See  also  pp.  279-80,  318-24.  '  Their  mode  of  living  is  very  simple 
— their  food  consisting  almost  wholly  of  fish,  or  fish  spawn  fresh  or  dried, 
the  blubber  of  the  whale,  seal,  or  sea-cow,  muscles,  clams,  and  berries  of 
various  kinds;  all  of  which  are  eaten  with  a  profusion  of  train  oil.'  Jewitt's 
Nar..  pp.  58-60,  68-9,  86-8,  94-7,  103.  Croat's  Scenes,  pp.  52-7,  61,  87, 144-9, 
216-70.  '  The  common  business  of  fishing  for  ordinary  sustenance  is  car 
ried  on  by  slaves,  or  the  lower  class  of  people; — While  the  more  noble  occu 
pation  of  killing  the  whale  and  hunting  the  sea-otter,  is  followed  by  none  but 
the  chiefs  and  warriors.'  Meares'  Voy.,  p.  258.  'They  make  use  of  the  dried 
fucus  giganteus,  anointed  with  oil,  for  lines,  in  taking  salmon  and  sea-otters.' 
Belcher's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  112-13.  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  pp.  17,  26,  45-6, 
59-60,  76,  1'29-SO,  134-5;  Grant,  in  Land.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xxvii.,  pp. 


299-300;  Maym's  B.  C.,  pp.  252-7;  Macfie's  Vane.  Isl,  pp.  165-442;  Simp 
son's  Overland  Journ.,  vol.  i.,  p.  239;  Pemberton's  Vane.  Isl.,  pp.  28-32; 
Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  243;  Mofras,  Explor.,  tom.ii.,p.  338.  The  Sau-kau-lutuck 
tribe  '  are  said  to  live  on  the  edge 
and  bear,  and  such  fish  as  they  can 


tribe  '  are  said  to  live  on  the  edge  of  a  lake,  and  subsist  principally  on  deer 
and  bear,  and  such  fish  as  they  can  take  in  the  lake.'  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  pp. 
158-9;  Barrelt-Lennard's  Trav.,  pp.  48,  74-5,  76-7,  85-6,  90-1,  144-50,  197-8; 
vol.  ii.,  p.  Ill;  Cornwall^'  New  El  Dorado,  p.  100;  Forbes'  Vane.  Isl.,  pp. 
54-5;  Eattray's  Vane.  Isl,  pp.  77-8,  82-3;  Hud.  Bay  Co.,  Eept.  Spec.  Com. 
1857,  p.  114. 

<*  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  pp.  57,  63,  78;  Jewitt's  Nar.,  pp.  78-81;  Van 
couver's  Voy.,  vol.i.,  p.  307;  Macfie's  Vane.  Isl.,  p.  443;  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i., 
p.  100.  '  The  native  bow,  like  the  canoe  and  paddle,  is  beautifully  formed. 
It  is  generally  made  of  yew  or  crab-apple  wood,  and  is  three  and  a  half  feet 
long,  with  about  two  inches  at  each  end  turned  sharply  backwards  from  the 
string.  The  string  is  a  piece  of  dried  seal-gut,  deer-sinew,  or  twisted  bark. 
The  arrows  are  about  thirty  inches  long,  and  are  made  of  pine  or  cedar, 
tipped  with  six  inches  of  serrated  bone,  or  with  two  unbarbed  bone  or  iron 
prongs.  I  have  never  seen  an  Aht  arrow  with  a  barbed  head.'  Sproat's 
Scenes,  p.  82.  '  Having  now  to  a  great  extent  discarded  the  use  of  the  tradi 
tional  tomahawk  and  spear.  Many  of  these  weapons  are,  however,  still  pre 
served  as  heirlooms  among  them.'  Barrett- Leonard's  Trav.,  p.  42.  'No bows 
and  arrows.'  '  Generally  fight  hand  to  hand,  and  not  with  missiles.'  Fitzwtt- 
Ham's  Evidence,  in  Hud.  Bat/  Co.  Rept.,  1857,  p.  115. 


NOOTKA  BATTLES  AND  BOATS.  189 

quarrels  being  handed  down  for  generations.  According 
to  their  idea,  loss  of  life  in  battle  can  only  be  forgotten 
when  an  equal  number  of  the  hostile  tribe  are  killed. 
Their  military  tactics  consist  of  stratagem  and  surprise 
in  attack,  and  watchfulness  in  defense.  Before  engag 
ing  in  war,  some  weeks  are  spent  in  preparation,  which 
consists  mainly  of  abstinence  from  women,  bathing,  scrub 
bing  the  skin  with  briers  till  it  bleeds,  and  finally  paint 
ing  the  whole  body  jet-black.  All  prisoners  not  suitable 
for  slaves  are  butchered  or  beheaded.  In  an  attack  the 
effort  is  always  made  to  steal  into  the  adversary's  camp 
at  night  and  kill  men  enough  to  decide  the  victory  be^_ 
fore  the  alarm  can  be  given.  When  they  fail  in  this, 
the  battle  is  seldom  long  continued,  for  actual  hand-to- 
hand  fighting  is  not  to  the  Nootka  taste.  On  the  rare 
occasions  when  it  is  considered  desirable  to  make  over 
tures  of  peace,  an  ambassador  is  sent  with  an  ornamented 
pipe,  and  with  this  emblem  his  person  is  safe.  Smoking 
a  pipe  together  by  hostile  chiefs  also  solemnizes  a  treaty.65 
Nootka  boats  are  dug  out  each  from  a  single  pine  tree, 
and  are  made  of  all  sizes  from  ten  to  fifty  feet  long,  the 
largest  accommodating  forty  or  fifty  men.  Selecting  a 
proper  tree  in  the  forest,  the  aboriginal  Nootka  fells  it 
with  a  sort  of  chisel  of  flint  or  elk-horn,  three  by  six 
inches,  fastened  in  a  wooden  handle,  and  struck  by  a 
smooth  stone  mallet.  Then  the  log  is  split  with  wooden 
wedges,  and  the  better  piece  being  selected,  it  is  hollowed 
out  with  the  aforesaid  chisel,  a  muscle-shell  adze,  and  a 
bird's-bone  gimlet  worked  between  the  two  hands.  Some 
times,  but  not  always,  fire  is  used  as  an  assistant.  The 

65  The  Ahts  '  do  not  take  the  scalp  of  the  enemy,  but  cut  off  his  head,  by 
three  dexterous  movements  of  the  knife ....  and  the  warrior  who  has  taken 
most  heads  is  most  praised  and  feared.'  Sprout's  Scenes,  pp.  186-202.  '  Scalp 
every  one  they  kill.'  Macfte's  Vane.  Isl,  p.  470,  443,  467.  One  of  the  Nootka 
princes  assured  the  Spaniards  that  the  bravest  captains  ate  human  flesh  be 
fore  engaging  in  battle.  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  p.  130.  The  Nittinahts  con 
sider  the  heads  of  enemies  slain  in  battle  as  spolla  opima.  Whymper's  Alaska, 
pp.  54,  78;  Jewitt's  Nar.,  pp.  120-1;  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  155-6,  158,  166, 
171,  vol.  ii.,  p.  251-3.  Women  keep  watch  during  the  night,  and  tell  the 
exploits  of  their  nation  to  keep  awake.  Meares'  Voy.,  p.  267.  Vancouver's 
Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  396;  Grant,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xxvii.,  p.  296; 
Mayne's  B.  C.}  p.  270;  Barrett-Lennard's  Trav.,  pp.  41-2,  129-36. 


l90  COLUMBIANS. 

exterior  is  fashioned  with  the  same  tools.  The  boat  is 
widest  in  the  middle,  tapers  toward  each  end,  and  is 
strengthened  by  light  cross-pieces  extending  from  side  to 
side,  which,  being  inserted  after  the  boat  is  soaked  in  hot 
water,  modify  and  improve  the  original  form.  The  bow 
is  long  and  pointed,  the  stern  square-cut  or  slightly  round 
ed  ;  both  ends  are  raised  higher  than  the  middle  by  sep 
arate  pieces  of  wood  painted  with  figures  of  birds  or 
beasts,  the  head  on  the  bow  and  the  tail  on  the  stern. 
The  inside  is  painted  red ;  the  outside,  slightly  burned, 
is  rubbed  smooth  and  black,  and  for  the  whale  fishery 
is  ornamented  along  the  gunwales  with  a  row  of  small 
shells  or  seal-teeth,  but  for  purposes  of  war  it  is  painted 
with  figures  in  white.  Paddles  are  neatly  made  of  hard 
wood,  about  five  and  a  half  feet  long  with  a  leaf-shaped 
blade  of  two  feet,  sharp  at  the  end,  and  used  as  a  weapon 
in  canoe-fighting.  A  cross-piece  is  sometimes  added  to 
the  handle  like  the  top  of  a  crutch.66 

In  addition  to  the  implements  already  named  are 
chests  and  boxes,  buckets,  cups  and  eating-troughs,  all 
of  wood,  either  dug  out  or  pinned  together;  baskets  of 
twigs  and  bags  of  matting;  all  neatly  made,  and  many 
of  the  articles  painted  or  carved,  or  ornamented  with 
shell  work.  As  among  the  Haidahs,  the  dried  eulachon 
is  often  used  as  a  lamp.67  The  matting  and  coarser  kinds 

CG  'They  have  no  scats. . .  .The  rowers  generally  sit  on  their  hams,  but 
sometimes  they  make  use  of  a  kind  of  small  stool.'  Meares'  Voy.,  pp.  263-4. 
The  larger  canoes  are  used  for  sleeping  and  eating,  being  dry  and  more  com 
fortable  than  the  houses.  Cook's  Vvy.  to  Pac.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.319,  327,  and  Atlas, 
pi.  41.  '  The  most  skillful  canoe-makers  among  the  tribes  are  the  Nitinahts 
and  the  Klah-oh-quahts.  They  make  canoes  for  sale  to  other  tribes.'  '  The 
baling-dish  of  the  canoes,  is  always  of  one  shape — the  shape  of  the  gable-roof 
of  a  cottage.'  Sjiroat's  Scenes,  pp.  85,  87-8;  Mayne's  .B.  C.,  p.  283,  and  cut  on 
title-page.  Canoes  not  in  use  are  hauled  up  on  the  beach  in  front  of  their 
villages.  Grant,  in  Lend.  Geoa.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xxvii.,  p.  301.  'They  keep 
time  to  the  stroke  of  the  paddle  with  their  songs.'  JeicitVs  Nar.,  pp.  69-71, 
75;  Sutil  y  Mxioana,  Viage,  pp.  39,  133;  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  144;  Van 
couver's  \  oy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  338.  Their  canoes  'are  believed  to  supply  the  pat 
tern  after  which  clipper  ships  are  built.'  Macfie's  Vane.  Id.,  pp.  484,  430. 
Barreit-Ltnnard's  Trav.,  p.  50.  Colyer,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1869,  p.  533. 

c?  Cook's  Voy.  to  Pac.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  271,  308,  316,  326,  329-30.  Sproat's 
Scenes,  pp.  8G-:.',  :J17;  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  p.  129;  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii., 
pp.  257-8,  which  describes  a  painted  and  ornamented  plate  of  native  copper 
some  one  and  a  half  by  two  and  a  half  feet,  kept  with  great  care  in  a  wooden 
case,  also  elaborately  ornamented.  It  was  the  property  of  the  tribe  at  Fort 


PROPERTY  OF  THE  NOOTKAS.  191 

of  cloth  are  made  of  rushes  and  of  pine  or  cedar  bark, 
which  after  being  soaked  is  beaten  on  a  plank  with  a 
grooved  instrument  of  wood  or  bone  until  the  fibres  are 
separated.  The  threads  are  twisted  into  cords  between 
the  hand  and  thigh;  these  cords,  hung  to  a  horizontal 
beam  and  knotted  with  liner  thread  at  regular  intervals, 
form  the  cloth.  Thread  of  the  same  bark  is  used  with 
a  sharpened  twig  for  a  needle.  Intercourse  with  Euro 
peans  has  modified  their  manufactures,  and  checked  the 
development  of  their  native  ingenuity.68 

Captain  Cook  found  among  the  Ahts  very  "strict  no 
tions  of  their  having  a  right  to  the  exclusive  property 
of  everything  that  their  country  produces,"  so  that  they 
claimed  pay  for  even  wood,  water,  and  grass.  The  limits 
of  tribal  property  are  very  clearly  defined,  but  individ 
uals  rarely  claim  any  property  in  land.  Houses  belong 
to  the  men  who  combine  to  build  them.  Private  wealth 
consists  of  boats  and  implements  for  obtaining  food,  do 
mestic  utensils,  slaves,  and  blankets,  the  latter  being 
generally  the  standard  by  which  wealth  or  price  is 
computed.  Food  is  not  regarded  as  common  property, 
yet  any  man  may  help  himself  to  his  neighbor's  store 
when  needy.  The  accumulation  of  property  beyond  the 
necessities  of  life  is  only  considered  desirable  for  the 
purpose  of  distributing  it  in  presents  on  great  feast-days, 
and  thereby  acquiring  a  reputation  for  wealth  and  lib 
erality  ;  and  as  these  feasts  occur  frequently,  an  unsuc 
cessful  man  may  often  take  a  fresh  start  in  the  race. 
Instead  of  being  given  away,  canoes  and  blankets  are 
often  destroyed,  which  proves  that  the  motive  in  this 
disposal  of  property  is  not  to  favor  friends,  but  merely 
to  appear  indifferent  to  wealth.  It  is  certainly  a  most 

Rupert,  and  was  highly  prized,  and  only  brought  out  on  great  occasions, 
though  its  use  was  not  discovered.  Macjie's  Vane.  M.,  p.  165. 

<*  Woolen  cloths  of  all  degrees  of  fineness,  made  by  hand  and  worked  in 
figures,  by  a  method  not  known.  Cook's  Voy.  to  Pac.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  3'25.  butily 


p. 

Dorado,  pp.  99-100.  'The  implement  used  for 'weaving,  (by  the  Teets)  dif 
fered  in  no  apparent  respect  from  the  rude  loom  of  the  days  of  the  Phara 
ohs.'  Anderson,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  vii.,  p.  78. 


192  COLUMBIANS. 

remarkable  custom,  and  one  that  exerts  a  great  influence 
on  the  whole  people.  Gifts  play  an  important  part  in 
procuring  a  wife,  and  a  division  of  property  accompanies 
a  divorce.  To  enter  the  ranks  of  the  medicine-men  or 
magicians,  or  to  attain  rank  of  any  kind,  property  must 
be  sacrificed ;  and  a  man  who  receives  an  insult  or  suffers 
any  affliction  must  tear  up  the  requisite  quantity  of 
blankets  and  shirts,  if  he  would  retain  his  honor.69  Trade 
in  all  their  productions  was  carried  on  briskly  between 
the  different  Nootka  tribes  before  the  coming  of  the 
whites.  They  manifest  much  shrewdness  in  their  ex 
changes;  even  their  system  of  presents  is  a  species  of 
trade,  the  full  value  of  each  gift  being  confidently  ex 
pected  in  a  return  present  on  the  next  festive  occasion. 
In  their  intertribal  commerce,  a  band  holding  a  strong 
position  where  trade  by  canoes  between  different  parts 
may  be  stopped,  do  not  fail  to  offer  and  enforce  the  ac 
ceptance  of  their  services  as  middlemen,  thereby  greatly 
increasing  market  prices.70 

The  system  of  numeration,  sufficiently  extensive  for 
the  largest  numbers,  is  decimal,  the  numbers  to  ten 
having  names  which  are  in  some  instances  compounds 
but  not  multiples  of  smaller  numbers.  The  fingers  are 
used  to  aid  in  counting.  The  year  is  divided  into  months 
with  some  reference  to  the  moon,  but  chiefly  by  the  fish- 
seasons,  ripening  of  berries,  migrations  of  birds,  and 
other  periodical  events,  for  which  the  months  are  named, 
as:  'when  the  herrings  spawn,'  etc.  The  unit  of  meas 
ure  is  the  span,  the  fingers  representing  its  fractional 
parts.71  The  Nootkas  display  considerable  taste  in  orna- 

&  Sproat's  Scenes,  pp.  79-81,  89,  96,  111-13;  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  220-1; 
Macfie's  Vane.  JsL,  pp.  429,  437;  Cook's  Voy.  io  Pac.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  284;  Sutil  y 
Mexicana,  Viage,  p.  147;  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  165-6;  Mayne's  B.  <?.,  263-5. 

70  JewUt's  Nar.,  pp.  78-80;  Sproat's  Scenes,  pp.  19,  55/78-9,  92.     Before 
the  adoption  of  blankets  as  a  currency,  they  used  small  shells  from  the  coast 
bays  for  coin,  and  they  are  still  used  by  some  of  the  more  remote  tribes. 
Grant,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xxvii.,  p.  307.     'Their  acuteness  in 
barter  is  remarkable.'  Forbes'  Vane.  JsL,  p.  25. 

71  The  Ahts  '  divide  the  year  into  thirteen  months,  or  rather  moons,  and 
begin  with  the  one  that  pretty  well  answers  to  our  November.     At  the  same 
time,  as  their  names  are  applied  to  each  actual  new  moon  as  it  appears,  they 
are  not,  by  half  a  month  and  more  (sometimes),  identical  with  our  calendar 


NOOTKA  AKT  AND  GOVERNMENT.  193 

menting  with  sculpture  and  paintings  their  implements 
and  houses,  their  chief  efforts  being  made  on  the  posts 
of  the  latter,  and  the  wooden  masks  which  they  wear 
in  war  and  some  of  their  dances;  but  all  implements 
may  be  more  or  less  carved  and  adorned  according  to 
the  artist's  fancy.  They  sometimes  paint  fishing  and 
hunting  scenes,  but  generally  their  models  exist  only 
in  imagination,  and  their  works  consequently  assume 
unintelligible  forms.  There  seems  to  be  no  evidence 
that  their  carved  images  and  complicated  paintings  are 
in  any  sense  intended  as  idols  or  hieroglyphics.  A  rude 
system  of  heraldry  prevails  among  them,  by  which  some 
animal  is  adopted  as  a  family  crest,  and  its  figure  is 
painted  or  embroidered  on  canoes,  paddles,  or  blankets.72 
To  the  Nootka  system  of  government  the  terms  patri 
archal,  hereditary,  and  feudal  have  been  applied.  There 
is  no  confederation,  each  tribe  being  independent  of  all 
the  rest,  except  as  powerful  tribes  are  naturally  domi 
nant  over  the  weak.  In  each  tribe  the  head  chief's  rank 
is  hereditary  by  the  male  line ;  his  grandeur  is  displayed 
on  great  occasions,  when,  decked  in  all  his  finery,  he  is 
the  central  figure.  At  the  frequently  recurring  feasts  of 
state  he  occupies  the  seat  of  honor ;  presides  at  all  coun 
cils  of  the  tribe,  and  is  respected  and  highly  honored  by 
all;  but  has  no  real  authority  over  any  but  his  slaves. 
Between  the  chief,  or  king,  and  the  people  is  a  nobility, 
in  number  about  one  fourth  of  the  whole  tribe,  composed 
of  several  grades,  the  highest  being  partially  hereditary, 
but  also,  as  are  all  the  lower  grades,  obtainable  by  feats 

months.'  Sproat's  Scenes,  pp.  121-4.  'Las  personas  mas  cultas  dividen  el 
ano  en  catorce  meses,  y  cada  uno  de  estos  en  veinte  dias,  agregando  luego 
algunos  dias  intercaiares  al  fin  de  cada  mes.  El  de  Julio,  que  ellos  llaman 
Satz-tzi-ndtl,  y  es  el  primero  de  su  ailo,  a  mas  de  sus  veinte  dias  ordinaries 
tiene  tantos  intercaiares  quantos  dura  la  abundancia  de  lenguados,  atunes, 
etc.'  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viaye,  pp.  153-4,  148;  Grant,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour., 
vol.  xxvii.,  pp.  295,  301;  Lord's  Rat.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  242-4. 

72  '  They  shew  themselves  ingenious  sculptors.  They  not  only  preserve, 
with  great  exactness,  the  general  character  of  their  own  faces,  but  finish  the 
more  minute  parts,  with  a  degree  of  accuracy  in  proportion,  and  neatness  in 
execution.'  Cook's  Voy.  to  Pac.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  326-7,  and  Atlas,  pi.  40;  Lord's 
Nat.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  ]64-5,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  257-8,  and  cut,  p.  103;  Macfie's  Vane. 
Isl.,  pp.  444-7,  484;  Mayne's  B.  C.,  cut  on  p.  271. 
VOL.  I.  13 


194  COLUMBIANS. 

of  valor  or  great  liberality.  All  chieftains  must  be  con 
firmed  by  the  tribe,  and  some  of  them  appointed  by  the 
king;  each  man's  rank  is  clearly  defined  in  the  tribe,  and 
corresponding  privileges  strictly  insisted  on.  There  are 
chiefs  who  have  full  authority  in  warlike  expeditions. 
Harpooners  also  form  a  privileged  class,  whose  rank  is 
handed  down  from  father  to  son.  This  somewhat  com 
plicated  system  of  government  nevertheless  sits  lightly, 
since  the  people  are  neither  taxed  nor  subjected  to  any 
laws;  nor  interfered  with  in  their  actions.  Still,  long- 
•continued  custom  serves  as  law  and  marks  out  the  few 
•duties  and  privileges  of  the  Nootka  citizen.  Stealing 
is  not  common  except  from  strangers;  and  offenses  re 
quiring  punishment  are  usually  avenged — or  pardoned 
in  consideration  of  certain  blankets  received  —  by  the 
injured  parties  and  their  friends,  the  chiefs  seeming  to 
have  little  or  nothing  to  do  in  the  matter.73 

73  'In  an  Aht  tribe  of  two  hundred  men,  perhaps  fifty  possess  various  de 
grees  of  acquired  or  inherited  rank;  there  may  be  about  as  many  slaves;  the 
remainder  are  independent  members.'  Some  of  the  Klah-oh-quahts  'pay 
.annually  to  their  chief  certain  contributions,  consisting  of  blankets,  skins, 
etc.'  'A  chief's  "blue  blood"  avails  not  in  a  dispute  with  one  of  his  own 
people;  he  must  fight  his  battle  like  a  common  man.'  f- •  proofs  Scents,  pp. 
113-17,  18-20,  226.  Cheslakees,  a  chief  on  Johnson's  Strait,  was  inferior 
but  not  subordinate  in  authority  to  Maquinna,  the  famous  king  at  Nootka 
.Sound,  but  the  chief  at  Loughborough's  Channel  claimed  to  be  under  Ma 
quinna.  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  346,  331.  '  La  dignidad  de  Tays  es  heredi- 
taria  de  padres  a  hijos,  y  pasa  regularmente  a  estos  luego  que  estan  en  edad 
.de  gobernar,  si  los  padres  por  ancianidad  u  otras  causas  no  pueden  seguir 
mandando.'  'El  gobierno  de  estos  naturales  puede  llamarse  Patriarcal;  pues 
el  Xefe  de  la  nacion  hace  a  un  niismo  tiempo  los  oficios  de  padre  de  familia, 
de  Rey  y  de  Sumo  Sacerdote.'  'Los  nobles  gozan  de  tanta  consideracion  en 
Nutka,  que  ni  aun  de  palabra  se  atreven  los  Tayses  a  reprelienderlos.'  '  To- 
dos  consideraban  a  este  (Maquinna)  conio  Soberano  de  las  costas,  desde  la 

•  de  Buena  Esperanza  hasta  la  punta  de  Arrecifes,  con  todos  los  Canales  interi- 
•ores.'     To  steal,  or  to  know  carnally  a  girl  nine  years  old,  is  punished  with 

•  death,  tiuttt  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  pp.  140,  136,  147,  19,  25.     'There  are  such 
men  as  Chiefs,  who  are  distinguished  by  the  name  or  title  of  Acwtek,  and  to 
whom  the  others  are,  in  some  measure,  subordinate.     But,  I  should  guess, 
the  authority  of  each  of  these  great  men  extends  no  farther  than  the  family 
to  which  he  belongs.'  Cook's  Voy.  to  Pac.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  333-4.     'La  forme  de 
leur  gouvernement  est  toute  patriarcale,  et  la  dignite  de  chef,  hereditaire.' 
Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  346.    Several  very  populous  villages  to  the  north 
ward,  included  in  the  territory  of  Maquilla,  the  head  chief,  were  entrusted  to 
the  government  of  the  principal  of  his  female  relations.    The  whole  govern 
ment  formed  a  political  bond  of  union  similar  to  the  feudal  system  which 
formerly  obtained  in  Europe.  Meares'  Voy.,  pp.  228-9.     '  The  king  or  head 
Tyee,  is  their  leader  in  war,  in  the  management  of  which  he  is  perfectly  ab 
solute.     He  is  also  president  of  their  councils,  which  are  almost  always  reg 
ulated  by  his  opinion.     But  he  has  no  kind  of  power  over  the  property  of  his 


NOOTKA  SLAVEKY  AND  MARRIAGE.  195 

Slavery  is  practiced  by  all  the  tribes,  and  the  slave- 
trade  forms  an  important  part  of  their  commerce.  Slaves 
are  about  the  only  property  that  must  not  be  sacrificed 
to  acquire  the  ever-desired  reputation  for  liberality. 
Only  rich  men — according  to  some  authorities  only  the 
nobles — may  hold  slaves.  War  and  kidnapping  supply 
the  slave-market,  and  no  captive,  whatever  his  rank  in 
his  own  tribe,  can  escape  this  fate,  except  by  a  heavy 
ransom  offered  soon  after  he  is  taken,  and  before  his 
whereabouts  becomes  unknown  to  his  friends.  Children 
of  slaves,  whose  fathers  are  never  known,  are  forever 
slaves.  The  power  of  the  owner  is  arbitrary  and  un 
limited  over  the  actions  and  life  of  the  slave,  but  a  cruel 
exercise  of  his  power  seems  of  rare  occurrence,  and, 
save  the  hard  labor  required,  the  material  condition  of 
the  slave  is  but  little  worse  than  that  of  the  common 
free  people,  since  he  is  sheltered  by  the  same  roof  and 
partakes  of  the  same  food  as  his  master.  Socially  the 
slave  is  despised ;  his  hair  is  cut  short,  and  his  very  name 
becomes  a  term  of  reproach.  Female  slaves  are  prosti 
tuted  for  hire,  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  white  settle 
ments.  A  runaway  slave  is  generally  seized  and  resold 
by  the  first  tribe  he  meets.74 

The  Nootka  may  have  as  many  wives  as  he  can  buy, 
but  as  prices  are  high,  polygamy  is  practically  restricted 
to  the  chiefs,  who  are  careful  not  to  form  alliances  with 

subjects.'  Jewilt's Nar.,  pp.  138-9, 47, 69,  73.  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  220-1.  ' There 
is  no  code  of  laws,  nor  do  the  chiefs  possess  the  power  or  means  of  maintain 
ing  a  regular  government;  but  their  personal  influence  is  nevertheless  very 
great  with  their  followers.'  Douglas,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xxiv.,  p.  246. 
74  '  Usually  kindly  treated,  eat  of  the  same  food,  and  live  as  well  as  their 
masters.'  'None  but  the  king  and  chiefs  have  slaves.'  'Maquinua  had 
nearly  fifty,  male  and  female,  in  his  house.  JevciWs  Aar.,  pp.  73-4.  Meares 
states  that  slaves  are  occasionally  sacrificed  and  feasted  upon.  Voy.,  p.  255. 
The  Newettee  tribe  nearly  exterminated  by  kidnappers.  Dunn's  Oregon,  p. 
242.  'An  owner  might  bring  half  a  dozen  slaves  out  of  his  house  and  kill 
them  publicly  in  a  row  without  any  notice  being  taken  of  the  atrocity.  But 
the  slave,  as  a  rule,  is  not  harshly  treated.'  • '  borne  of  the  smaller  tribes  at 
the  north  of  the  Island  are  practically  regarded  as  slave-breeding  tribes,  and 
are  attacked  periodically  by  stronger  tribes. '  The  American  shore  of  the  strait 
is  also  a  fruitful  source  of  slaves.  Sproat's  Scenes,  pp.  89-92.  'They  say  that 
one  Flathead  slave  is  worth  more  than  two  Roundheads.'  Kept.  Ind.  A/.,  1857, 


196  COLUMBIANS. 

families  beneath  them  in  rank.  Especially  particular  as 
to  rank  are  the  chiefs  in  choosing  their  first  wife,  always 
preferring  the  daughters  of  noble  families  of  another  tribe. 
Courtship  consists  in  an  offer  of  presents  by  the  lover  to 
the  girl's  father,  accompanied  generally  by  lengthy  speech 
es  of  friends  on  both  sides,  extolling  the  value  of  the  man 
and  his  gift,  and  the  attractions  of  the  bride.  After  the 
bargain  is  concluded,  a  period  of  feasting  follows  if  the 
parties  are  rich,  but  this  is  not  necessary  as  a  part  of 
the  marriage  ceremony.  Betrothals  are  often  made  by 
parents  while  the  parties  are  yet  children,  mutual  de 
posits  of  blankets  and  other  property  being  made  as 
securities  for  the  fulfillment  of  the  contract,  which  is 
rarely  broken.  Girls  marry  at  an  average  age  of  sixteen. 
The  common  Nootka  obtains  his  one  bride  from  his  own 
rank  also  by  a  present  of  blankets,  much  more  humble 
than  that  of  his  rich  neighbor,  and  is  assisted  in  his 
overtures  by  perhaps  a  single  friend  instead  of  being 
followed  by  the  whole  tribe.  Courtship  among  this  class 
is  not  altogether  without  the  attentions  which  render  it 
so  charming  in  civilized  life ;  as  when  the  fond  girl  lov 
ingly  caresses  and  searches  her  lover's  head,  always  giv 
ing  him  the  fattest  of  her  discoveries.  Wives  are  not 
ill  treated,  and  although  somewhat  overworked,  the  di 
vision  of  labor  is  not  so  oppressive  as  among  many 
Indian  tribes.  Men  build  houses,  make  boats  and  im 
plements,  hunt  and  fish;  women  prepare  the  fish  and 
game  for  winter  use,  cook,  manufacture  cloth  and  cloth 
ing,  and  increase  the  stock  of  food  by  gathering  berries 
and  shell-fish ;  and  most  of  this  work  among  the  richer 
class  is  done  by  slaves.  Wives  are  consulted  in  matters 
of  trade,  and  in  fact  seem  to  be  nearly  on  terms  of  equal 
ity  with  their  husbands,  except  that  they  are  excluded 
from  some  public  feasts  and  ceremonies.  There  is  much 
reason  to  suppose  that  before  the  advent  of  the  whites,  the 
Nootka  wife  was  comparatively  faithful  to  her  lord,  that 
chastity  was  regarded  as  a  desirable  female  quality,  and  of 
fenses  against  it  severely  punished.  The  females  so  freely 
brought  on  board  the  vessels  of  early  voyagers  and  offered 


THE  NOOTKA  FAMILY.  197 

to  the  men,  were  perhaps  slaves,  who  are  everywhere 
prostituted  for  gain,  so  that  the  fathers  of  their  children 
are  never  known.  Women  rarely  have  more  than  two 
or  three  children,  and  cease  bearing  at  about  twenty-five, 
frequently  preventing  the  increase  of  their  family  by 
abortions.  '  Pregnancy  and  childbirth  affect  them  but 
little.  The  male  child  is  named  at  birth,  but  his  name 
is  afterwards  frequently  changed.  He  is  suckled  by  the 
mother  until  three  or  four  years  old,  and  at  an  early 
age  begins  to  learn  the  arts  of  fishing  by  which  he  is  to 
live.  Children  are  not  quarrelsome  among  themselves, 
and  are  regarded  by  both  parents  with  some  show  of 
affection  and  pride.  Girls  at  puberty  are  closely  con 
fined  for  several  days,  and  given  a  little  water  but  no 
food ;  they  are  kept  particularly  from  the  sun  or  fire,  to 
see  either  of  which  at  this  period  would  be  a  lasting  dis 
grace.  At  such  times  feasts  are  given  by  the  parents. 
Divorces  or  separations  may  be  had  at  will  by  either 
party,  but  a  strict  division  of  property  and  return  of 
betrothal  presents  is  expected,  the  woman  being  allowed 
not  only  the  property  she  brought  her  husband,  and  ar 
ticles  manufactured  by  her  in  wedlock,  but  a  certain  pro 
portion  of  the  common  wealth.  Such  property  as  be 
longs  to  the  father  and  is  not  distributed  in  gifts  during 
his  life,  or  destroyed  at  his  death,  is  inherited  by  the 
eldest  son.75 

w  'The  women  go  to  bed  first,  and  are  up  first  in  the  morning  to  prepare 
breakfast,'  p.  52.  '  The  condition  of  the  Aht  women  is  not  one  of  unseemly 
inferiority,'  p.  93.  'Their  female  relations  act  as  midwives.  There  is  no 
separate  place  for  lying-in.  The  child,  on  being  born,  is  rolled  up  in  a  mat 
among  feathers.'  '  They  suckle  one  child  till  another  comes, '  p.  94.  '  A  girl 
who  was  known  to  have  lost  her  virtue,  lost  with  it  one  of  her  chances  of  a 
favourable  marriage,  and  a  chief. . .  .would  have  put  his  daughter  to  death  for 
such  a  lapse, '  p.  95.  In  case  of  a  separation,  if  the  parties  belong  to  different 
tribes,  the  children  go  with  the  mother,  p.  96.  '  No  traces  of  the  existence  of 
polyandry  among  the  Ahts,'  p.  99.  The  personal  modesty  of  the  Aht  women 
when  young  is  much  greater  than  that  of  the  men,  p.  315.  fiproat's  Scenes, 
pp.  28-30,  50-2,  93-102,  160,  264,  315.  One  of  the  chiefs  said  that  three  was 
the  number  of  wives  permitted:  'como  numero  necesavio  para  no  comunicar 
con  la  que  estuviese  en  cinta.'  '  Muchos  de  ellos  mueren  sin  casarse.'  '  El 
Tays  no  puede  hacer  uso  de  sus  mugeres  sin  ver  enteramente  iluminado  el 
disco  de  la  luna.'  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  pp.  141-6.  Women  treated  with 
no  particular  respect  in  any  situation.  Cook's  Voy.  to  Pac.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  318. 
Persons  of  the  same  crest  are  not  allowed  to  marry.  '  The  child  again  always 
takes  the  crest  of  the  mother.'  'As  a  rule  also,  descent  is  traced  from  the 


198  COLUMBIANS. 

From  the  middle  of  November  to  the  middle  of  Jan 
uary,  is  the  Nootka  season  of  mirth  and  festivity,  when 
nearly  the  whole  time  is  occupied  with  public  and  pri 
vate  gaiety.  Their  evenings  are  privately  passed  by  the 
family  group  within  doors  in  conversation,  singing,  jok 
ing,  boasting  of  past  exploits,  personal  and  tribal,  and 
teasing  the  women  until  bed-time,  when  one  by  one  they 
retire  to  rest  in  the  same  blankets  worn  during  the  day.76 
Swimming  and  trials  of  strength  by  hooking  together 
the  little  fingers,  or  scuffling  for  a  prize,  seem  to  be  the 
only  out-door  amusements  indulged  in  by  adults,  while 
the  children  shoot  arrows  and  hurl  spears  at  grass  figures 
of  birds  and  fishes,  and  prepare  themselves  for  future 
conflicts  by  cutting  off  the  heads  of  imaginary  enemies 
modeled  in  mud.77  To  gambling  the  Nootkas  are  pas 
sionately  addicted,  but  their  games  are  remarkably  few 
and  uniform.  Small  bits  of  wood  compose  their  entire 
paraphernalia,  sometimes  used  like  dice,  when  the  game 
depends  on  the  side  turned  up;  or  passed  rapidly  from 
hand  to  hand,  when  the  gamester  attempts  to  name  the 
hand  containing  the  trump  stick;  or  again  concealed  in 
dust  spread  over  a  blanket  and  moved  about  by  one  play 
er  that  the  rest  may  guess  its  location.  In  playing  they 
always  form  a  circle  seated  on  the  ground,  and  the  women 
rarely  if  ever  join  the  game.78  They  indulge  in  smok- 

mother,  not  from  the  father.'  'Intrigue  -with  the  wives  of  men  of  other 
tribes  is  one  of  the  commonest  causes  of  quarrel  among  the  Indians.'  Mayne's 
B.  C.,  pp.  257-8,  276;  Macfte's  Vane.  Isl.,  pp.  444-7.  The  women  are  'very 
reserved  and  chaste.'  Meares'  Voy.,  pp.  251,  258,  265,  268;  Kane's  Wand., 
pp.  239-40.  The  Indian  woman,  to  sooth  her  child,  makes  use  of  a  springy 
stick  fixed  obliquely  in  the  ground  to  which  the  cradle  is  attached  by  a  string, 
forming  a  convenient  baby-jumper.  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  259;  Pemberton's 
Vane.  Isl.,  p.  131;  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  346-7.  'Where  there  are 
no  slaves  in  the  tribe  or  family  they  perform  all  the  drudgery  of  bringing 
firewood,  water,  &c.'  Grant,  in  Land.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xxvii.,  pp.  298-9, 
304.  No  intercourse  between  the  newly  married  pair  for  a  period  of  ten 
days,  p.  129.  'Perhaps  in  no  part  of  the  world  is  virtue  more  prized,'  p.  74. 
JewiWs  Nar.,  pp.  59-60,  74,  127-9;  Cornwallis'  New  El  Dorado,  p.  101. 

76  '  When  relieved  from  the  presence  of  strangers,  they  have  much  easy 
and  social  conversation  among  themselves.'    '  The  conversation  is  frequently 
coarse  and  indecent.'  Sproat's  Scenes,  pp.  50-1.     '  Cantando  y  baylando  al 
rededor  de  las  hogueras,  abaiidonandose  a  todos  los  excesos  de  la  liviandad. ' 
Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  p.  133. 

77  Sproat's  Scenes,  pp.  55-6;  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  p.  144. 

78  Grant,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xxvii.,  p.  299;  Mayne's  B.  C.,  pp. 


NOOTKA  AMUSEMENTS.  199 

ing,  the  only  pipes  of  their  own  manufacture  being  of 
plain  cedar,  filled  now  with  tobacco  by  those  who  can 
afford  it,  but  in  which  they  formerly  smoked,  as  it  is 
supposed,  the  leaves  of  a  native  plant — still  mixed  with 
tobacco  to  lessen  its  intoxicating  properties.  The  pipe 
is  passed  round  after  a  meal,  but  seems  to  be  less  used 
in  serious  ceremonies  than  among  eastern  Indian  na 
tions.79 

But  the  Nootka  amusement  par  excellence  is  that  of 
feasts,  given  by  the  richer  classes  and  chiefs  nearly  every 
evening  during  l  the  season.'  Male  and  female  heralds  are 
employed  ceremoniously  to  invite  the  guests,  the  house  hav 
ing  been  first  cleared  of  its  partitions,  and  its  floor  spread 
with  mats.80  As  in  countries  more  civilized,  the  common 
people  go  early  to  secure  the  best  seats,  their  allotted  place 
being  near  the  door.  The  elite  come  later,  after  being 
repeatedly  sent  for;  on  arrival  they  are  announced  by 
name,  and  assigned  a  place  according  to  rank.  In  one 
corner  of  the  hall  the  fish  and  whale-blubber  are  boiled 
by  the  wives  of  the  chiefs,  who  serve  it  to  the  guests  in 
pieces  larger  or  smaller,  according  to  their  rank.  What 
can  not  be  eaten  must  be  carried  home.  Their  drink  or 
dinarily  is  pure  water,  but  occasionally  berries  of  a  pecu 
liar  kind,  preserved  in  cakes,  are  stirred  in  until  a  froth  is 
formed  which  swells  the  body  of  the  drinker  nearly  to 
bursting.81  Eating  is  followed  by  conversation  and  speech- 
making,  oratory  being  an  art  highly  prized,  in  which, 
with  their  fine  voices,  they  become  skillful.  Finally, 
the  floor  is  cleared  for  dancing.  In  the  dances  in  which 
the  crowd  participate,  the  dancers,  with  faces  painted  in 
black  and  vermilion,  form  a  circle  round  a  few  leaders 
who  give  the  step,  which  consists  chiefly  in  jumping  with 

275-6;  Pemberton's  Vane.  Isl.,  p.  134;  Macfie's  Vane.  Isl.,  p.  444;  Barrett- 
Lennard's  Trav.,  p.  53. 

79  tiproat's  Scenes,  p.  269.     But  Lord  says  'nothing  can  be  done  without 
it.'  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  108. 

80  The  Indian  never  invites  any  of  the  same  crest  as  himself.  Macfe's 
Vane.  IsL,  445.     'They  are  very  particular  about  whom  they  invite  to  their 
feasts,  and,  on  great  occasions,  men  and  women  feast  separately,  the  women 
always  taking  the  precedence.' Duncan,  in  Mayne's  B.  C.,  pp.  263-6;  SproaVs 
Scenes,  pp.  59-63. 

si  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  259-60. 


200  COLUMBIANS. 

both  feet  from  the  ground,  brandishing  weapons  or  bunch 
es  of  feathers,  or  sometimes  simply  bending  the  body  with 
out  moving  the  feet.  As  to  the  participation  of  women 
in  these  dances,  authorities  do  not  agree.82  In  a  sort  of 
conversational  dance  all  pass  briskly  round  the  room  to 
the  sound  of  music,  praising  in  exclamations  the  build 
ing  and  all  within  it,  while  another  dance  requires  many 
to  climb  upon  the  roof  and  there  continue  their  motions. 
Their  special  or  character  dances  are  many,  and  in  them 
they  show  much  dramatic  talent.  A  curtain  is  stretched 
across  a  corner  of  the  room  to  conceal  the  preparations, 
and  the  actors,  fantastically  dressed,  represent  personal 
combats,  hunting  scenes,  or  the  actions  of  different  ani 
mals.  In  the  seal-dance  naked  men  jump  into  the  water 
and  then  crawl  out  and  over  the  floors,  imitating  the 
motions  of  the  seal.  Indecent  performances  are  men 
tioned  by  some  visitors.  Sometimes  in  these  dances 
men  drop  suddenly  as  if  dead,  and  are  at  last  revived 
by  the  doctors,  who  also  give  dramatic  or  magic  perform 
ances  at  their  houses;  or  they  illuminate  a  wax  moon 
out  on  the  water,  and  make  the  natives  believe  they  are 
communing  with  the  man  in  the  moon.  To  tell  just 
where  amusement  ceases  and  solemnity  begins  in  these 
dances  is  impossible.83  Birds'  down  forms  an  important 
item  in  the  decoration  at  dances,  especially  at  the  recep 
tion  of  strangers.  All  dances,  as  well  as  other  cere 
monies,  are  accompanied  by  continual  music,  instrumental 
and  vocal.  The  instruments  are:  boxes  and  benches 


82  '  I  have  never  seen  an  Indian  woman  dance  at  a  feast,  and  believe  it  is 
seldom  if  ever  done.'  Mayne's  B.  C.,  pp.  267-9.     The  women  generally  '  form 
a  separate  circle,  and  chaunt  and  jump  by  themselves.'  Grant,  in  Lond.  Geog. 
Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xxvii.,  p.  306.     'As  a  rule,  the  men  and  women  do  not  dance 
together;  when  the  men  are  dancing  the  women  sing  and  beat  time,'  but 
there  is  a  dance  performed  by  both  sexes.  Sproat's  Scenes,  pp.  66-7.     '  On 
other  occasions  a  male  chief  will  invite  a  party  of  female  guests  to  share  his 
hospitality.'  Macfie's  Vane.  Isl.,  p.  431.     'Las  mugeres  baylan  desayradisi- 
mamente ;  rara  vez  se  prestan  a  esta  diversion. '  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  p.  152. 

83  '  La  decencia  obliga  a  pasar  en  silencio  los  bayles  obscenos  de  los  Mis- 
chimis  (common  people),  especialmente  el  del  impotente  a  causa  de  la  edad, 
y  el  del  pobre  que  no  ha  podido  casarse.'  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  pp.  151-2, 
18;  Macfie's  Vane.  Isl.,  pp.  432-7;  Sproat's  Scenes,  pp.  65-71;  Mayne's  B.  C., 
pp.  266-7;  Jeuoitt's  Nar.,  p.  389;  Gro.nt,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol  xxvii., 
p.  306;  Cornwattis'  New  El  Dorado,  pp.  99-] 03. 


MISCELLANEOUS  CUSTOMS.  201 

struck  with  sticks ;  a  plank  hollowed  out  on  the  under 
side  and  beaten  with  drum-sticks  about  a  foot  long;  a 
rattle  made  of  dried  seal-skin  in  the  form  of  a  fish,  with 
pebbles ;  a  whistle  of  deer- bone  about  an  inch  long  with 
one  hole,  which  like  the  rattle  can  only  be  used  by  chiefs ; 
and  a  bunch  of  muscle- shells,  to  be  shaken  like  castanets.84 
Their  songs  are  monotonous  chants,  extending  over  but 
few  notes,  varied  by  occasional  howls  and  whoops  in  some 
of  the  more  spirited  melodies,  pleasant  or  otherwise,  ac 
cording  to  the  taste  of  the  hearer.85  Certain  of  their 
feasts  are  given  periodically  by  the  head  chiefs,  which 
distant  tribes  attend,  and  during  which  take  place  the 
distributions  of  property  already  mentioned.  Whenever 
a  gift  is  offered,  etiquette  requires  the  recipient  to  snatch 
it  rudely  from  the  donor  with  a  stern  and  surly  look.86 

Among  the  miscellaneous  customs  noticed  by  the  differ 
ent  authorities  already  quoted,  may  be  mentioned  the  fol 
lowing.  Daily  bathing  in  the  sea  is  practiced,  the  vapor- 
bath  not  being  used.  Children  are  rolled  in  the  snow  by 
their  mothers  to  make  them  hardy.  Camps  and  other 
property  are  moved  from  place  to  place  by  piling  them  on 
a  plank  platform  built  across  the  canoes.  Whymper  saw 
Indians  near  Bute  Inlet  carrying  burdens  on  the  back  by 
a  strap  across  the  forehead.  In  a  fight  they  rarely  strike 
but  close  and  depend  on  pulling  hair  and  scratching;  a 
chance  blow  must  be  made  up  by  a  present.  Invitations 

s*  Jewitt's  Nar.,  pp.  39,  66,  72-3;  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  307-10; 
Cook's  Voy.  to  Pac.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  310-11. 

85  Their  music  is  mostly  grave  and  serious,  and  in  exact  concert,  when 
sung  by  great  numbers.     '  Variations  numerous  and  expressive,  and  the  ca 
dence  or  melody  powerfully  soothing.'  Cook's  Voy.  to  Pac.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  310- 
11,283.    Dislike  European  music,  tiutily  Mexicana,  Viage,  pp.  151-2.    'Their 
tunes  are  generally  soft  and  plaintive,  and  though  not  possessing  great  va 
riety,  are  not  deficient  in  harmony.'    Jewitt  thinks  the  words  of  the  songs 
may  be  borrowed  from  other  tribes.  Jewitt's  Nar.,  p.  72,  and  specimen  of 
war  song,  p.  166.    Airs  consist  of  five  or  six  bars,  varying  slightly,  time  being 
beaten  in  the  middle  of  the  bar.     '  Melody  they  have  none,  there  is  nothing 
soft,  pleasing,  or  touching  in  their  airs;  they  are  not,  however,  without  some 
degree  of  rude  harmony.'  Grant,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xviii.,  p.  306. 
'  A  certain  beauty  of  natural  expression  in  many  of  the  native  strains,  if  it 
were  possible  to  relieve  them  from  the  monotony  which  is  their  fault.'    There 
are  old  men,  wandering  minstrels,  who  sing  war  songs  and  beg.     '  It  is  re 
markable  how  aptly  the  natives  catch  and  imitate  songs  heard  from  settlers 
or  travelers.'  Sproat's  Scenes,  pp.  63-5. 

86  Macfie's  Vane.  Isl,  pp.  430-1;  JewitVs  Nar.,  p.  39. 


2  32  COLUMBIANS. 

to  eat  must  not  be  declined,  no  matter  how  often  repeated. 
Out  of  doors  there  is  no  native  gesture  of  salutation,  but 
in  the  houses  a  guest  is  motioned  politely  to  a  couch; 
guests  are  held  sacred,  and  great  ceremonies  are  per 
formed  at  the  reception  of  strangers ;  all  important  events 
are  announced  by  heralds.  Friends  sometimes  saunter 
along  hand  in  hand.  A  secret  society,  independent  of 
tribe,  family,  or  crest,  is  supposed  by  Sproat  to  exist  among 
them,  but  its  purposes  are  unknown.  In  a  palaver 
with  whites  the  orator  holds  a  long  white  pole  in  his 
hand,  which  he  sticks  occasionally  into  the  ground  by 
way  of  emphasis.  An  animal  chosen  as  a  crest  must 
not  be  shot  or  ill-treated  in  the  presence  of  any  wearing 
its  figure;  boys  recite  portions  of  their  elders'  speeches 
as  declamations;  names  are  changed  many  times  during 
life,  at  the  will  of  the  individual  or  of  the  tribe. 

In  sorcery,  witchcraft,  prophecy,  dreams,  evil  spir 
its,  and  the  transmigration  of  souls,  the  Nootkas  are  firm 
believers,  and  these  beliefs  enable  the  numerous  sorcer 
ers  of  different  grades  to  acquire  great  power  in  the 
tribes  by  their  strange  ridiculous  ceremonies.  Most  of 
their  tricks  are  transparent,  being  deceptions  worked  by 
the  aid  of  confederates  to  keep  up  their  power;  but,  as 
in  all  religions,  the  votary  must  have  some  faith  in  the 
efficacy  of  their  incantations.  The  sorcerer,  before  giv 
ing  a  special  demonstration,  retires  apart  to  meditate. 
After  spending  some  time  alone  in  the  forests  and  mount 
ains,  fasting  and  lacerating  the  flesh,  he  appears  sud 
denly  before  the  tribe,  emaciated,  wild  with  excitement, 
clad  in  a  strange  costume,  grotesquely  painted,  and 
wearing  a  hideous  mask.  The  scenes  that  ensue  are 
indescribable,  but  the  aim  seems  to  be  to  commit  all  the 
wild  freaks  that  a  maniac's  imagination  may  devise,, 
accompanied  by  the  most  unearthly  yells  which  can  ter-j 
rorize  the  heart.  Live  dogs  and  dead  human  bodies  are; 
seized  and  torn  by  their  teeth ;  but,  at  least  in  later  times,; 
they  seem  not  to  attack  the  living,  and  their  perform-, 
ances  are  somewhat  less  horrible  and  bloody  than  the 
wild  orgies  of  the  northern  tribes.  The  sorcerer  is 


CUSTOMS  AND  CANNIBALISM.  203 

thought  to  have  more  influence  with  bad  spirits  than 
with  good,  and  is  always  resorted  to  in  the  case  of  any 
serious  misfortune.  New  members  of  the  fraternity  are 
initiated  into  the  mysteries  by  similar  ceremonies.  Old 
women  are  not  without  their  traditional  mysterious  pow 
ers  in  matters  of  prophecy  and  witchcraft ;  and  all  chiefs 
in  times  of  perplexity  practice  fasting  and  laceration. 
Dreams  are  believed  to  be  the  visits  of  spirits  or  of  the 
wandering  soul  of  some  living  party,  and  the  unfortu 
nate  Nootka  boy  or  girl  whose  blubber-loaded  stomach 
causes  uneasy  dreams,  must  be  properly  hacked,  scorched, 
smothered,  and  otherwise  tormented  until  the  evil  spirit 
is  appeased.87  Whether  or  not  these  people  were  can 
nibals,  is  a  disputed  question,  but  there  seems  to  be  little 
doubfc  that  slaves  have  been  sacrificed  and  eaten  as  a 
part  of  their  devilish  rites.88 

87  '  I  have  seen  the  sorcerers  at  work  a  hundred  times,  but  they  use  so 
many  charms,  which  appear  to  me  ridiculous, — they  sing,  howl,  and  gesticu 
late  in  so  extravagant  a  manner,  and  surround  their  office  with  such  dread 
and  mystery, — that  I  am  quite  unable  to  describe  their  performances,'  pp. 
169-70.     'An  unlucky  dream  will  stop  a  sale,  a  treaty,  a  fishing,  hunting, 
or  war  expedition,'  p.  175.  SproaVs  Scenes,  pp.  1G5-75.     A  chief,  offered  a 
piece  of  tobacco  for  allowing  his  portrait  to  be  made,  said  it  was  a  small  re 
ward  for  risking  his  life.  Kane's  Wand.,  p.  240.     Shrewd  individuals  impose 
on  their  neighbors  by  pretending  to  receive  a  revelation,  telling  them  where 
fish  or  berries  are  most  abundant.     Description  of  initiatory  ceremonies  of 
the  sorcerers.  Macfie's  Vane.  7s/.,  pp.  446,  433-7,  451.  Jewitt's  Nar.,  pp.  98-9. 
A  brave  prince  goes  to  a  distant  lake,  jumps  from  a  high  rock  into  the  water, 
and  rubs  all  the  skin  off  his  face  with  pieces  of  rough  bark,  amid  the  ap 
plause  of  his  attendants.     Description  of  king's  prayers,  and  ceremonies  to 
bring  rain.  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viaye,  pp.  145-6,  37.     Candidates  are  thrown 
into  a  state  of  mesmerism  before  their  initiation.  '  Medicus,'  in  Hulchings'  Cal. 
Mag.,  vol.  v.,  pp.  227-8;  Barrett-Lennard' 's  Trav.,  pp.  51-3;  Californias,  Noti- 
cias,  pp.  61-85. 

88  They  brought  for  sale  '  human  skulls,  and  hands  not  yet  quite  stripped 
of  the  flesh,  which  they  made  our  people  plainly  understand  they  had  eaten; 
and,  indeed,  some  of  them  had  evident  marks  that  they  had  been  upon  the 
fire.'  Cook's  Voy.  to  Pac.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  271.     Slaves  are  occasionally  sacrificed 
and  feasted  upon.  Meares'  Voy.,  p.  255.     'No  todos  habian  comido  la  carne 
humana,  ni  en  todo  tiempo,  sino  solamente  los  guerreros  mas  animosos  quan- 
do  se  preparaban  para  salir  a  campana.'     '  Parece  indudable  que  estos  salva 
ges  han  sido  antropofagos.'  Sutit  y  Mexicana,   Viaye,  p.  130.     'At  Nootka 
Sound,  and  at  the  Sandwich  Islands,  Ledyard  witnessed  instances  of  canni 
balism.     In  both  places  he  saw  human  flesh  prepared  for  food.'  Spark's  Life 
of  Ledyard,  p.  74;  Cornwallis'  New  El  Dorado,  pp.  104-6.     '  Cannibalism,  ail- 
though  unknown  among  the  Indians  of  the  Columbia,  is  practised  by  the 
savages  on  the  coast  to  the  northward.'  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  310-11.    The 
cannibal  ceremonies  quoted  by  Macfie  and  referred  to  Vancouver  Island, 
probably  were  intended  for  the  Haidahs  farther  north.  Vane.  Isl.,  p.  434.    A 
slave  as  late  as  1850  was  drawn  up  and  down  a  pole  by  a  hook  through  the 


204  COLUMBIANS. 

The  Nootkas  are  generally  a  long-lived  race,  and  from 
the  beginning  to  the  failing  of  manhood  undergo  little 
change  in  appearance.  Jewitt  states  that  during  his  cap 
tivity  of  three  years  at  Nootka  Sound,  only  five  natural 
deaths  occurred,  and  the  people  suffered  scarcely  any  dis 
ease  except  the  colic.  Sproat  mentions  as  the  common 
est  diseases;  bilious  complaints,  dysentery,  a  consumption 
which  almost  always  follows  syphilis,  fevers,  and  among 
the  aged,  ophthalmia.  Accidental  injuries,  as  cuts,  bruis 
es,  sprains,  and  broken  limbs,  are  treated  with  con 
siderable  success  by  means  of  simple  salves  or  gums, 
cold  water,  pine-bark  bandages,  and  wooden  splints. 
Natural  pains  and  maladies  are  invariably  ascribed  to  the 
absence  or  other  irregular  conduct  of  the  soul,  or  to  the 
influence  of  evil  spirits,  and  all  treatment  is  directed  to 
the  recall  of  the  former  and  to  the  appeasing  of  the  latter. 
Still,  so  long  as  the  ailment  is  slight,  simple  means  are 
resorted  to,  and  the  patient  is  kindly  cared  for  by  the 
women;  as  when  headache,  colic,  or  rheumatism  is 
treated  by  the  application  of  hot  or  cold  water,  hot  ashes, 
friction,  or  the  swallowing  of  cold  teas  made  from  vari 
ous  roots  and  leaves.  Nearly  every  disease  has  a  specific 
for  its  cure.  Oregon  grape  and  other  herbs  cure  syphilis ; 
wasp-nest  powder  is  a  tonic,  and  blackberries  an  astring 
ent;  hemlock  bark  forms  a  plaster,  and  dog- wood  bark 
is  a  strengthener ;  an  infusion  of  young  pine  cones  or 
the  inside  scrapings  of  a  human  skull  prevent  too  rapid 
family  increase,  while  certain  plants  facilitate  abortion. 
When  a  sickness  becomes  serious,  the  sorcerer  or  medi 
cine-man  is  called  in  and  incantations  begin,  more  or  less 
noisy  according  to  the  amount  of  the  prospective  fee 


skin  and  tendons  of  the  back,  and  afterwards  devoured.  Medicus,  in  Hutch- 
ings'  CaL  Mag.,  vol.  v.,  p,  223.  L'aiithropophagie  a  ete  longtemps  en  usage 
. . . .  et  peut-etre  y  existe-t-elle  encore .  . . .  Le  chef  Maquina ....  tuait  un  prison- 
nier  a  chaque  lune  nouvelle.  Tous  les  chefs  etaient  invites  a  cette  horrible 
fete.'  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  345.  'It  is  not  improbable* that  the  sus 
picion  that  the  Nootkans  are  cannibals  may  be  traced  to  the  practice  of 
some  custom  analagous  to  the  Tzeet-tzaiak  of  the  Haeel  tzuk.'  Scouler,  in 
Lond.,  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  pp.  223-4.  'The  horrid  practice  of  sacri 
ficing  a  victim  is  not  annual,  but  only  occurs  either  once  in  three  years  or 
else  at  uncertain  intervals.'  Sproat's  Scenes,  p.  156. 


NOOTKA  BUKIAL.  205 

and  the  number  of  relatives  and  friends  who  join  in  the 
uproar.  A  very  poor  wretch  is  permitted  to  die  in  com 
parative  quiet.  In  difficult  cases  the  doctor,  wrought  up 
to  the  highest  state  of  excitement,  claims  to  see  and  hear 
the  soul,  and  to  judge  of  the  patient's  prospects  by  its 
position  and  movements.  The  sick  man  shows  little 
fortitude,  and  abandons  himself  helplessly  to  the  doctor's 
ridiculous  measures.  Failing  in  a  cure,  the  physician 
gets  no  pay,  but  if  successful,  does  not  fail  to  make  a 
large  demand.  Both  the  old  and  the  helplessly  sick  are 
frequently  abandoned  by  the  Ahts  to  die  without  aid  in 
the  forest.89 

After  death  the  Nootka's  body  is  promptly  put  away; 
a  slave's  body  is  unceremoniously  thrown  into  the  wa 
ter;  that  of  a  freeman,  is  placed  in  a  crouching  posture, 
their  favorite  one  during  life,  in  a  deep  wooden  box,  or 
in  a  canoe,  and  suspended  from  the  branches  of  a  tree, 
deposited  on  the  ground  with  a  covering  of  sticks  and 
stones,  or,  more  rarely,  buried.  Common  people  are  usu 
ally  left  on  the  surface ;  the  nobility  are  suspended  from 
trees  at  heights  differing,  as  some  authorities  say,  accord 
ing  to  rank.  The  practice  of  burning  the  dead  seems 
also  to  have  been  followed  in  some  parts  of  this  region. 
Each  tribe  has  a  bury  ing-ground  chosen  on  some  hill 
side  or  small  island.  With  chiefs,  blankets,  skins,  and 
other  property  in  large  amounts  are  buried,  hung  up 
about  the  grave,  or  burned  during  the  funeral  ceremo 
nies,  which  are  not  complicated  except  for  the  highest 
officials.  The  coffins  are  often  ornamented  with  carv- 

89  Rheumatism  and  paralysis  are  rare  maladies.'  Syphilis  is  probably 
indigenous.  Amputation,  blood-letting,  and  metallic  medicine  not  employed. 
Medicines  to  produce  love  are  numerous.  '  Young  and  old  of  both  sexes  are 
exposed  when  afflicted  with  lingering  disease.'  Sproat's  Scenes,  pp.  251-7,  282, 
213-4.  '  Headache  is  cured  by  striking  the  part  affected  with  small  branches 
of  the  spruce  tree.'  Doctors  are  generally  chosen  from  men  who  have 
themselves  suffered  serious  maladies.  Macfie's  Vane.  IsL,  pp.  438-40.  'Their 
cure  for  rheumatism  or  similar  pains ....  is  by  cutting  or  scarifying  the  part 
affected.'  Jeicitt's  Nar.,  p.  142.  They  are  sea  sick  on  European  vessels. 
Poole's  Q.  Char.  IsL,  p.  81.  Description  of  ceremonies.  Swan,  in  Mayne's 
B.  C.,  pp.  261-3,  304.  'The 
starved,  lest  the  food  should 
warm  and  steam  bath  is  verj 
Cal.  Mag.,  vol.  v.,  pp.  226-8. 


206  COLUMBIANS. 

ings  or  paintings  of  the  deceased  man's  crest,  or  with 
rows  of  shells.  When  a  death  occurs,  the  women  of 
the  tri-be  make  a  general  howl,  and  keep  it  up  at  intervals 
for  many  days  or  months ;  the  men,  after  a  little  speech- 
making,  keep  silent.  The  family  and  friends,  with  black 
ened  faces  and  hair  cut  short,  follow  the  body  to  its  last 
resting-place  with  music  and  other  manifestations  of  sor 
row,  generally  terminating  in  a  feast.  There  is  great 
reluctance  to  explain  their  funeral  usages  to  strangers; 
death  being  regarded  by  this  people  with  great  supersti 
tion  and  dread,  not  from  solicitude  for  the  welfare  of 
the  dead,  but  from  a  belief  in  the  power  of  departed 
spirits  to  do  much  harm  to  the  living.90 

The  Nootka  character  presents  all  the  inconsistencies 
observable  among  other  American  aborigines,  since  there 
is  hardly  a  good  or  bad  trait  that  has  not  by  some  ob 
server  been  ascribed  to  them.  Their  idiosyncracies  as  a 
race  are  perhaps  best  given  by  Sproat  as  "want  of  ob 
servation,  a  great  deficiency  of  foresight,  extreme  fickle 
ness  in  their  passions  and  purposes,  habitual  suspicion, 
and  a  love  of  power  and  display;  added  to  which  may 
be  noticed  their  ingratitude  and  revengeful  disposition, 


90  The  custom  of  burning  or  burying  property  is  wholly  confined  to  chiefs. 
'  Night  is  their  time  for  interring  the  dead.'  Buffoon  tricks,  with  a  feast  and 
dance,  formed  part  of  the  ceremony.  Jewitt's  Nar.,  pp.  105, 111-2, 136.  At  Val- 
des  Island,  '  we  saw  two  sepulchres  built  with  plank  about  five  feet  in  height, 
seven  in  length,  and  four  in  breadth.  These  boards  were  curiously  perforated 
at  the  ends  and  sides,  and  the  tops  covered  with  loose  pieces  of  plank;'  in 
closed  evidently  the  relics  of  many  different  bodies.  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  i., 
pp.  338-9.  '  The  coffin  is  usually  an  old  canoe,  lashed  round  and  round,  like 
an  Egyptian  mummy-case.'  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  170.  'There  is  generally 
some  grotesque  figure  painted  on  the  outside  of  the  box,  or  roughly  sculp 
tured  out  of  wood  and  placed  by  the  side  of  it.  For  some  days  after  death 
the  relatives  burn  salmon  or  venison  before  the  tomb.'  '  They  will  never 
mention  the  name  of  a  dead  man.'  Grant,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xxvii., 
pp.  301-3.  'As  a  rule,  the  Indians  burn  their  dead,  and  then  bury  the  ash 
es.  '  '  It  was  at  one  time  not  uncommon  for  Indians  to  desert  forever  a  lodge 
in  \\lhich  one  of  their  family  had  died.'  Mayne's  Jl.  C.,  pp.  271-2,  with  cut  of 
graves.  For  thirty  days  after  the  funeral,  dirges  are  chanted  at  sunrise  and 
sunset.  Macfie's  Vane.  lsl.,pp.  447-8.  Children  frequently,  but  grown  persons 
never,  were  found  hanging  in  trees.  Meares'  Voy.,  p.  268;  Kproat's  Scenes, 
pp.  258-G3.  The  bodies  of  chiefs  are  hung  in  trees  on  high  mountains, 
while  those  of  the  commons  are  buried,  that  their  souls  may  have  a  shorter 
journey  to  their  residence  in  a  future  life.  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  pp.  139- 
40.  'The  Indians  never  inter  their  dead.'  and  rarely  burn  them.  JJarrett- 
Lennard's  Trai\,  p.  51. 


CHARACTER  OF  THE  NOOTKAS.  207 

their  readiness  for  war,  and  revolting  indifference  to 
human  suffering."  These  qualities,  judged  by  civilized 
standards  censurable,  to  the  Nootka  are  praiseworthy, 
while  contrary  qualities  are  to  be  avoided.  By  a  strict 
application,  therefore,  of  'put  yourself  in  his  place '  prin 
ciples,  to  which  most  'good  Indians'  owe  their  reputation, 
Nootka  character  must  not  be  too  harshly  condemned. 
They  are  not,  so  far  as  physical  actions  are  concerned,  a 
remarkably  lazy  people,  but  their  minds,  although  intel 
ligent  when  aroused,  are  averse  to  effort  and  quickly 
fatigued ;  nor  can  they  comprehend  the  advantage  of  con 
tinued  effort  for  any  future  good  which  is  at  all  remote. 
What  little  foresight  they  have,  has  much  in  common 
with  the  instinct  of  beasts.  Ordinarily,  they  are  quiet 
and  well  behaved,  especially  the  higher  classes,  but  when 
once  roused  to  anger,  they  rage,  bite,  spit  and  kick  with 
out  the  slightest  attempt  at  self-possession.  A  serious  of 
fense  against  an  individual,  although  nominally  pardoned 
in  consideration  of  presents,  can  really  never  be  com 
pletely  atoned  for  except  by  blood ;  hence  private,  family, 
and  tribal  feuds  continue  from  generation  to  generation. 
Women  are  not  immodest,  but  the  men  have  no  shame. 
Stealing  is  recognized  as  a  fault,  and  the  practice  as  be 
tween  members  of  the  same  tribe  is  rare,  but  skillful  pil 
fering  from  strangers,  if  not  officially  sanctioned,  is  ex 
tensively  carried  on  and  much  admired ;  still  any  prop 
erty  confided  in  trust  to  a  Nootka  is  said  to  be  faithfully 
returned.  To  his  wife  he  is  kind  and  just;  to  his  chil 
dren  affectionate.  Efforts  for  their  conversion  to  foreign 
religions  have  been  in  the  highest  degree  unsuccessful.91 

91  As  light-fingered  as  any  of  the  Sandwich  Islanders.  Of  a  quiet,  phleg 
matic,  and  inactive  disposition.'  'A  docile,  courteous,  good-natured  people 
. . .  .but  quick  in  resenting  what  they  look  upon  as  an  injury;  and,  like  most 
other  passionate  people,  as  soon  forgetting  it.'  Not  curious;  indolent;  gen 
erally  fair  in  trade,  and  would  steal  only  such  articles  as  they  wanted  for 
some  purpose.  Cook's  Voy.  to  Pac.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  272,  o08-T2,  etc.  'Exceed 
ingly  hospitable  in  their  own  homes, ...  .lack  neither  courage  nor  intelli 
gence.'  Peniberton's  Vane.  IsL,  p.  131.  The  Kla-iz-zarts  '  appear  to  be  more 
civilized  than  any  of  the  others."  The  Cayuquets  are  thought  to  be  deficient 
in  courage;  and  the  Kla-os-quates  'are  a  fierce,  bold,  and  enterprizing people.' 
JewiiVs  A'ar.,  pp.  75-7.  '  Civil  and  inoffensive  '  at  Horse  Sound.  Vancouver's 
Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  307.  'Their  moral  deformities  are  as  great  as  their  physical 


208  COLUMBIANS. 

THE  SOUND  INDIANS,  by  which  term  I  find  it  conve 
nient  to  designate  the  nations  about  Puget  Sound,  con 
stitute  the  third  family  of  the  Columbian  group.  In 
this  division  I  include  all  the  natives  of  that  part  of  the 
territory  of  Washington  lying  west  of  the  Cascade  Range, 
except  a  strip  from  twenty-five  to  forty  miles  wide  along 
the  north  bank  of  the  Columbia.  The  north-eastern 
section  of  this  territory,  including  the  San  Juan  group, 
Whidbey  Island,  and  the  region  tributary  to  Bellingham 
Bay,  is  the  home  of  the  Nooksak,  Lummi,  Samish  and 
Skagit  nations,  whose  neighbors  and  constant  harassers 
on  the  north  are  the  fierce  Kwantlums  and  Cowichins  of 
the  Nootka  family  about  the  mouth  of  the  Fraser.  The 
central  section,  comprising  the  shores  and  islands  of 
Admiralty  Inlet,  Hood  Canal,  and  Puget  Sound  proper, 
is  occupied .  by  numerous  tribes  with  variously  spelled 
names,  mostly  terminating  in  mis/i,  which  names,  with 
all  their  orthographic  diversity,  have  been  given  gen 
erally  to  the  streams  on  whose  banks  the  different  na 
tions  dwelt.  All  these  tribes  may  be  termed  the  Nis- 
qually  nation,  taking  the  name  from  the  most  numerous 
and  best-known  of  the  tribes  located  about  the  head  of 
the  sound.  The  Clallams  inhabit  the  eastern  portion 
of  the  peninsula  between  the  sound  and  the  Pacific. 
The  western  extremity  of  the  same  peninsula,  terminat 
ing  at  Cape  Flattery,  is  occupied  by  the  Classets  or  Makahs; 

ones.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  i.,  p.  88.  The  Nittinahts  given  to  aggressive 
war,  and  consequently  'bear  a  bad  reputation.'  Whymper's  Alaska,  p.  74. 
Not  brave,  and  a  slight  repulse  daunts  them.  '  Sincere  in  his  friendship,  kind 
to  his  wife  and  children,  and  devotedly  loyal  to  his  own  tribe,'  p.  51.  '  In 
sickness  and  approaching  death,  the  savage  always  becomes  melancholy,'  p. 
162.  Sproat's  Scenes,  pp.  30,  36,  52,  91,  119-24,  150-66,  187,  216.  '  Comux 
and  Yucletah  fellows  very  savage  and  uncivilized  dogs, '  and  the  Nootkas  not 
to  be  trusted.  'Cruel,  bloodthirsty,  treacherous  and  cowardly.'  Grant,  in 
Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xxvii.,  pp.  294,  296,  298,  305,  307.  Mayne's  B.  C., 
p.  246;  Macfie's  Vane.  IsL,  pp.  190,  460-1,  472,  477,  484;  Poole's  Q.  Char.  Isl, 
pp.  294-6.  The  Spaniards  gave  the  Nootkas  a  much  better  character  than 
voyagers  of  other  nations.  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  pp.  25,  31-2,  57-9,  63,  99, 
107,  133,  149-51,  154-6;  Forbes'  Vane.  Isl,  p.  25;  Eattray's  Vane.  IsL,  pp. 
172-3.  The  Ucultas  'are  a  band  of  lawless  pirates  and  robbers,  levying 
black-mail  on  all  the  surrounding  tribes.'  Barrett-Lennard's  Trav.,  p.  43. 
'  Bold  and  ferocious,  sly  and  reserved,  not  easily  provoked,  but  revengeful.' 
Spark's  Life  of  Ledyard,  p.  72.  The  Teets  have  'all  the  vices  of  the  coast 
tribes '  with  '  none  of  the  redeeming  qualities  of  the  interior  nations. '  Ander 
son,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  vii.,  p.  78. 


THE  SOUND  INDIANS.  209 

while  the  Chehalis  and  Cowlitz  nations  are  found  on  the 
Chehalis  River,  Gray  Harbor,  and  the  upper  Cowlitz. 
Excepting  a  few  bands  on  the  headwaters  of  streams 
that  rise  in  the  vicinity  of  Mount  Baker,  the  Sound 
family  belongs  to  the  coast  fish-eating  tribes  rather  than 
to  the  hunters  of  the  interior.  Indeed,  this  family  has 
so  few  marked  peculiarities,  possessing  apparently  no  trait 
or  custom  not  found  as  well  among  the  Nootkas  or  Chi- 
nooks,  that  it  may  be  described  in  comparatively  few 
words.  When  first  known  to  Europeans  they  seem  to 
have  been  far  less  numerous  than  might  have  been  ex 
pected  from  the  extraordinary  fertility  and  climatic  ad 
vantages  of  their  country ;  and  since  they  have  been  in 
contact  with  the  whites,  their  numbers  have  been  re 
duced, — chiefly  through  the  agency  of  small-pox  and 
ague, — even  more  rapidly  than  the  nations  farther  to  the 
north-west.92 

92  '  Those  who  came  within  our  notice  so  nearly  resembled  the  people  of 
Nootka,  that  the  best  delineation  I  can  offer  is  a  reference  to  the  description 
of  those  people  '  (by  Cook),  p.  252.  At  Cape  Flattery  they  closely  resembled 
those  of  Nootka  and  spoke  the  same  language,  p.  218.  At  Gray  Harbor  they 
seemed  to  vary  in  little  or  no  respect  '  from  those  on  the  sound,  and  under 
stood  the  Nootka  tongue,  p.  83.  '  The  character  and  appearance  of  their  sev 
eral  tribes  here  did  not  seem  to  differ  in  any  material  respect  from  each  other,' 
p,  288.  Evidence  that  the  country  was  once  much  more  thickly  peopled,  p. 
254.  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  218,  252,  254,  288;  vol.  ii.,  p.  83.  The 
Chehalis  come  down  as  far  as  Shoal- water  Bay.  A  band  of  Klikatats  (Sa- 
haptins)  is  spoken  of  near  the  head  of  the  Cowlitz.  'The  Makahs  resemble 
the  northwestern  Indians  far  more  than  their  neighbors.'  The  Lummi  are 
a  branch  of  the  Clallains.  Rept.  Ind.  Aff.,  1854,  pp.  240-4.  The  Lummi 
'  traditions  lead  them  to  believe  that  they  are  descendants  of  a  better  race 
than  common  savages.'  The  Semianmas  'are  intermarried  with  the  north 
band  of  the  Lummis,  and  Cowegans,  and  Quantlums. '  The  Neuk-wers  and  Si- 
amanas  are  called  Stick  Indians,  and  in  1852  had  never  seen  a  white.  'The 
Neuk-sacks  (Mountain Men)  trace  from  the  salt  water  Indians,'  and  'are  en 
tirely  different  from  the  others.'  '  The  Loomis  appear  to  be  more  of  a  wan 
dering  class  than  the  others  about  Bellingham  Bay.'  Id.,  1857,  pp.  327-9. 
'  They  can  be  divided  into  two  classes — the  salt-water  and  the  Stick  Indians. ' 
Id.,  1857,  p.  224.  Of  the  Nisquallies  '  some  live  in  the  plains,  and  others  on 
the  banks  of  the  Sound.'  The  Classets  have  been  less  affected  than  the 
Chinooks  by  fever  and  ague.  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  231-5.  The  Clallams  speak 
a  kindred  language  to  that  of  the  Ahts.  Sproat's  Scenes,  p.  270.  'El  gobier- 
no  de  estos  naturales  de  la  entrada  y  canales  de  Fuca,  la  disposicion  interior 
de  las  habitaciones  las  manufacturas  y  vestidos  que  usan  son  muy  parecidos 
a  los  de  los  habitantes  de  Nutka.'  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viafje,  p.  111.  The  Sound 
Indians  live  in  great  dread  of  the  Northern  tribes.  Wilfces'  Nar.,  in  U.  <S. 
Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  513.  The  Makahs  deem  themselves  much  superior  to 
the  tribes  of  the  interior,  because  they  go  out  on  the  ocean.  Scammon,  in 
Overland  Monthly,  vol.  vii.,  pp.  277-8.  The  Nooksaks  are  entirely  distinct 
VOL.  I.  14 


210  COLUMBIANS. 

These  natives  of  Washington  are  short  and  thick-set, 
with  strong  limbs,  but  bow-legged ;  they  have  broad  faces, 
eyes  fine  but  wide  apart ;  noses  prominent,  both  of  Ro 
man  and  aquiline  type ;  color,  a  light  copper,  perhaps  a 
shade  darker  than  that  of  the  Nootkas,  but  capable  of 
transmitting  a  flush ;  the  hair  usually  black  and  almost 
universally  worn  long.93 

All  the  tribes  flatten  the  head  more  or  less,  but  none 
carry  the  practice  to  such  an  extent  as  their  neighbors  on 
the  south,  unless  it  be  the  Cowlitz  nation,  which  might 
indeed  as  correctly  be  classed  with  the  Chinooks.  By 
most  of  the  Sound  natives  tattooing  is  not  practiced,  and 
they  seem  somewhat  less  addicted  to  a  constant  use  of 
paint  than  the  Nootkas ;  yet  on  festive  occasions  a  plenti 
ful  and  hideous  application  is  made  of  charcoal  or  colored 
•earth  pulverized  in  grease,  and  the  women  appreciate  the 
•charms  imparted  to  the  face  by  the  use  of  vermilion  clay. 
The  nose,  particularly  at  Cape  Flattery,  is  the  grand 
•centre  of  facial  ornamentation.  Perforating  is  extrava- 

from  the  Lummi,  and  some  suppose  them  to  have  come  from  the  Clallam 
country.  Coleman,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.xxxix.,  p.  799.  Stevens,  in  Pac.  2i.  R. 
Kept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  428. 

93  At  Port  Discovery  they  'seemed  capable  of  enduring  great  fatigue.' 
Their  cheek-bones  were  high.'  'The  oblique  eye  of  the  Chinese  was  not 
uncommon.'  '  Their  countenances  wore  an  expression  of  wildness,  and  they 
had,  in  the  opinion  of  some  of  us,  a  melancholy  cast  of  features.'  Some  of 
women  would  with  difficulty  be  distinguished  in  colour  from  those  of  Euro 
pean  race.  The  Classet  women  'were  much  better  looking  than  those  of 
•other  tribes.'  Portrait  of  a  Tatouche  chief.  Wilkes'  Kar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex., 
vol.  iv.,  pp.  317-8,  320,  517-8.  '  All  are  bow-legged.'  '  All  of  a  sad-colored, 
•Caravaggio  brown.'  'All  have  coarse,  black  hair,  and  are  beardless.'  Win- 
throp's  Canoe  and  Saddle,  p.  32.  'Tall  and  stout.'  Maurelle's  Jour.,  p.  28. 
.Sproat  mentions  a  Clallam  slave  who  'could  see  in  the  dark  like  a  racoon.' 
Scenes,  p.  52.  The  Classet  '  cast  of  countenance  is  very  different  from  that 
•of  the  Nootkians. . .  .their  complexion  is  also  much  fairer  and  their  stature 
shorter.'  Jewitt's  Nar.,  p.  75.  The  Nisqually  Indians  'are  of  very  large 
:6tature ;  indeed,  the  largest  I  have  met  with  on  the  continent.  The  women 
.are  particularly  large  and  stout.'  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  207,  228,  234.  The  Nis- 
quallies  are  by  no  means  a  large  race,  being  from  five  feet  five  inches  to  five 
feet  nine  inches  in  height,  and  weighing  from  one  hundred  and  thirty  to  one 
hundred  and  eighty  pounds.  Anderson,  in  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  227.  '  Deros- 
tro  hermoso  y  de  gallarda  figura. '  Navarrete,  in  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  p.  xciv. 
The  Queniults,  'the  finest-looking  Indians  I  had  ever  seen.'  Swan's  N.  W. 
Coast,  pp.  78-9.  Neuksacks  stronger  and  more  athletic  than  other  tribes. 
Many  of  the  Lummi  'very  fair  and  have  light  hair.'  Rept.  Jnd.  Aff.,  1857, 
p.  328;  Pickering's  Races,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  p.  23;  Morton's  Crania, 
p.  215,  with  plate  of  Cowlitz  skull;  Cornwallis'  New  El  Dorado,  p.  97;  Van 
couver's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  252;  Murphy  and  Ilarned,  Puget  Sound  Directory, 
pp.  64-71;  Clark's  Lights  and  Shadows,  pp.  214-15,  224-6. 


SOUND  DRESS  AND  DWELLINGS.  211 

gantly  practiced,  and  pendant  trinkets  of  every  form  and 
substance  are  worn,  those  of  bone  or  shell  preferred,  and, 
if  we  may  credit  Wilkes,  by  some  of  the  women  these 
ornaments  are  actually  kept  clean. 

The  native  garment,  when  the  weather  makes  naked 
ness  uncomfortable,  is  a  blanket  of  dog's  hair,  sometimes 
mixed  with  birds'  down  and  bark-fibre,  thrown  about  the 
shoulders.  Some  few  fasten  this  about  the  neck  with  a 
wooden  pin.  The  women  are  more  careful  in  covering 
the  person  with  the  blanket  than  are  the  men,  and  gen 
erally  wear  under  it  a  bark  apron  hanging  from  the  waist 
in  front.  A  cone-shaped,  water-proof  hat,  woven  from 
colored  grasses,  is  sometimes  worn  on  the  head.94 

Temporary  hunting-huts  in  summer  are  merely  cross- 
sticks  covered  with  coarse  mats  made  by  laying  bulrushes 
side  by  side,  and  knotting  them  at  intervals  with  cord 
or  grass.  The  poorer  individuals  or  tribes  dwell  perma 
nently  in  similar  huts,  improved  by  the  addition  of  a 
few  slabs;  while  the  rich  and  powerful  build  substantial 
houses,  of  planks  split  from  trees  by  means  of  bone 
wedges,  much  like  the  Nootka  dwellings  in  plan,  and 
nearly  as  large.  These  houses  sometimes  measure  over 
one  hundred  feet  in  length,  and  are  divided  into  rooms  or 

94  '  Less  bedaubed  with  paint  and  less  filthy  '  than  the  Nootkas.  At  Port 
Discovery  'they  wore  ornaments,  though  none  were  observed  in  their  noses.' 
At  Cape  Flattery  the  nose  ornament  was  straight,  instead  of  crescent-shaped, 
as  among  the  Nootkas.  Vancouver  supposed  their  garments  to  be  composed 
of  dog's  hair  mixed  with  the  wool  of  some  wild  animal,  which  he  did  not 
see.  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  218,  230,  266.  At  Port  Discovery  some 
had  small  brass  bells  hung  in  the  rim  of  the  ears,  p.  318.  Some  of  the  Ska>- 
gits  were  tattooed  with  lines  on  the  arms  and  face,  and  fond  of  brass  rings, 
pp.  511-12.  The  Classets  'wore  small  pieces  of  an  iridescent  mussel-shell, 
attached  to  the  cartilage  of  their  nose,  which  was  in  some,  of  the  size  of  a 
ten  cents  piece,  and  triangular  in  shape.  It  is  generally  kept  in  motion  by 
their  breathing,'  p.  517.  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.iv.,  pp.  317-20, 
334,  404,  444,  511-2,  517-8.  The  conical  hats  and  stout  bodies  'brought  to 
mind  representations  of  Siberian  tribes.'  Pickering's  Paces,  in  Idem.,  vol.  ix., 
p.  23.  The  Clallams  '  wear  no  clothing  in  summer.'  Faces  daubed  with  red 
and  white  mud.  Illustration  of  head-flattening.  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  180,  207, 
210-11,  224.  Seemann's  Voy.  Herald,  vol.  i.,  pp.  108-9;  Possi,  Souvenirs,  p. 
299;  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  232-3;  San  Francisco  Bulletin,  May  24,  1859;  Ind.  Aff. 
Kept.,  1854,  p.  243;  Id.,  1857,  p.  329;  Stevens,  inPac.  P.  P.  Pept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  430. 
Above  Gray  Harbor  they  were  dressed  with  red  deer  skins.  Navarrete,  in  Sutil 
y  Mexicana,  Viage,  p.  xciv:  Cornwallis'  New  El  Dorado,  p.  97;  Winthrop's 
Canoe  and  Saddle,  p.  32-3;  Murphy  and  Harned,  in  Puget  Sd.  Direct.,  pp. 


212  COLUMBIANS. 

pens,  each  house  accommodating  many  families.  There 
are  several  fire-places  in  each  dwelling;  raised  benches 
extend  round  the  sides,  and  the  walls  are  often  lined  with 
matting.95 

In  spring  time  they  abandon  their  regular  dwellings 
and  resort  in  small  companies  to  the  various  sources  of 
food-supply.  Fish  is  their  chief  dependence,  though 
game  is  taken  in  much  larger  quantities  than  by  the 
Nbotkas;  some  of  the  more  inland  Sound  tribes  subsist 
ing  almost  entirely  by  the  chase  and  by  root-digging. 
Nearly  all  the  varieties  of  fish  which  support  the  north 
ern  tribes  are  also  abundant  here,  and  are  taken  sub 
stantially  by  the  same  methods,  namely,  by  the  net,  hook, 
spear,  and  rake ;  but  fisheries  seem  to  be  carried  on  some 
what  less  systematically,  and  I  find  no  account  of  the 
extensive  and  complicated  embankments  and  traps  men 
tioned  by  travelers  in  British  Columbia.  To  the  salmon, 
sturgeon,  herring,  rock-cod,  and  candle-fish,  abundant 


95  The  Skagit  tribe  being  exposed  to  attacks  from  the  north,  combine 
dwellings  and  fort,  and  build  themselves  '  enclosures,  four  hundred  feet  long, 
and  capable  of  containing  many  families,  which  are  constructed  of  pickets 
made  of  thick  planks,  about  thirty  feet  high.  The  pickets  are  firmly  fixed 
into  the  ground,  the  spaces  between  them  being  only  sufficient  to  point  a 
musket  through.  .  .  .The  interior  of  the  enclosure  is  divided  into  lodges,'  p. 
511.  At  Port  Discovery  the  lodges  were  'no  more  than  a  few  rudely-cut 
slabs,  covered  in  part  by  coarse  mats,'  p.  319.  Wilkes'  Nur.,  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex., 
vol.  iv.,  pp.  319-20,  511,  517.  The  Clallams  also  have  a  fort  of  pickets  one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  square,  roofed  over  and  divided  into  compartments 
for  families.  '  There  were  about  two  hundred  of  the  tribe  in  the  fort  at  the 
time  of  my  arrival.'  'The  lodges  are  built  of  cedar  like  the  Chinook  lodges, 
but  much  larger,  some  of  them  being  sixty  or  seventy  feet  long.'  Kane's 
Wand.,  pp.  210,  219,  227-9.  '  Their  houses  are  of  considerable  size,  often  fifty 
to  one  hundred  feet  in  length,  and  strongly  built.'  Kept.  Ind.  Aff.,  1854,  pp. 
242-3.  '  The  planks  forming  the  roof  run  the  whole  length  of  the  building, 
being  guttered  to  carry  off  the  water,  and  sloping  slightly  to  one  end.'  Stev- 
ens,  in  Pac.  11.  R.  Kept.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  429-30.  Well  built  lodges  of  timber  and 
plank  on  Whidbey  Island.  Thornton's  Ogn.  and  CaL,  vol.  i.,  p.  300.  At 
New  Dungeness,  '  composed  of  nothing  more  than  a  few  mats  thrown  over 
cross  sticks;'  and  on  Puget  Sound  '  constructed  something  after  the  fashion 
of  a  soldier's  tent,  by  two  cross  sticks  about  five  feet  high,  connected  at  each 
end  by  a  ridge-pole  from  one  to  the  other,  over  some  of  which  was  thrown  a 
coarse  kind  of  mat;  over  others  a  few  loose  branches  of  trees,  shrubs  or 
grass.'  Vancouver's  Voy.,vol.  i.,  pp.  225,  262.  The  Queniults  sometimes,  but 
not  always,  whitewash  the  interior  of  their  lodges  with  pipe-clay,  and  then 
paint  figures  of  fishes  and  animals  in  red  and  black  on  the  white  surface. 
See  description  and  cuts  of  exterior  and  interior  of  Indian  lodge  in  Swan's 
N.  V/.  Coast,  pp.  266-7,  330,  338;  Crane's  Top.  Mem.,  p.  65;  Cornwall™'  New 


as,  pp. 
,  p.  98; 


El  Dorado,  p.  98;  Clark's  Lights  and  Shadows,  p.  225. 


FOOD  OF  THE  SOUND  INDIANS.  213 

in  the  inlets  of  the  sound,  the  Classets,  by  venturing  out 
to  sea,  add  a  supply  of  whale-blubber  and  otter-meat, 
obtained  with  spears,  lines,  and  floats.  At  certain  points 
on  the  shore  tall  poles  are  erected,  across  which  nets  are 
spread;  and  against  these  nets  large  numbers  of  wild 
fowl,  dazzled  by  torch-lights  at  night,  dash  themselves 
and  fall  stunned  to  the  ground,  where  the  natives  stand 
ready  to  gather  in  the  feathery  harvest.  Vancouver  no 
ticed  many  of  these  poles  in  different  localities,  but  could 
not  divine  their  use.  Deer  and  elk  in  the  forests  are 
also  hunted  by  night,  and  brought  within  arrow-shot  by 
the  spell  of  torches.  For  preservation,  fish  are  dried  in 
the  sun  or  dried  and  smoked  by  the  domestic  hearth, 
and  sometimes  pounded  fine,  as  are  roots  of  various  kinds; 
clams  are  dried  on  strings  and  hung  up  in  the  houses, 
or  occasionally  worn  round  the  neck,  ministering  to  the 
native  love  of  ornament  until  the  stronger  instinct  of 
hunger  impairs  the  beauty  of  the  necklace.  In  the  bet 
ter  class  of  houses,  supplies  are  neatly  stored  in  baskets 
at  the  sides.  The  people  are  extremely  improvident, 
and,  notwithstanding  their  abundant  natural  supplies  in 
ocean,  stream,  and  forest,  are  often  in  great  want.  Boil 
ing  in  wooden  vessels  by  means  of  hot  stones  is  the 
ordinary  method  of  cooking.  A  visitor  to  the  Nooksaks 
thus  describes  their  method  of  steaming  elk-meat :  "  They 
first  dig  a  hole  in  the  ground,  then  build  a  wood  fire, 
placing  stones  on  the  top  of  it.  As  it  burns,  the  stones 
become  hot  and  fall  down.  Moss  and  leaves  are  then 
placed  on  the  top  of  the  hot  stones,  the  meat  on  these, 
and  another  layer  of  moss  and  leaves  laid  over  it.  Water 
is  poured  on,  which  is  speedily  converted  into  steam. 
This  is  retained  by  mats  carefully  placed  over  the  heap. 
When  left  in  this 'way  for  a  night,  the  meat  is  found 
tender  and  well  cooked  in  the  morning."  Fowls  were 
cooked  in  the  same  manner  by  the  Queniults.96 

96  The  Nootsaks,  '  like  all  inland  tribes,  they  subsist  principally  by  the 
chase.'  Coleman,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xxxix.,  pp.  795, 799,  815;  Ind.  Aff.  Kept., 
1857,  p.  328.  Sturgeon  abound  weighing  400  to  600  pounds,  and  are  taken 
by  the  Clallams  by  means  of  a  spear  with  a  handle  seventy  to  eighty  feet 
long,  while  lying  on  the  bottom  of  the  river  in  spawning  time.  Fish-hooks 


214  COLUMBIANS. 

I  find  no  mention  of  other  weapons,  offensive  or  de 
fensive,  than  spears,  and  bows  and  arrows.  The  arrows 
and  spears  were  usually  pointed  with  bone;  the  bows 
were  of  yew,  and  though  short,  were  of  great  power. 
Vancouver  describes  a  superior  bow  used  at  Puget  Sound. 
It  was  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  long,  made 
from  a  naturally  curved  piece  of  yew,  whose  concave 
side  became  the  convex  of  the  bow,  and  to  the  whole 
length  of  this  side  a  strip  of  elastic  hide  or  serpent-skin 
was  attached  so  firmly  by  a  kind  of  cement  as  to  become 
almost  a  part  of  the  wood.  This  lining  added  greatly 

are  made  of  cedar  root  with  bone  barbs.  Their  only  vegetables  are  the  ca- 
mas,  wappatoo,  and  fern  roots.  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  213-14,  230-4,  289.  At 
Puget  Sound,  '  men,  women  and  children  were  busily  engaged  like  swine, 
rooting  up  this  beautiful  verdant  meadow  in  quest  of  a  species  of  wild  onion, 
and  two  other  roots,  which  in  appearance  and  taste  greatly  resembled  the  sa- 
ranne.'  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  225,  234,  262.  In  fishing  for  salmon 
at  Port  Discovery  '  they  have  two  nets,  the  drawing  and  casting  net,  made  of 
a  silky  grass, '  '  or  of  the  fibres  of  the  roots  of  trees,  or  of  the  inner  bark  of 
the  white  cedar. '  Nicolay's  Ogn.  Ter.,  p.  147.  '  The  line  is  made  either  of  kelp 
or  the  fibre  of  the  cypress,  and  to  it  is  attached  an  inflated  bladder. '  JSeemann's 
Voy.  Herald,  vol.  i.,  p.  109.  At  Port  Townsend,  'leurs  provisions,  consist- 
aient  en  poisson  seche  au  soleil  ou  boucane;. . .  .tout  rempli  de  sable.'  Rossi, 
Souvenirs,  pp.  182-3,  299.  The  Clallams  '  live  by  fishing  and  hunting  around 
their  homes,  and  never  pursue  the  whale  and  seal  as  do  the  sea-coast  tribes.' 
Scammon,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  vii.,  p.  278.  The  Uthlecan  or  candle-fish 
is  used  on  Fuca  Strait  for  food  as  well  as  candles.  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii., 
p.  241.  Lamprey  eels  are  dried  for  food  and  light  by  the  Nisquallies  and  Che- 
halis.  '  Cammass  root, . . .  .stored in  baskets.  It  is  a  kind  of  sweet  squills,  and 
about  the  size  of  a  small  onion.  It  is  extremely  abundant  on  the  open  prai 
ries,  and  particularly  on  those  which  are  overflowed  by  the  small  streams.' 
Cut  of  salmon  fishery,  p.  335.  '  Hooks  are  made  in  an  ingenious  manner 
of  the  yew  tree.'  'They  are  chiefly  employed  in  trailing  for  fish.'  Cut 
of  hooks,  pp.  444-5.  The  Classets  make  a  cut  in  the  nose  when  a  whale 
is  taken.  Each  seal-skin  float  has  a  different  pattern  painted  on  it,  p.  517. 
Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  318-19,  335,  444-5,  517-18. 
The  Chehalis  live  chiefly  on  salmon.  Id.,  vol.  v.,  p.  140.  According  to  Swan 
the  Puget  Sound  Indians  sometimes  wander  as  far  as  Shoalwater  Bay,  in 
Chinook  territory,  in  the  spring.  The  Queniult  Indians  are  fond  of  large 
barnacles,  not  eaten  by  the  Chinooks  of  Shoalwater  Bay.  Cut  of  a  sea-otter 
hunt.  The  Indians  never  catch  salmon  with  a  baited  hook,  but  always  use 
the  hook  as  a  gaff.  N.  W.  Coast,  pp.  59,  87,  92, 163,  264,  271;  Thornton's  Ogn. 
and  CaL,  vol.  i.,  pp.  293-4,  301,  388-9;  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1854,  p.  241;  Dunn's 
Oregon,  pp.  732-5;  Stevens,  in  Pac.  E.  E.  Kept.',  vol.  i.,  p.  429.  '  They  all  de 
pend  upon  fish,  berries,  and  roots  for  a  subsistence, '  and  get  their  living  with 
great  ease.'' Starling,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  600-2.  The  Makahs 
live  '  by  catching  cod  and  halibut  on  the  banks  north  and  east  of  Cape  Flat 
tery.'  Ind.  Aff.,  Kept.  1858,  p.  231.  '  When  in  a  state  of  semi-starvation  the 
beast  shows  very  plainly  in  them  (Stick  Indians):  they  are  generally  foul 
feeders,  but  at  such  a  time  they  eat  anything,  and  are  disgusting  in  the  ex 
treme.  Id.,  1858,  p.  225;  Id.,  1860,  p.  195;  Cornwallis'  New  El  Dorado,  p.  97; 


iii..  p.  408;   ' 
throp's  Canoe  and  Saddle,  pp.  33-7;  Maurelle's  Jour.,  p.  28. 


Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  102-5;  Hittejl,  in  Hesperian,  voL  iii.,  p.  408;  Win- 


MANUFACTURES  OF  PUGET  SOUND.  215 

to  the  strength  of  the  bow,  and  was  not  affected  by 
moisture.  The  bow-string  was  made  of  sinew.97  The 
tribes  were  continually  at  war  with  each  other,  and  with 
northern  nations,  generally  losing  many  of  their  people 
in  battle.  Sticking  the  heads  of  the  slain  enemy  on 
poles  in  front  of  their  dwellings,  is  a  common  way  of 
demonstrating  their  joy  over  a  victory.  The  Indians  at 
Port  Discovery  spoke  to  Wilkes  of  scalping  among  their 
warlike  exploits,  but  according  to  Kane  the  Classets  do 
not  practice  that  usage.98  Vancouver,  finding  sepulchres 
at  Penn  Cove,  in  which  were  large  quantities  of  hu 
man  bones  but  no  limb-bones  of  adults,  suspected  that 
the  latter  were  used  by  the  Indians  for  pointing  their 
arrows,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  other  implements.99 

The  Sound  manufactures  comprise  the  few  weapons 
and  utensils  used  by  the  natives.  Their  articles  were 
made  with  the  simplest  tools  of  bone  or  shell.  Blankets 
were  made  of  dog's  hair, — large  numbers  of  dogs  being 
raised  for  the  purpose, — the  wool  of  mountain  sheep,  or 
wild  goats,  found  on  the  mountain  slopes,  the  down  of 
wild-fowl,  cedar  bark-fibre,  ravelings  of  foreign  blank 
ets,  or  more  commonly  of  a  mixture  of  several  of  these 
materials.  The  fibre  is  twisted  into  yarn  between  the 
hand  and  thigh,  and  the  strands  arranged  in  perpendic 
ular  frames  for  weaving  purposes.  Willow  and  other 
twigs  supply  material  for  baskets  of  various  forms,  often 
neatly  made  and  colored.  Oil,  both  for  domestic  use 
and  for  barter,  is  extracted  by  boiling,  except  in  the  case 
of  the  candle-fish,  when  hanging  in  the  hot  sun  suffices; 
it  is  preserved  in  bladders  and  skin-bottles.100 

97  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  253.    At  Gray  Harbor  the  bows  were  some 
what  more  circular  than  elsewhere.  Id.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  84;  Wilkes'  Nar.,in  U.  S. 
Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  319;  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  209-10. 

98  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  321;  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  231-2; 
Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  234.     'They  have  been  nearly  annihilated  by 
the  hordes  of  northern  savages  that  have  infested,  and  do  now,  even  at  the 
present  day,  infest  our  own  shores '  for  slaves.     They  had  fire-arms  before 
our  tribes,  thus  gaming  an  advantage.  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1857,  p.  327;  Clark's 
Lights  and  Sluidoucs,  p.  224. 

99  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  287. 

100  'A  single  thread  is  wound  over  rollers  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  a 
square  frame,  so  as  to  form  a  continuous  woof  through  which  an  alternate 


216  COLUMBIANS. 

Canoes  are  made  by  the  Sound  Indians  in  the  same 
manner  as  by  the  Nootkas  already  described ;  being  al 
ways  dug  out,  formerly  by  fire,  from  a  single  cedar  trunk, 
and  the  form  improved  afterwards  by  stretching  when 
soaked  in  hot  water.  Of  the  most  elegant  proportions, 
they  are  modeled  by  the  builder  with  no  guide  but  the 
eye,  and  with  most  imperfect  tools;  three  months'  work 
is  sufficient  to  produce  a  medium-sized  boat.  The  form 
varies  among  different  nations  according  as  the  canoe  is 
intended  for  ocean,  sound,  or  river  navigation;  being 
found  with  bow  or  stern,  or  both,  in  various  forms,  point 
ed,  round,  shovel-nosed,  raised  or  level.  The  raised 
stern,  head-piece,  and  stern-post  are  usually  formed  of 
separate  pieces.  Like  the  Nootkas,  they  char  and  polish 
the  outside  and  paint  the  interior  with  red.  The  largest 
and  finest  specimen  seen  by  Mr.  Swan  was  forty-six  feet 
long  and  six  feet  wide,  and  crossed  the  bar  into  Shoal- 
water  Bay  with  thirty  Queniult  Indians  from  the  north. 
The  paddle  used  in  deep  water  has  a  crutch-like  handle 
and  a  sharp-pointed  blade.101 

thread  is  carried  by  the  hand,  and  pressed  closely  together  by  a  sort  of 
wooden  comb ;  by  turning  the  rollers  every  part  of  the  woof  is  brought  with 
in  reach  of  the  weaver;  by  this  means  a  bag  formed,  open  at  each  end,  which 
being  cut  down  makes  a  square  blanket.'  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  210-11.  Cuts 
showing  the  loom  and  process  of  weaving  among  the  Nootsaks,  also  house, 
canoes,  and  willow  baskets.  Coleman,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xxxix.,  pp.  799- 
800.  The  Clallams  '  have  a  kind  of  cur  with  soft  and  long  white  hair,  which 
they  shear  and  mix  with  a  little  wool  or  the  ravelings  of  old  blankets.' 
Stevens,  in  Pac.  E.  E.  Eept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  431.  The  Makahs  have  'blankets 
and  capes  made  of  the  inner  bark  of  the  cedar,  and  edged  with  fur.'  Ind. 
Aff.  Eept.,  1854,  pp.  241-2;  Wit-Ices'  Nar.,  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  32.  The 
candle-fish  '  furnishes  the  natives  with  their  best  oil,  which  is  extracted 
by  the  very  simple  process  of  hanging  it  up,  exposed  to  the  sun,  which  in  a 
few  days  seems  to  melt  it  away.'  Thornton's  Oyn.  and  Col.,  vol.  i.,  p.  388. 
They  'manufacture  some  of  their  blankets  from  the  wool  of  the  wild  goat.' 
Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  231.  The  Queniults  showed  '  a  blanket  manufactured  from 
the  wool  of  mountain  sheep,  which  are  to  be  found  on  the  precipitous  slopes 
of  the  Olympian  Mountains."  Alia  California,  Feb.  9,  1861,  quoted  in  Cali 
fornia  Farmer,  July  25,  1862;  Cornwallis'  New  El  Dorado,  p.  97;  Pickering's 
Races,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  p.  26. 

101  « They  present  a  model  of  which  a  white  mechanic  might  well  be  proud.' 
Description  of  method  of  making,  and  cuts  of  Queniult,  Clallam,  and  Cow- 
litz  canoes,  and  a  Queniult  paddle.  Swan's  N.  W.  Coast,  pp.  79-82.  At  Port 
Orchard  they  '  exactly  corresponded  with  the  canoes  of  Nootka, '  while  those 
of  some  visitors  were  '  cut  off  square  at  each  end, '  and  like  those  seen  below 
Cape  Orford.  At  Gray  Harbor  the  war  canoes  '  had  a  piece  of  wood  rudely 
carved,  perforated,  and  placed  at  each  end,  three  feet  above  the  gunwale; 
through  these  holes  they  are  able  to  discharge  their  arrows.'  Vancouver's  Voy., 


TKADE  AND  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SOUND  INDIANS.       217 

In  their  barter  between  the  different  tribes,  and  in 
estimating  their  wealth,  the  blanket  is  generally  the  unit 
of  value,  and  the  hiaqua,  a  long  white  shell  obtained  off 
Cape  Flattery  at  a  considerable  depth,  is  also  extensively 
used  for  money,  its  value  increasing  with  its  length.  A 
kind  of  annual  fair  for  trading  purposes  and  festivities 
is  held  by  the  tribes  of  Puget  Sound  at  Bajada  Point, 
and  here  and  in  their  other  feasts  they  are  fond  of  show 
ing  their  wealth  and  liberality  by  disposing  of  their  sur 
plus  property  in  gifts.102 

The  system  of  government  seems  to  be  of  the  simplest 
nature,  each  individual  being  entirely  independent  and 
master  of  his  own  actions.  There  is  a  nominal  chief  in 
each  tribe,  who  sometimes  acquires  great  influence  and 
privileges  by  his  wealth  or  personal  prowess,  but  he  has 
no  authority,  and  only  directs  the  movements  of  his 
band  in  warlike  incursions.  I  find  no  evidence  of  he 
reditary  rank  or  caste  except  as  wealth  is  sometimes 
inherited.103  Slaves  are  held  by  all  the  tribes,  and  are 
treated  very  much  like  their  dogs,  being  looked  upon  as 

vol.  i.,  p.  264;  vol.  ii.,  p.  84.  The  Clallam  boats  were  *  low  and  straight,  and 
only  adapted  to  the  smoother  interior  waters.'  Scarnmon,  in  Overland  Monthly, 
vol.  vii.,  p.  278.  Cut  showing  Nootsak  canoes  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xxxix.,  p. 
799.  '  The  sides  are  exceedingly  thin,  seldom  exceeding  three-fourths  of  an 
inch.'  To  mend  the  canoe  when  cracks  occur,  'holes  are  made  in  the  sides, 
through  which  withes  are  passed,  and  pegged  in  such  a  way  that  the  strain 
will  draw  it  tighter;  the  withe  is  then  crossed,  and  the  end  secured  in  the 
same  manner.  When  the  tying  is  finished,  the  whole  is  pitched  with  the 
gum  of  the  pine.'  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  320-1.  The 
Clallams  have  '  a  very  large  canoe  of  ruder  shape  and  workmanship,  being 
wide  and  shovel-nosed,'  used  for  the  transportation  of  baggage.  Ind.  Aff. 
Kept.,  1854,  p.  243;  Stevens,  in  Pac.  It.  R.  Eept.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  430-1;  Seemann's 
Voy.  Herald,  vol.  i.,  p.  108;  Pickering's  Eac.es,  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  pp. 
25-6;  Winihrop's  Canoe  and  Saddle,  p,  20;  Clark's  Lights  and  Shadows,  pp. 

102  Kaw's  Wand,,  pp.  237-9;  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1862,  p.  409;  Starling,  in 
SchoolcrafVs  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  601;  Pickering's  Eaces,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol. 
ix.,  p.  26. 

103  '  Us  obeissent  a  un  chef,  qui  n'exerce  son  pouvoir  qu'en  temps  de  guer 
re.'  .Rossi,  Souvenirs,  p.  299.     At  Gray  Harbor  'they  appeared  to  be  divided 
into  three  different  tribes,  or  parties,  each  having  one  or  two  chiefs.'  Vancou 
ver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  84.     Wilkes  met  a  squaw  chief  at  Nisqually,  who 
'  seemed  to  exercise  more  authority  than  any  that  had  been  met  with.'    '  Lit 
tle  or  no  distinction  of  rank  seems  to  exist  among  them ;  the  authority  of  the 
chiefs  is  no  longer  recognized.'   Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  p. 
444;  vol.  v.,  p.  131.     Yellow-cum  had  become  chief  of  the  Makahs  from  his 
own  personal  prowess.  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  237-9;  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1857,  pp. 
327—8. 


218  COLUMBIANS. 

property,  and  not  within  the  category  of  humanity.  For 
a  master  to  kill  half  a  dozen  slaves  is  no  wrong  or  cru 
elty;  it  only  tends  to  illustrate  the  owner's  noble  dispo 
sition  in  so  freely  sacrificing  his  property.  Slaves  are 
obtained  by  war  and  kidnapping,  and  are  sold  in  large 
numbers  to  northern  tribes.  According  to  Sproat,  the 
Classets,  a  rich  and  powerful  tribe,  encourage  the  slave- 
hunting  incursions  of  the  Nootkas  against  their  weaker 
neighbors.104 

Wives  are  bought  by  presents,  and  some  performances 
or  ceremonies,  representative  of  hunting  or  fishing  scenes, 
not  particularly  described  by  any  visitor,  take  place  at 
the  wedding.  Women  have  all  the  work  to  do  except 
hunting  and  fishing,  while  their  lords  spend  their  time 
in  idleness  and  gambling.  Still  the  females  are  not  ill- 
treated;  they  acquire  great  influence  in  the  tribe,  and 
are  always  consulted  in  matters  of  trade  before  a  bargain 
is  closed.  They  are  not  overburdened  with  modesty, 
nor  are  huslands  noted  for  jealousy.  Hiring  out  their 
women,  chieiiy  however  slaves,  for  prostitution,  has  been 
a  prominent  source  of  tribal  revenue  since  the  country 
was  partially  settled  by  whites.  Women  are  not  prolific, 
three  or  four  being  ordinarily  the  limit  of  their  offspring. 
Infants,  properly  bound  up  with  the  necessary  apparatus 
for  head-flattening,  are  tied  to  their  cradle  or  to  a  piece 
of  bark,  and  hung  by  a  cord  to  the  end  of  a  springy  pole 
kept  in  motion  by  a  string  attached  to  the  mother's  great 
toe.  Affection  for  children  is  by  no  means  rare,  but  in 
few  tribes  can  they  resist  the  temptation  to  sell  or  gamble 
them  away.105 

Jo4  Sproat's  Scenes,  p.  92;  Simpson's  Overland  Journ.,  vol.i.,  pp.  242-3;  Kane's 
Wand.,  pp.  214-15.  The  Nooksaks  'have  no  slaves.'  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1857, 
pp.  327-8;  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  601.  It  is  said  'that  the  descend 
ants  of  slaves  obtain  freedom  at  the  expiration  of  three  centuries.'  Pickering's 
Races,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  p.  28. 

Ktf  The  Makahs  have  some  marriage  ceremonies,  '  such  as  going  through 
the  performance  of  taking  the  whale,  manning  a  canoe,  and  throwing  the 
harpoon  into  the  bride's  house.'  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1854,  p.  242.  The  Nooksak 
women  'are  very  industrious,  and  do  most  of  the  work,  and  procure  the 

Srincipal  part  of  their  sustenance.'  Id.,  1857,  p.  327.     'The  women  have  not 
le  slightest  pretension  to  virtue.'  Id.,  1858,  p.  225;  Siwash  Nuptials,  in  Olyrti- 
pia  Washington  Standard,  July  30,  1870.    In  matters  of  trade  the  opinion  of 


AMUSEMENTS  OF  THE  SOUND  INDIANS.  219 

Feasting,  gambling,  and  smoking  are  the  favorite 
amusements;  all  their  property,  slaves,  children,  and 
even  their  own  freedom  in  some  cases  are  risked  in 
their  games.  Several  plants  are  used  as  substitutes  for 
tobacco  when  that  article  is  not  obtainable.  If  any  im 
portant  differences  exist  between  their  ceremonies,  dances, 
songs  and  feasts,  and  those  of  Vancouver  Island,  such 
variations  have  not  been  recorded.  In  fact,  many  au 
thors  describe  the  manners  and  customs  of  'North-west 
America'  as  if  occupied  by  one  people.106  There  is  no 
evidence  of  cannibalism ;  indeed,  during  Vancouver's  visit 
at  Puget  Sound,  some  meat  offered  to  the  natives  was 
refused,  because  it  was  suspected  to  be  human  flesh. 
Since  their  acquaintance  with  the  whites  they  have  ac 
quired  a  habit  of  assuming  great  names,  as  Duke  of 
York,  or  Jenny  Lind,  and  highly  prize  scraps  of  paper 
with  writing  purporting  to  substantiate  their  claims  to 
such  distinctions.  Their  superstitions  are  many,  and 
they  are  continually  on  the  watch  in  all  the  commonest 
acts  of  life  against  the  swarm  of  evil  influences,  from 
which  they  may  escape  only  by  the  greatest  care.107 

Disorders  of  the  throat  and  lungs,  rheumatism  and 
intermittent  fevers,  are  among  the  most  prevalent  forms 
of  disease,  and  in  their  methods  of  cure,  as  usual,  the 
absurd  ceremonies,  exorcisms,  and  gesticulations  of  the 
medicine-men  play  the  principal  part;  but  hot  and  cold 
baths  are  also  often  resorted  to  without  regard  to  the 
nature  or  stage  of  the  malady.108  The  bodies  of  such  as 

the  women  is  always  called  in,  and  their  decision  decides  the  bargain.  See- 
mann's  Voy.  Herald,  vol.  i.,  p.  108.  'The  whole  burden  of  domestic  occupa 
tion  is  thrown  upon  them.'  Cut  of  the  native  baby-jumper.  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in 
U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  319-20,  361.  At  Gray  Harbor  they  were  not  jealous. 
At  Port  Discovery  they  offered  their  children  for  sale.  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol. 
i.,  p.  231;  vol.  ii.,  pp.  83-4.  'Rarely  having  more  than  three  or  four'  chil 
dren.  Swan's  N.  W.  Coast,  p.  266;  Clark's  Lialds  and  Shadows,  pp.  224-6. 

ice  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  320,  444;  Rossi,  Souvenirs, 
pp.  298-9;  San  Francisco  Bulletin,  May  24,  1859. 

1Q7  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  263,  270.  The  Lummi  'are  a  very  super 
stitious  tribe,  and  pretend  to  have  traditions— legends  handed  down  to  them 
by  their  ancestors.'  '  No  persuasion  or  pay  will  induce  them  to  kill  an  owl 
or  eat  a  pheasant.'  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1857,  pp.  327-8;  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  216- 
17,  229.  No  forms  of  salutation.  Pickering's  Races,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix., 
p.  23-4;  Winthrop's  Canoe  and  Saddle,  pp.  21-2. 

io*  Among  to  Skagits  '  Dr.  Holmes  saw  an  old  man  in  the  last  stage  of 


£20  COLUMBIANS. 

succumb  to  their  diseases,  or  to  the  means  employed  for 
cure,  are  disposed  of  in  different  ways  according  to  lo 
cality,  tribe,  rank,  or  age.  Skeletons  are  found  by  trav 
elers  buried  in  the  ground  or  deposited  in  a  sitting 
posture  on  its  surface;  in  canoes  or  in  boxes  supported 
by  posts,  or,  more  commonly,  suspended  from  the  branches 
of  trees.  Corpses  are  wrapped  in  cloth  or  matting,  and 
more  or  less  richly  decorated  according  to  the  wealth  of 
the  deceased.  Several  bodies  are  often  put  in  one  canoe 
or  box:,  and  the  bodies  of  young  children  are  found  sus 
pended  in  baskets.  Property  and  implements,  the  latter 
always  broken,  are  deposited  with  or  near  the  remains, 
and  these  last  resting-places  of  their  people  are  relig 
iously  cared  for  and  guarded  from  intrusion  by  all  the 
tribes.109  All  the  peculiarities  and  inconsistencies  of  the 

consumption,  shivering  from  the  effects  of  a  cold  bath  at  the  temperature  of 
40°  Fahrenheit.  A  favourite  remedy  in  pulmonary  consumption  is  to  tie  a 
rope  tightly  around  the  thorax,  so  as  to  force  the  diaphram  to  perform  respira 
tion  without  the  aid  of  the  thoracic  muscles.'  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex., 
vol.  iv.,  p.  512.  Among  the  Clallams,  to  cure  a  girl  of  a  disease  of  the  side, 
after  stripping  the  patient  naked,  the  medicine-man,  throwing  off  his  blanket, 
'  commenced  singing  and  gesticulating  in  the  most  violent  manner,  whilst 
the  others  kept  time  by  beating  with  little  sticks  oil  hollow  wooden  bowls 
and  drams,  singing  continually.  After  exercising  himself  in  this  manner  for 
aboiit  half  an  hour,  imtil  the  perspiration  ran  clown  his  body,  he  darted  sud 
denly  upon  the  young  woman,  catching  hold  of  her  side  with  his  teeth  and 
shaking  her  for  a  few  minutes,  while  the  patient  seemed  to  suffer  great  agony. 
He  then  relinquished  his  hold,  and  cried  out  that  he  had  got  it,  at  the  same 
time  holding  his  hands  to  his  mouth ;  after  which  he  plunged  them  in  the 
water  and  pretended  to  hold  down  with  great  difficulty  the  disease  which  he 
had  extracted.'  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  225-6.  Small-pox  seemed  very  prevalent 
by  which  many  had  lost  the  sight  of  one  eye.  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p. 
242.  To  cure  a  cold  in  the  face  the  Queniults  burned  certain  herbs  to  a 
cinder  and  mixing  them  with  grease,  anointed  the  face,  tfican's  N.  W.  Coast, 
p.  265.  Among  the  Nooksaks  mortality  has  not  increased  with  civilization. 
'  As  yet  the  only  causes  of  any  amount  are  consumption  and  the  old  dis 
eases.'  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1857,  p.  327.  At  Neah  Bay,  'a  scrofiilous  affection 
pervades  the  whole  tribe.'  The  old,  sick  and  maimed  are  abandoned  by 
their  friends  to  die.  Id,  1872,  p.  350. 

109  Slaves  have  no  right  to  burial.  Kane's  Wand.,  p.  215.  At  a  Queniult 
burial  place  '  the  different  colored  blankets  and  calicoes  hung  round  gave 
the  place  an  appearance  of  clothes  hung  out  to  dry  on  a  washing  day.'  Swan's 
N.  W.  Coast,  p.  267.  At  Port  Orchard  bodies  were  'wrapped  firmly  in  mat 
ting,  beneath  which  was  a  white  blanket,  closely  fastened  round  the  body, 
and  under  this  a  covering  of  blue  cotton.'  At  Port  Discovery  bodies  'are 
wrapped  in  mats  and  placed  upon  the  ground  in  a  sitting  posture,  and  sur 
rounded  with  stakes  and  pieces  of  plank  to  protect  them.'  On  the  Cowlitz 
the  burial  canoes  are  painted  with  figures,  and  gifts  are  not  deposited  till 
several  months  after  the  funeral.  Withes'  Nar.,  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  pp. 
323,  347-8,  509-10.  Among  the  Nisquallies  bodies  of  relatives  are  sometimes 
disinterred  at  different  places,  washed,  re-wrapped  and  buiied  again  in  one 


CHAKACTEK  OF  THE  SOUND  INDIANS.  221' 

Nootka  character  perhaps  have  been  noted  by  travelers 
among  the  Indians  of  the  Sound,  but  none  of  these  pecu 
liarities  are  so  clearly  marked  in  the  latter  people.  In 
their  character,  as  in  other  respects,  they  have  little  in 
dividuality,  and  both  their  virtues  and  vices  are  but 
faint  reflections  of  the  same  qualities  in  the  great  fami 
lies  north  and  south  of  their  territory.  The  Cape  Flat 
tery  tribes  are  at  once  the  most  intelligent,  bold,  and 
treacherous  of  all,  while  some  of  the  tribes  east  and 
north-east  of  the  Sound  proper  have  perhaps  the  best 
reputation.  Since  the  partial  settlement  of  their  terri 
tory  by  the  whites,  the  natives  here  as  elsewhere  have 
lost  many  of  their  original  characteristics,  chiefly  the 
better  ones.  The  remnants  now  for  the  most  part  are 
collected  on  government  reservations,  or  live  in  the  vicin 
ity  of  towns,  by  begging  and  prostitution.  Some  tribes, 
especially  in  the  region  of  Bellingham  Bay,  have  been 
nominally  converted  to  Christianity,  have  abandoned 
polygamy,  slavery,  head-flattening,  gambling,  and  super 
stitious  ceremonies,  and  pay  considerable  attention  to  a 
somewhat  mixed  version  of  church  doctrine  and  cere 
monies.110 

grave.  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  238-9.  '  Ornes  de  rubans  de  diverses  coul- 
eurs,  de  dents  de  poissons,  de  chapelets  et  d'autres  brimborions  du  gout  des 
sauvages.'  Rossi,  /Souvenirs,  pp.  74-5.  On  Penn  Cove,  in  a  deserted  village, 
were  found  '  several  sepulchres  formed  exactly  like  a  ceutry  box.  Some  of 
them  were  open,  and  contained  the  skeletons  of  many  young  children  tied 
up  in  baskets.'  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  254-6,  287;  2nd.  Aff.  Kept., 
1854,  p.  242;  Stevens  in  Pac.  11.  11.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  429.  A  correspondent 
describes  a  flathead  mummy  from  Puget  Sound  preserved  in  San  Francisco. 
'The  eye-balls  are  still  round  under  the  lid;  the  teeth,  the  muscles,  and  ten 
dons  perfect,  the  veins  injected  with  some  preserving  liquid,  the  bowels, 
stomach  and  liver  dried  up,  but  not  decayed,  all  perfectly  preserved.  The 
very  blanket  that  entwines  him,  made  of  some  threads  of  bark  and  saturated 
with  a  pitchy  substance,  is  entire.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  693;  Pick 
ering's  Races,  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  p.  32. 

no  'Their  native  bashfulness  renders  all  squaws  peculiarly  sensitive  to 
any  public  notice  or  ridicule.'  Probably  the  laziest  people  in  the  world.. 
The  mails  are  intrusted  with  safety  to  Indian  carriers,  who  are  perfectly  safe 
from  interference  on  the  part  of  any  Indian  they  may  meet.  Kane's  Wand., 
p.  209-16,  227-8,  234,  247-8.  'La  memoire  locale  et  personelle  du  sauvage 
est  admirable;  il  n'oublie  jamais  un  eudroit  ni  une  personne.'  Nature  seems 
to  have  given  him  memory  to  supply  the  want  of  intelligence.  Much  in 
clined  to  vengeance.  Those  having  means  may  avert  vengeance  by  pay 
ments.  Rossi,  Souvenirs,  pp.  113,  295-9.  '  Perfectly  indifferent  to  exposure ; 
decency  has  no  meaning  in  their  language.'  Although  always  begging,  they 
refuse  to  accept  any  article  not  in  good  condition,  calling  it  Peeshaaak,  a  term 


222  COLUMBIANS. 

THE  CHINOOKS  constitute  the  fourth  division  of  the 
Columbian  group.  Originally  the  name  was  restricted 
to  a  tribe  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Columbia  between 
Gray  Bay  and  the  ocean;  afterwards,  from  a  similarity 
in  language  and  customs,  it  was  applied  to  all  the  bands 
on  both  sides  of  the  river,  from  its  mouth  to  the  Dalles.111 
It  is  employed  in  this  work  to  designate  all  the  Oregon 
tribes  west  of  the  Cascade  Range,  southward  to  the 
Rogue  River  or  Umpqua  Mountains.  This  family  lies 
between  the  Sound  Indians  on  the  north  and  the  Cal- 
ifornian  group  on  the  south,  including  in  addition  to 
the  tribes  of  the  Columbia,  those  of  the  Willamette 
Valley  and  the  Coast.  All  closely  resemble  each  other 
in  manners  and  customs,  having  also  a  general  resem 
blance  to  the  northern  families  already  described,  spring 
ing  from  their  methods  of  obtaining  food ;  and  although 
probably  without  linguistic  affinities,  except  along  the 
Columbia  River,  they  may  be  consistently  treated  as  one 


of  contempt.  Seemann's  Voy.  Herald,  vol.  i.,  pp.  103-9.  Murder  of  a  Spanish 
"boat's  ere  win  latitude  47J  20'.  Maurelle'sJour.,  pp.  29,  31.  '  Cheerful  and  well 
disposed  '  at  Port  Orchard.  At  Strait  of  Fuca  '  little  more  elevated  in  their 
moral  qualities  than  the  Fuegians.'  At  Nisqually,  'addicted  to  stealing.' 
4  Vicious  and  exceedingly  lazy,  sleeping  all  day.'  The  Skagits  are  catholics, 
and  are  more  advanced  than  others  in  civilization.  Wilk(.s'  JVar.t  in  U.  #.  Ex. 
Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  317,  444,  510-11,  517.  Both  at  Gray  Harbor  and  Puget 
Sound  they  were  uniformly  civil  and  friendly,  fair  and  honest  in  trade. 
Each  tribe  claimed  that  '  the  others  were  bad  people  and  that  the  party  ques 
tioned  were  the  only  good  Indians  in  the  harbor.'  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  i., 
p.  256;  vol.  ii.,  pp.  83-4.  « The  Clallam  tribe  has  always  had  a  bad  charac 
ter,  which  their  intercourse  with  shipping,  and  the  introduction  of  whiskey, 
has  by  no  means  improved.'  2nd.  Aff.  liept.,  1854,  p.  243.  'The  superior 
courage  of  the  Makahs,  as  well  as  their  treachery,  will  make  them  more 
difficult  of  management  than  most  other  tribes.'  Stevens,  in  Pac.  ft.  K.  ItVpf., 
vol.  i.,  p.  429.  The  Lummis  and  other  tribes  at  Bellingham  Bay  have  al 
ready  abandoned  their  ancient  barbarous  habits,  and  have  adopted  those  of 
civilization.  Colernan,  in  Harper's  May.,  vol.  xxxix.,  pp.  795-7;  Simpson's 
Overland  Journ.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  240-2.  'The  instincts  of  these  people  are  of  a 
very  degraded  character.  They  are  filthy,  cowardly,  lazy,  treacherous,  drunk 
en,  avaricious,  and  much  given  to  thieving.  The  women  have  not  the 
slightest  pretension  to  virtue.'  The  Makahs  '  are  the  most  independent  In 
dians  in  my  district — they  and  the  Quilleyutes,  their  near  neighbors.'  ]nd. 
Aff.  Kept.,  1858,  pp.  225,  231;  Id.,  1802,  p.  390;  Id.,  1870,  p.  '20;  Schoolcraft'8 
Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  001;  Wlnthrop's  Canoe  and  Saddle,  p.  58;  Cram's  Top.  Mem., 
p.  65. 

111  Perhaps  the  Cascades  might  more  properly  be  named  as  the  boundary, 
since  the  region  of  the  Dalles,  from  the  earliest  records,  has  been  the  rendez- 
voux  for  fishing,  trading,  and  gambling  purposes,  of  tribes  from  every  part  of 
the  surrounding  country,  rather  than  the  home  of  any  particular  nation. 


THE  CHINOOKS.  223 

family — the  last  of  the  great  coast  or  fish-eating  divis 
ions  of  the  Columbian  group. 

Among  the  prominent  tribes,  or  nations  of  the  Chi 
nook  family  may  be  mentioned  the  following:  the  Wat- 
Mas  or  upper  Chinooks,  including  the  bands  on  the 
Columbia  from  the  Cascades  to  the  Cowlitz,  and  on  the 
lower  Willamette ;  the  lower  Chinooks  from  the  Cowlitz 
to  the  Pacific  comprising  the  Wakiakums  and  Chinooks 
on  the  north  bank,  and  the  Cathlainets  and  Clatsops  on 
the  south;  the  Calapooyas  occupying  the  Valley  of  the 
Willamette,  and  the  Clackamas  on  one  of  its  chief  trib 
utaries  of  the  same  name ;  with  the  Rillamooks  and  Ump- 
quas  who  live  between  the  Coast  Range112  and  the  ocean. 

With  respect  to  the  present  condition  of  these  na 
tions,  authorities  agree  in  speaking  of  them  as  a  squalid 
and  poverty-stricken  race,  once  numerous  and  powerful, 
now  few  and  weak.  Their  country  has  been  settled  by 
whites  much  more  thickly  than  regions  farther  north,  and 
they  have  rapidly  disappeared  before  the  influx  of  stran 
gers.  Whole  tribes  have  been  exterminated  by  war  and 
disease,  and  in  the  few  miserable  remnants  collected  on 

"2  For  details  see  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES  at  the  end  of  this  chapter.  The 
Chinooks,  Clatsops,  Wakiakums  and  Cathlamets,  '  resembling  each  other  in 
person,  dress,  language,  and  manners.'  The  Chinooks  and  Wakiakums  were 
originally  one  tribe,  and  Wakiakum  was  the  name  of  the  chief  who  seceded 
with  his  adherents.  Irviny's  Astoria,  pp.  335-6.  'They  may  be  regarded 
as  the  distinctive  type  of  the  tribes  to  the  north  of  the  Oregon,  for  it  is  in 
them  that  the  peculiarities  of  the  population  of  these  regions  are  seen  in  the 
most  striking  manner.'  Dornenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  15-G,  36.  All  the 
tribes  about  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  '  appear  to  IDC  descended  from  the 
same  stock. . .  and  resemble  one  another  in  language,  dress,  and  habits.  Ross' 
Adi-en.,  pp.  87-8.  The  Cathleyacheyachs  at  the  Cascades  differ  but  little 
from  the  Chinooks.  Id.,  p.  111.  Scouler  calls  the  Columbia  tribes  Cathlas- 
cons,  and  considers  them  'intimately  related  to  the  Kalapooiah  Family.' 
LoncL  Geog.  tioc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  22*5.  The  Willamette  tribes  'differ  veiy 
little  in  their  habits  and  modes  of  life,  from  those  on  the  Columbia  lliver.' 
Hunter's  Cap.,  p.  72.  Mofras  makes  Killintous  a  general  name  for  all  Indians 
south  of  the  Columbia.  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  357;  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  114-18; 
Cox's  Adcen.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  133.  The  Nechecolees  on  the  Willamette  claimed 
an  affinity  with  the  Eloots  at  the  Narrows  of  the  Columbia.  The  Killamucks 
'resemble  in  almost  every  particular  the  Clatsops  and  Chinnooks.  Lewis 
and  Clarice's  Trav.t  pp.  427,  504.  'Of  the  Coast  Indians  that  I  have  seen 
there  seems  to  be  so  little  difference  in  their  style  of  living  that  a  description 
of  one  family  will  answer  for  the  whole.'  Swan's  N.  W.  Coast,  pp.  153-4. 
'  All  the  natives  inhabiting  the  southern  shore  of  the  Straits,  and  the  deeply 
indented  territory  as  far  and  including  the  tide-waters  of  the  Columbia,  may 
be  comprehended  under  the  general  term  of  Chinooks.'  Pickeriny's  Races,  in 
U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  p.  25. 


221  COLUMBIANS. 

reservations  or  straggling  about  the  Oregon  towns,  no 
trace  is  apparent  of  the  independent,  easy-living  bands 
of  the  remote  past.113  It  is  however  to  be  noted  that  at 
no  time  since  this  region  has  been  known  to  Europeans 
has  the  Indian  population  been  at  all  in  proportion  to 
the  supporting  capacity  of  the  land,  while  yet  in  a  state 
of  nature,  with  its  fertile  soil  and  well-stocked  streams 
and  forests. 

In  physique  the  Chinook  can  not  be  said  to  differ  ma 
terially  from  the  Nootka.  In  stature  the  men  rarely 
exceed  five  feet  six  inches,  and  the  women  five  feet. 
Both  sexes  are  thick-set,  but  as  a  rule  loosely  built,  al 
though  in  this  respect  they  had  doubtless  degenerated 
when  described  by  most  travelers.  Their  legs  are  bowed 
and  otherwise  deformed  by  a  constant  squatting  position 
in  and  out  of  their  canoes.  Trained  by  constant  ex 
posure  with  slight  clothing,  they  endure  cold  and  hunger 
better  than  the  white  man,  but  to  continued  muscular 
exertion  they  soon  succumb.  Physically  they  improve 
in  proportion  to  their  distance  from  the  Columbia  and 
its  fisheries;  the  Calapooyas  on  the  upper  Willamette, 
according  to  early  visitors,  presenting  the  finest  speci 
mens.114  Descending  from  the  north  along  the  coast, 

113  '  The  race  of  the  Chenooks  is  nearly  run.     From  a  large  and  powerful 
tribe ...   they  have  dwindled  down  to  about  a  hundred  individuals, ....  and 
these  are  a  depraved,  licentious,  drunken  set.'  Swan's  N.  W.  Coast,  pp.  108- 
10.     The  "Willopahs  '  may  be  considered  as  extinct,  a  few  women  only  re 
maining.'  Stevens,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  428;  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn. 
ii.,  p.  351;  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1854,  pp.  239-40;  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  354;  vol. 
ii.,  p.  217;  De  Smet,  Missions  de  I' Oregon,  pp.  163-4;  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  173-6, 
196-7;  Irving' 's  Astoria,  pp.  335-6;  Fitzgerald's  Hud.  B.  Co.,  pp.  170-2;  Hines' 
Oregon,  pp.  103-19,  236;  Thornton's  Ogn.  and  Cal.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  52-3;  Dome- 
nech's  Desert's,  vol.  ii.,  p.  36;  Palmer's  Jour.,  pp.  84,  87;  Parker's  Explor. 
Tour.,  pp.  191-2.      'In  the  Wallamette  valley,  their  favorite  country,... 
there  are  but  few  remnants  left,  and  they  are  dispirited  and  broken-hearted.' 
Robertson's  Oregon,  p.  130. 

114  'The  personal  appearance  of  the  Chinooks  differs  so  much  from  that 
of  the  aboriginal  tribes  of  the  United  States,  that  it  was  difficult  at  first  to 
recognize  the  affinity.'  Pickering's  Races,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  p.  27. 
'  There  are  no  two  nations  in  Europe  so  dissimilar  as  the  tribes  to  the  north 
and  those  to  the  south  of  the  Columbia.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  i.,  p.  88; 
vol.  ii.,  p.  36.     '  Thick  set  limbs'  north;  'slight,'  south.  Id.,  vol.  i.,  p.  88; 
vol.  ii.,  p.  16.     '  Very  inferior  in  muscular  power.'  Id.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  15-16. 
'Among  the  ugliest  of  their  race.     They  are  below  the  middle  size,  with 
squat,  clumsy  forms.'  Hale's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  pp.  198,  216. 
The  men  from  five  feet  to  five  feet  six  inches  high,  with  well-shaped  limbs; 


CHINOOK  PHYSIQUE.  225 

Hyperboreans,  Columbians,  and  Californians  gradually 
assume  a  more  dusky  hue  as  we  proceed  southward. 
The  complexion  of  the  Chinooks  may  be  called  a  trifle 
darker  than  the  natives  of  the  Sound,  and  of  Vancouver; 
though  nothing  is  more  difficult  than  from  the  vague 
expressions  of  travelers  to  determine  shades  of  color.115 
Points  of  resemblance  have  been  noted  by  many  ob 
servers  between  .the  Chinook  and  Mongolian  physiog 
nomy,  consisting  chiefly  in  the  eyes  turned  obliquely 
upward  at  the  outer  corner.  The  face  is  broad  and 
round,  the  nose  flat  and  fat,  with  large  nostrils,  the 
mouth  wide  and  thick-lipped,  teeth  irregular  and  much 
worn,  eyes  black,  dull  and  expressionless ;  the  hair  gen 
erally  black  and  worn  long,  and"" the  beard  carefully 
plucked  out;  nevertheless,  their  features  are  often  reg 
ular.116 

the  women  six  to  eight  inches  shorter,"  with  bandy  legs,  thick  ankles,  broad, 
flat  feet,  loose  hanging  breasts.  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  303-4.  'A  dimin 
utive  race,  generally  below  five  feet  five  inches,  with  crooked  legs  and  thick 
ankles.'  'Broad,  flat  feet.'  Irving's  Astoria,  pp.  87,  336.  '  But  not  deficient 
in  strength  or  activity.'  Nicolay's  Oregon,  p.  145.  Men  '  stout,  muscular  and 
strong,  but  not  tall;'  women  'of  the  middle  size,  but  very  stout  and  flabby, 
with  short  necks  and  shapeless  limbs.'  Ross'  Adven. ,  pp.  89-93.  At  Cape 
Orford  none  exceed  five  feet  six  inches;  '  tolerably  well  limbed,  though  slen 
der  in  their  persons.'  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  204.  The  Willamette 
tribes  were  somewhat  larger  and  better  shaped  than  those  of  the  Columbia 
and  the  coast.  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.425, 436-7, 504,  508.  Hunter's  Cap., 
pp.  70-73;  Nines'  Voy.,  pp.  88,  91.  'Persons  of  the  men  generally  are  rather 
symmetrical;  their  stature  is  low,  with  light  sinewy  limbs,  and  remarkably 
small,  delicate  hands.  The  women  are  usually  more  rotund,  and,  in  some  in 
stances,  even  approach  obesity.'  Townsend's  Nar.,  p.  178.  ' Many  not  even 
five  feet.'  Francfiere's  Nar.,  pp.  240-1.  Can  endure  cold,  but  not  fatigue; 
sharp  sight  and  hearing,  but  obtuse  smell  and  taste.  'The  women  are  un 
couth,  and  from  a  combination  of  causes  appear  old  at  an  early  age.  Parker's 
Explor.  Tour.,  pp.  244-5.  'The  Indians  north  of  the  Columbia  are,  for  the 
most  part  good-looking,  robust  men,  some  of  them  having  fine,  symmetrical, 
forms.  They  have  been  represented  as  diminutive,  with  crooked  legs  and 
uncouth  features.  This  is  not  correct;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  the  direct  re 
verse  is  the  truth.'  Swan's  N.  W.  Coast,  p.  154;  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  122-3. 

115  The  following  terms  applied  to  Chinook  complexion  are  taken  from 
the  authors  quoted  in  the  preceding  note:  'Copper-colored  brown;'  'light 
copper  color;'    'light  olive;'    'fair  complexion.'     'Not  dark'  when  young. 
'  Rough  tanned  skins.'      'Dingy  copper.'     'Fairer'   than  eastern  Indians. 
Fairer  on  the  coast  than  on  the  Columbia.     Half-breeds  partake  of  the 
swarthy  hue  of  their  mothers. 

116  'The  Cheenook  cranium,  even  when  not  flattened,  is  long  and  narrow, 
compressed  laterally,  keel-shaped,  like  the  skull  of  the  Esquimaux.'     Broad 
and  high  cheek-bones,  with  a  receding  forehead.'  Scouler,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc. 
Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  220.    'Skulls. . .  .totally  devoid  of  any  peculiar  development.' 
Nose  flat,  nostrils  distended,  short  irregular  teeth ;  eyes  black,  piercing  and 

VOL.  I.   15 


226  COLUMBIANS. 

It  is  about  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  that  the  cus 
tom  of  flattening  the  head  seems  to  have  originated.  Ra 
diating  from  this  centre  in  all  directions,  and  becoming 
less  universal  and  important  as  the  distance  is  increased, 
the  usage  terminates  on  the  south  with  the  nations 
which  I  have  attached  to  the  Chinook  family,  is  rarely 
found  east  of  the  Cascade  Range,  but  extends,  as  we 
have  seen,  northward  through  all  the  coast  families,  al 
though  it  is  far  from  being  held  in  the  same  esteem  in  the 
far  north  as  in  its  apparently  original  centre.  The  or 
igin  of  this  deformity  is  unknown.  All  we  can  do  is  to 
refer  it  to  that  strange  infatuation  incident  to  humanity 
which  lies  at  the  root  of  fashion  and  ornamentation,  and 
which  even  in  these  later  times  civilization  is  not  able 
to  eradicate.  As  Alphonso  the  Wise  regretted  not  hav 
ing  been  present  at  the  creation — for  then  he  would 
have  had  the  world  to  suit  him — so  different  ages  and 
nations  strive  in  various  ways  to  remodel  and  improve 
the  human  form.  Thus  the  Chinese  lady  compresses 
the  feet,  the  European  the  waist,  and  the  Chinook  the 
head.  Slaves  are  not  allowed  to  indulge  in  this  extrav- 

treacherous.  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  115,  303.  '  Broad  faces,  low  foreheads, 
lank  black  hair,  wide  mouths.'  'Flat  noses,  and  eyes  turned  obliquely  up 
ward  at  the  outer  corner.'  Hole's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  pp.  198, 
216.  '  Faces  are  round,  with  small,  but  animated  eyes.  Their  noses  are 
broad  and  flat  at  the  top,  and  fleshy  at  the  end,  with  large  nostrils.'  Irving' s 
Astoria,  p.  336.  Portraits  of  two  Calapooya  Indians.  Pickering's  Races,  in 
U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  p.  14.  South  of  the  Columbia  they  have  4  long  faces, 
thin  lips, '  but  the  Calapooyas  in  Willamette  Valley  have  '  broad  faces,  low 
foreheads,'  and  the  Chinooks  have  'a  wide  face,  flat  nose,  and  eyes  turned 
obliquely  outwards.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  i.,  p.  88;  vol.  ii.,  pp.  15-16. 
'Dull  phlegmatic  want  of  expression  '  common  to  all  adults.  Nicolay's  Ogn. 
Ter.,  p.  145.  Women  '  well-featured,'  with  'light  hair,  and  prominent  eyes.' 
Ross'  Adven.,  pp.  89-93.  '  Their  features  rather  partook  of  the  general  Euro 
pean  character.'  Hair  long  and  black,  clean  and  neatly  combed.  Vancouver's 
\Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  204.  'Women  have,  in  general,  handsome  faces.'  'There 
Are  rare  instances  of  high  aquiline  noses;  the  eyes  are  generally  black,'  but 
.sometimes  'of  a  dark  yellowish  brown,  with  a  black  pupil.'  Lewis  and  Clarke's 
Trav.,  pp.  425,  436-7.  The  men  carefully  eradicate  every  vestige  of  a  beard. 
Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  124.  '  The  features  of  many  are  regular,  though  often 
<devoid  of  expression.'  Townsend's  Nar.,  p.  178.  '  Pluck  out  the  beard  at  its 
first  appearance.'  Kane's  Wand.,  p.  181.  Portrait  of  chief,  p.  174.  'A  few 
of  the  old  men  only  suffer  a  tuft  to  grow  upon  their  chins.'  Franchere's  JV'ar., 
p.  240.  One  of  the  Clatsops  '  had  the  reddest  hair  I  ever  saw,  and  a  fair 
skin,  much  freckled."  Gass'  Jour.,  p.  244;  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  75.  For  de 
scriptions  and  plates  of  Chinook  skulls  see  Morton's  Qrania,  pp.  202-13;  pi. 
42-7,  49,  50,  and  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  318-34. 


HEAD-FLATTENING  PHENOMENON.  227 

agance,  and  as  this  class  are  generally  of  foreign  tribes 
or  families,  the  work  of  ethnologists  in  classifying  skulls 
obtained  by  travelers,  and  thereby  founding  theories  of 
race  is  somewhat  complicated ;  but  the  difficulty  is  less 
ened  by  the  fact  that  slaves  receive  no  regular  burial, 
and  hence  all  skulls  belonging  to  bodies  from  native 
cemeteries  are  known  to  be  Chinook.117  The  Chinook 
ideal  of  facial  beauty  is  a  straight  line  from  the  end  of 
the  nose  to  the  crown  of  the  head.  The  flattening  of 
the  skull  is  effected  by  binding  the  infant  to  its  cradle 
immediately  after  birth,  and  keeping  it  there  from  three 
months  to  a  year.  The  simplest  form  of  cradle  is  a 
piece  of  board  or  plank  on  which  the  child  is  laid  upon 
its  back  with  the  head  slightly  raised  by  a  block  of  wood. 
Another  piece  of  wood,  or  bark,  or  leather,  is  then  placed 
over  the  forehead  and  tied  to  the  plank  with  strings 
which  are  tightened  more  and  more  each  day  until  the 
skull  is  shaped  to  the  required  pattern.  Space  is  left 
for  lateral  expansion ;  and  under  ordinary  circumstances 
the  child's  head  is  not  allowed  to  leave  its  position  until 
the  process  is  complete.  The  body  and  limbs  are  also 
bound  to  the  cradle,  but  more  loosely,  by  bandages, 
which  are  sometimes  removed  for  cleansing  purposes. 
Moss  or  soft  bark  is  generally  introduced  between  the 
skin  and  the  wood,  and  in  some  tribes  comfortable  pads, 

117  '  Practiced  by  at  least  ten  or  twelve  distinct  tribes  of  the  lower  country. ' 
Townsend's  Nar.,  pp.  175-6.  '  On  the  coast  it  is  limited  to  a  space  of  about 
one  hundred  and  seventy  miles,  extending  between  Cape  Flattery  and  Cape 
Look-out.  Inland,  it  extends  up  the  Columbia  to  the  first  rapids,  or  one 
hundred  and  forty  miles,  and  is  checked  at  the  falls  on  the  Wallamette.' 
lielcfter's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  307.  The  custom  'prevails  among  all  the  nations 
we  have  seen  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,'  but  'diminishes  in  receding 
eastward.'  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  p.  437.  'The  Indians  at  the  Dalles  do 
not  distort  the  head.'  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  263,  180-2.  'The  Chinooks  are 
the  most  distinguished  for  their  attachment  to  this  singular  usage.'  Hole's 
Ethnog.,  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  198.  The  tribes  from  the  Columbia 
River  to  Millbank  Sound  flatten  the  forehead,  also  the  Yakimas  and  Klikitats 
of  the  interior.  Tolmie,  in  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  231-2,  249.  'The  prac 
tice  prevails,  generally,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  to  the  Dalles,  about 
one  hundred  and  eighty  miles,  and  from  the  Straits  of  Fuca  on  the  north,  to 

Coos  Bay North  ward  of  the  Straits  it  diminishes  gradually  to  a  mere  slight 

compression,  finally  confined  to  women,  and  abandoned  entirely  north  of  Mil- 
bank  Sound.  So  east  of  the  Cascade  Mountains,  it  dies  out  in  like  manner.' 
Gibbs,  in  Nott  and  Gliddon's  Indig.  Races,  p.  337.  '  None  but  such  as  are  of 
noble  birth  are  allowed  to  flatten  their  skulls.'  Gray's  Hist.  Ogn.,  p.  197. 


228  COLUMBIANS. 

cushions,  or  rabbit-skins  are  employed.  The  piece  of 
wood  which  rests  upon  the  forehead  is  in  some  cases  at 
tached  to  the  cradle  by  leather  hinges,  and  instances  are 
mentioned  where  the  pressure  is  created  by  a  spring. 
A  trough  or  canoe-shaped  cradle,  dug  out  from  a  log, 
often  takes  the  place  of  the  simple  board,  and  among 
the  rich  this  is  elaborately  worked,  and  ornamented  with 
figures  and  shells.  The  child  while  undergoing  this 
process,  with  its  small  black  eyes  jammed  half  out  of 
their  sockets,  presents  a  revolting  picture.  Strangely 
enough,  however,  the  little  prisoner  seems  to  feel  scarcely 
any  pain,  and  travelers  almost  universally  state  that  no 
perceptible  injury  is  done  to  the  health  or  brain.  As 
years  advance  the  head  partially  but  not  altogether  re 
sumes  its  natural  form,  and  among  aged  persons  the 
effects  are  not  very  noticeable.  As  elsewhere,  the  per 
sonal  appearance  of  the  women  is  of  more  importance 
than  that  of  the  men,  therefore  the  female  child  is  sub 
jected  more  rigorously  and  longer  to  the  compressing 
process,  than  her  brothers.  Failure  properly  to  mould 
the  cranium  of  her  offspring  gives  to  the  Chinook  ma 
tron  the  reputation  of  a  lazy  and  undutiful  mother,  and 
subjects  the  neglected  children  to  the  ridicule  of  their 
young  companions;118  so  despotic  is  fashion.  A  prac- 

"8  All  authors  who  mention  the  Chinooks  have  something  to  say  of  this 
custom;  the  following  give  some  description  of  the  process  and  its  effects, 
containing,  however,  no  points  not  included  in  that  given  above.  Dunn's 
Oregon,  pp.  122-3,  128-30;  Ross'  Adi-en.,  pp.  99-100;  tiwan's  N.  W.  Coast, 
pp.  167-8,  with  cut;  Chamber's  Jour.,  vol.  x.,  pp.  111-2;  Belcher's  Voy.,  vol. 
i.,  pp.  307-11,  with  cuts;  Townsend's  Nar,,  pp.  175-6;  Hole's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S. 
Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  216;  Nicolay's  Ogn.  Ter.,  p.  150;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  294;  Irving's  Astoria,  p.  89;  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  p.  302;  Catlin'sN.»Am. 
Ind.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  110-11,  with  plate.  Females  remain  longer  than  the  boys. 
'Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  476,  437.  'Not  so  great  a  deformity  as  is  gen 
erally  supposed.'  Parker's  Explor.  Tour.,  pp.  142-3,  251-2.  'Looking  with 
contempt  even  upon  the  white  for  having  round  heads.'  Kane's  Wand.,  p.  181, 
204,  cut.  '  As  a  general  thing  the  tribes  that  have  followed  the  practice  of  flat 
tening  the  skull  are  inferior  in  intellect,  less  stirring  and  enterprising  in  their 
habits,  and  far  more  degraded  in  their  morals  than  other  tribes.'  Gray's  Hist. 
Ogn.,  p.  197.  Mr.  Gray  is  the  only  authority  I  have  seen  for  this  injurious 
effect,  except  Domenech,  who  pronounces  the  flat-heads  more  subject  to 
apoplexy  than  others.  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  87;  Gass'  Jour.,  pp.  224-5;  .Brown- 
ell's  Ind.  Races,  pp.  335-7;  Morton's  Crania  Am.,  pp.  203-13,  cut  of  cradle  and 
of  skulls;  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  349-50,  Atlas,  pi.  26;  Foster's  Pre-Hist. 
Races,  pp,  294-5,  328,  with  cut;  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  p.  124;  Wilson,  in 
SmWisonian  Eept.,  1862,  p.  287. 


CHINOOK  DEESS.  229 

tice  which  renders  the  Chinook  more  hideous  than  the 
compression  of  his  skull  is  that  of  piercing  or  slitting  the 
cartilage  of  the  nose  and  ears,  and  inserting  therein  long 
strings  of  beads  or  hiaqua  shells,  the  latter  being  prized 
above  all  other  ornaments.  Tattooing  seems  to  have 
been  practiced,  but  not  extensively,  taking  usually  the 
form  of  lines  of  dots  pricked  into  the  arms,  legs,  and 
cheeks  with  pulverized  charcoal.  Imitation  tattooing, 
with  the  bright-colored  juices  of  different  berries,  was 
a  favorite  pastime  with  the  women,  and  neither  sex 
could  resist  the  charms  of  salmon-grease  and  red  clay. 
In  later  times,  however,  according  to  Swan,  the  custom 
of  greasing  and  daubing  the  body  has  been  to  a  great 
extent  abandoned.  Great  pains  is  taken  in  dressing 
the  hair,  which  is  combed,  parted  in  the  middle,  and 
usually  allowed  to  hang  in  long  tresses  down  the  back, 
but  often  tied  up  in  a  queue  by  the  women  and  girls,  or 
braided  so  as  to  hang  in  two  tails  tied  with  strings.119 

For  dress,  skins  were  much  more  commonly  used  in 
this  region  than  among  other  coast  families ;  particularly 
the  skins  of  the  smaller  animals,  as  the  rabbit  and  wood- 
rat.  These  skins,  dressed  and  often  painted,  were  sewed 
together  so  as  to  form  a  robe  or  blanket  similar  in  form  and 
use  to  the  more  northern  blanket  of  wool,  which,  as  well 
as  a  similar  garment  of  goose-skin  with  the  feathers  on, 
was  also  made  and  worn  by  the  Chinooks,  though  not  in 

119  The  Multnomah  women's  hair  'is  most  commonly  braided  into  two 
tresses  falling  over  each  ear  in  front  of  the  body.'  ieicis  and  Clarke's  Trav., 
pp.  508-9,  416,  425-6,  437-8.  The  Clackamas  'tattoo  themselves  below  the 
mouth,  which  gives  a  light  blue  appearance  to  the  countenance.'  Kane's 
Wand.,  pp.  241,184-5,  256.  At  Cape  Orford  'they  seemed  to  prefer  the  comforts 
of  cleanliness  to  the  painting  of  their  bodies.'  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  204. 
On  the  Columbia  '  in  the  decoration  of  their  persons  they  surpassed  all  the 
other  tribes  with  paints  of  different  colours,  feathers  and  other  ornaments.' 
Id.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  77.  'Us  mettent  toute  leur  vanite  dans  leurs  colliers  et  leurs 
pendants  d'oreilles.'  De  Smet,  Miss,  de  V Oregon,  p.  45.  '  Some  of  these  girls 
I  have  seen  with  the  whole  rim  of  their  ears  bored  full  of  holes,  into  each 
of  which  would  be  inserted  a  string  of  these  shells  that  reached  to  the  floor, 
and  the  whole  weighing  so  heavy  that  to  save  their  ears  from  being  pulled 
off  they  were  obliged  to  wear  a  band  across  the  top  of  the  head.'  'I  never 


have  seen  either  men  or  women  put  oil  or  grease  of  any  kind  on  their  bodies.' 
8wan'»  N.  W.  Coast,  pp.  112,  158-9.  See  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  115,  123-4; 
Cox's  Adven.,  pp.  111-12;  Pickering's  Races,  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  p.  25; 
Irving' 's  Astoria,  pp.  336-8;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  354;  Franchere's 


Nar.,  p.  244. 


230  COLUMBIANS. 

common  use  among  them.  They  prefer  to  go  naked 
when  the  weather  permits.  Skins  of  larger  animals,  as 
the  deer  and  elk,  are  also  used  for  clothing,  and  of  the 
latter  is  made  a  kind  of  arrow-proof  armor  for  war  ;  an- 
another  coat  of  mail  being  made  of  sticks  bound  together. 
Females  almost  universally  wear  a  skirt  of  cedar  bark- 
fibre,  fastened  about  the  waist  and  hanging  to  the  knees. 
This  garment  is  woven  for  a  few  inches  at  the  top,  but 
the  rest  is  simply  a  hanging  fringe,  not  very  effectually 
concealing  the  person.  A  substitute  for  this  petticoat  in 
some  tribes  is  a  square  piece  of  leather  attached  to  a 
belt  in  front;  and  in  others  a  long  strip  of  deer-skin 
passed  between  the  thighs  and  wound  about  the  waist. 
A  fringed  garment,  like  that  described,  is  also  sometimes 
worn  about  the  shoulders;  in  cold  weather  a  fur  robe  is 
wrapped  about  the  body  from  the  hips  to  the  armpits, 
forming  a  close  and  warm  vest;  and  over  all  is  some 
times  thrown  a  cape,  or  fur  blanket,  like  that  of  the 
men,  varying  in  quality  and  value  with  the  wealth  of 
the  wearer.  The  best  are  made  of  strips  of  sea-otter 
skin,  woven  with  grass  or  cedar  bark,  so  that  the  fur 
shows  on  both  sides.  Chiefs  and  men  of  wealth  wear 
rich  robes  of  otter  and  other  valuable  furs.  The  conical 
hat  woven  of  grass  and  bark,  and  painted  in  black  and 
white  checks  or  with  rude  figures,  with  or  without  a  brim, 
and  fastened  under  the  chin;  is  the  only  covering  for  the 
head.120 

120  «  These  robes  are  in  general,  composed  of  the  skins  of  a  small  animal, 
•which  we  have  supposed  to  be  the  brown  mungo.'  '  Sometimes  they  have 
a  blanket  woven  with  the  fingers,  from  the  wool  of  their  native  sheep.'  Ev 
ery  part  of  the  body  but  the  back  and  shoulders  is  exposed  to  view.  The 
Nechecolies  had  '  larger  and  longer  robes,  which  are  generally  of  deer  skin 
dressed  in  the  hair.'  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  392,  425-6,  438,  504-9, 
522.  '  I  have  often  seen  them  going  about,  half  naked,  when  the  thermometer 
ranged  between  30°  and  40J,  and  their  children  barefooted  and  barelegged  in 
the  snow.'  '  The  lower  Indians  do  not  dress  as  well,  nor  with  as  good  taste, 
as  the  upper.'  Parker's  Explor.  Tour.,  pp.  244-5.  The  fringed  skirt  'is  still 
used  by  old  women,  and  by  all  the  females  when  they  are  at  work  in  the  water, 
and  is  called  by  them  their  siwash  coat.'  Swan's  N.  W.  Coast,  pp.  154-5. 
Ross'  Adven.,  pp.  89-93;  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  123-4;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol. 
-16,  281-2, 


ii.,  pp.  15-16,  281-2,288;  Townsend's  Nar.,  p.  178;  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  184-5; 
Franchere's  Nar.,  pp.  242-4.  The  conical  cap  reminded  Pickering  of  the 
Siberian  tribes.  Races,  in  IT.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  pp.  25,  39;  Cox's  Adven., 
vol.  i.,  pp.  111-12,  126-7;  Hines'  Voy.,  p.  107.  Collars  of  bears'  claws,  for 


DWELLINGS  OF  THE  CHINOOKS.  231 

The  Chinooks  moved  about  less  for  the  purpose  of  ob 
taining  a  supply  of  food,  than  many  others,  even  of  the 
coast  families,  yet  the  accumulation  of  filth  or — a  much 
stronger  motive — of  fleas,  generally  forced  them  to  take 
down  their  winter  dwellings  each  spring,  preserving 
the  materials  for  re-erection  on  the  same  or  another 
spot.  The  best  houses  were  built  of  cedar  planks  at 
tached  by  bark-fibre  cords  to  a  frame,  which  consisted 
of  four  corner,  and  two  central  posts  and  a  ridge  pole. 
The  planks  of  the  sides  and  ends  were  sometimes  per 
pendicular,  but  oftener  laid  horizontally,  overlapping  here 
in  clapboard  fashion  as  on  the  roof.  In  some  localities 
the  roof  and  even  the  whole  structure  was  of  cedar  bark. 
These  dwellings  closely  resembled  those  farther  north, 
but  were  somewhat  inferior  in  size,  twenty-five  to  sev 
enty-five  feet  long,  and  fifteen  to  twenty-five  feet  wide, 
being  the  ordinary  dimensions.  On  the  Columbia  they 
were  only  four  or  five  feet  high  at  the  eaves,  but  an 
equal  depth  was  excavated  in  the  ground,  while  on  the 
Willamette  the  structure  was  built  on  the  surface.  The 
door  was  only  just  large  enough  to  admit  the  body,  and 
it  was  a  favorite  fancy  of  the  natives  to  make  it  repre 
sent  the  mouth  of  an  immense  head  painted  round  it. 
Windows  there  were  none,  nor  chimney;  one  or  more 
fireplaces  were  sunk  in  the  floor,  and  the  smoke  escaped 
by  the  cracks,  a  plank  in  the  roof  being  sometimes  moved 
for  the  purpose.  Mats  were  spread  on  the  floor  and 
raised  berths  were  placed  on  the  sides,  sometimes  in 
several  tiers.  Partitions  of  plank  or  matting  separated 
the  apartments  of  the  several  families.  Smaller  tempo 
rary  huts,  and  the  permanent  homes  of  the  poorer  In 
dians  were  built  in  various  forms,  of  sticks,  covered  with 
bark,  rushes,  or  skins.  The  interior  and  exterior  of  all 
dwellings  were  in  a  state  of  chronic  filth.121 

the  men,  and  elks'  tusks  for  the  women  and  children.  Irving's  Astoria,  pp. 
336-8;  Gass'  Jour.,  pp.  232,  239-40,  242-4,  267,  274,  278,  282. 

121  '  Their  houses  seemed  to  be  more  comfortable  than  those  at  Nootka, 
the  roof  having  a  greater  inclination,  and  the  planking  being  thatched  over 
with  the  bark  of  trees.  The  entrance  is  through  a  hole,  in  a  broad  plank, 
covered  in  such  a  manner  as  to  resemble  the  face  of  a  man,  the  mouth  serv- 


232  COLUMBIANS. 

The  salmon  fisheries  of  the  Columbia  are  now  fa 
mous  throughout  the  world.  Once  every  year  innumer 
able  multitudes  of  these  noble  fish  enter  the  river  from 
the  ocean  to  deposit  their  spawn.  Impelled  by  instinct, 
they  struggle  to  reach  the  extreme  limits  of  the  stream, 
working  their  way  in  blind  desperation  to  the  very  sources 
of  every  little  branch,  overcoming  seeming  impossibili 
ties,  and  only  to  fulfill  their  destiny  and  die ;  for  if  they 
escape  human  enemies,  they  either  kill  themselves  in 
their  mad  efforts  to  leap  impassable  falls,  or  if  their 
efforts  are  crowned  with  success,  they  are  supposed  nev 
er  to  return  to  the  ocean.  This  fishery  has  always  been 
the  chief  and  an  inexhaustible  source  of  food  for  the 
Chinooks,  who,  although  skillful  fishermen,  have  not 
been  obliged  to  invent  a  great  variety  of  methods  or 
implements  for  the  capture  of  the  salmon,  which  rarely 
if  ever  have  failed  them.  Certain  ceremonies  must, 
however,  be  observed  with  the  first  .fish  taken ;  his  meat 
must  be  cut  only  with  the  grain,  and  the  hearts  of  all 
caught  must  be  burned  or  eaten,  and  on  no  account  be 
thrown  into  the  water  or  be  devoured  by  a 'dog.  With 
these  precautions  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the 
Chinook  would  ever  lack  a  supply  of  fish.  The  salmon 
begin  to  run  in  April,  but  remain  several  weeks  in  the 

ing  the  purpose  of  a  door- way.  The  fire-place  is  sunk  into  the  earth,  and  con 
fined  from  spreading  above  by  a  wooden  frame.'  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii., 
p.  77.  Emmons,  in  Schooler  aft's  Archives,  vol.  iii.,  p.  206,  speaks  of  a  pali 
sade  enclosure  ten  or  fifteen  feet  high,  with  a  covered  way  to  the  river.  '  The 
Indian  huts  on  the  banks  of  the  Columbia  are,  for  the  most  part,  constructed 
of  the  bark  of  trees,  pine  branches,  and  brambles,  which  are  sometimes  cov 
ered  with  skins  or  rags. '  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  260.  But '  the  Chinooks 
build  their  houses  of  thick  and  broad  planks,'  etc.  Id.  Lewis  and  Clarke 
saw  a  house  in  the  Willamette  Valley  two  hundred  and  twenty-six  feet  long, 
divided  into  two  ranges  of  large  apartments  separated  by  a  narrow  alley  four 
feet  wide.  Travels,  pp.  502-4,  509,  431-2,  415-16,  409,  392.  The  door  is  a 
piece  of  board  'which  hangs  loose  by  a  string,  like  a  sort  of  pendulum,' 
and  is  self-closing.  Swan's  N.  W.  Coast,  pp.  110-11.  'The  tribes  near  the 
coast  remove  less  frequently  than  those  of  the  interior.'  California,  Past,  Pres 
ent  and  Future,  p.  136.  'I  never  saw  more  than  four  fires,  or  above  eighty  per 
sons — slaves  and  all — in  the  largest  house.'  Boss'  Adven.,  pp.  98-9;  Palmer's 
Jour.,  pp.  86,  108;  Irving' s  Astoria,  p.  322;  Nicolay's  Ogn.,  144,  148-9;  Cox's 
Adven.,  vol.  i.,  p.  327,  from  Lewis  and  Clarke;  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  135-7,  from 
Lewis  and  Clarke;  Parker's  Fxplor.  Tour.,  pp.  144-5,  178-9,  245;  Franchere's 
Nar.,  pp.  247-8;  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  65;  Townsend's  Nar.,  p.  181;  Kane's 
Wand.,  pp.  187-8;  Bale's  Ethnog.  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  pp.  204,  216-17; 
Strickland's  Hist.  Missions,  pp.  136-9. 


FISHEKIES  OF  THE  CHINOOKS.  2S3 

warmer  waters  near  the  mouth,  and  are  there  taken 
while  in  their  best  condition,  by  the  Chinook  tribe  proper, 
with  a  straight  net  of  bark  or  roots,  sometimes  five  hund 
red  feet  long  and  fifteen  feet  deep,  with  floats  and  sink 
ers.  One  end  of  the  net  is  carried  out  into  the  river  at 
high  water,  and  drawn  in  by  the  natives  on  the  shore, 
wrho  with  a  mallet  quiet  the  fish  and  prevent  them 
from  jumping  over  the  net  and  escaping.  Farther  up, 
especially  at  the  Cascades  and  at  the  falls  of  the  Willa 
mette,  salmon  are  speared  by  natives  standing  on  the 
rocks  or  on  planks  placed  for  the  purpose ;  scooped  up  in 
small  dip-nets ;  or  taken  with  a  large  unbaited  hook  at 
tached  by  a  socket  and  short  line  to  a  long  pole.  There 
is  some  account  of  artificial  channels  of  rocks  at  these 
places,  but  such  expedients  were  generally  not  needed, 
since,  beside  those  caught  by  the  Chinooks,  such  numbers 
were  cast  on  the  rocks  by  their  own  efforts  to  leap  the 
falls,  that  the  air  for  months  was  infected  by  the  decay 
ing  mass ;  and  many  of  these  in  a  palatable  state  of  decay 
were  gathered  by  the  natives  for  food.  Hooks,  spears, 
and  nets  were  sometimes  rubbed  with  the  juice  of  cer 
tain  plants  supposed  to  be  attractive  to  the  fish.  Once 
taken,  the  salmon  were  cleaned  by  the  women,  dried 
in  the  sun  and  smoked  in  the  lodges;  then  they  were 
sometimes  powdered  fine  between  two  stones,  before  pack 
ing  in  skins  or  mats  for  winter  use.  The  heads  were 
always  eaten  as  favorite  portions  during  the  fishing  sea 
son.  Next  to  the  salmon  the  sturgeon  was  ranked  as  a 
source  of  food.  This  fish,  weighing  from  two  hundred 
to  five  hundred  pounds,  was  taken  by  a  baited  hook, 
sunk  about  twenty  feet,  and  allowed  to  float  down  the 
current;  when  hooked,  the  sturgeon  rises  suddenly  and  is 
dispatched  by  a  spear,  lifted  into  the  canoe  by  a  gaff- 
hook,  or  towed  ashore.  The  Chinooks  do  not  attack  the 
whale,  but  when  one  is  accidentally  cast  upon  the  shore, 
more  or  less  decayed,  a  season  of  feasting  ensues  and  the 
native  heart  is  glad.  Many  smaller  varieties  of  fish  are 
taken  by  net,  spear,  hook,  or  rake,  but  no  methods  are 
employed  meriting  special  description.  Wild  fowl  are 


234  COLUMBIANS. 

snared  or  shot;  elk  and  deer  are  shot  with  arrows  or 
taken  in  a  carefully  covered  pit,  dug  in  their  favorite 
haunts.  As  to  the  methods  of  taking  rabbits  and  wood- 
rats,  whose  skins  are  said  to  have  been  so  extensively 
used  for  clothing,  I  find  no  information.  Nuts,  berries, 
wild  fruits  and  roots  are  all  used  as  food,  and  to  some 
extent  preserved  for  winter.  The  Wapato,  a  bulbous 
root,  compared  by  some  to  the  potatoe  and  turnip,  was 
the  aboriginal  staple,  and  was  gathered  by  women  wrad- 
ing  in  shallow  ponds,  and  separating  the  root  with  their 
toes.122  Boiling  in  wooden  kettles  by  means  of  hot 
stones,  was  the  usual  manner  of  cooking,  but  roasting  on 
sticks  stuck  in  the  sand  near  the  fire  was  also  common. 
Clam-shells  and  a  few  rude  platters  and  spoons  of  wood 
were  in  use,  but  the  fingers,  with  the  hair  for  a  napkin, 

122  «In  the  summer  they  resort  to  the  principal  rivers  and  the  sea  coast,' 
. . .  .retiring  to  the  smaller  rivers  of  the  interior  during  the  cold  season. '  Warre 
and  Vavasour,  in  Martin's  Hud.  Bay,  p.  83.  All  small  fish  are  driven  into 
the  small  coves  or  shallow  waters,  '  when  a  number  of  Indians  in  canoes  con 
tinue  splashing  the  water;  while  others  sink  branches  of  pine.  The  fish  are 
then  taken  easily  out  with  scoops  or  wicker  baskets.'  Thornton's  Ogn.  and  Cal., 
vol.  i.,  pp.  389,  288-9,  384-6,  390-1.''  Fish  '  are  not  eaten  till  they  become  soft 
from  keeping,  when  they  are  mashed  with  water. '  In  the  Willamette  Valley 
they  raised  corn,  beans,  and  squashes.  Hunter's  Cap.,  pp.  70-2.  A  '  stur 
geon,  though  weighing  upwards  of  three  hundred  pounds,  is,  by  the  single 
effort  of  one  Indian,  jerked  into  the  boat'!  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  135,  114-15, 
134,  137-9.  The  Umpquas,  to  cook  salmon,  'all  provided  themselves  with 
sticks  about  three  feet  long,  pointed  at  one  end  and  split  at  the  other.  They 
then  apportioned  the  salmon,  each  one  taking  a  large  piece,  and  filling  it  with 
splinters  to  prevent  its  falling  to  pieces  when  cooking,  which  they  fastened 
with  great  care,  into  the  forked  end  of  the  stick;. .  .  .then  placing  themselves 
around  the  fire  so  as  to  describe  a  circle,  they  stuck  the  pointed  end  of  the 
stick  into  the  ground,  a  short  distance  from  the  fire,  inclining  the  top  towards 
the  flames,  so  as  to  bring  the  salmon  in  contact  with  the  heat,  thus  forming  a 
kind  of  pyramid  of  salmon  over  the  whole  fire.'  Hines'.  Voy,  p.  102;  Id.  Ogn.,  p. 
306.  '  There  are  some  articles  of  food  which  are  mashed  by  the  teeth  before 
being  boiled  or  roasted;  this  mastication  is  performed  by  the  women.'  Dome- 
nech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  314, 16,  240-2.  '  The  salmon  in  this  country  are  never 
caught  with  a  (baited)  hook.'  Wilkes'  Hist.  Ogn.,  p.  107.  '  Turbot  and  floun 
ders  are  caught  (at  Shoalwater  Bay)  while  wading  in  the  water,  by  means  of 
the  feet.'  Sican's  N.  W.  Coast,  pp.  38,  83,  103-8,  140,  163-6,  with  cuts.  On 


food,  see  Boss'  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  94-5,  97,  112-3;  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  pp. 
"  j's  Trav.,  pp.  409-15,  422,  425,  430-1,  445,  506; 

,  pp.  6 
144,  147-8;  P'almer's  Jour.,  pp.  84,  105;  Parker's  Explor.  Tour.  ~ p.  244;  Irv- 


, 

68-9,  181-3;  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  409-15,  422,  425,  430-1,  445 

.  60 


Wells,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xiii.,  pp.  605-7,  with  cuts;  Nicolay's  Ogn.,  pp. 
144,  147-8;  Palmer's  Jour.,  pp.  84,  105;  Parker's  Explor.  Tour.,  p.  244;  Irv 
ing' 8  Astoria,  pp.  86,  335;  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  p.  329-32;  vol  ii.,  pp.  128-31; 
Catlin's  N.  Am.  Ind.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  113;  Abbott,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  RepL,  vol.  vi.,  p. 
89;  Ind.  Life,  p.  165;  Pickering's  Races,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  p.  26; 
Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  185-9;  Franchere's  Nar.,  pp.  235-7;  Gass'  Jour.,  pp.  224, 
230-1,  282-3;  Fe'dix,  L' Oregon,  pp.  44-5;  Stanly's  Portraits,  pp.  59-62. 


WEAPONS  OF  THE  CHINOOKS.  235 

were  found  much  more  convenient  table  ware.123  In  all 
their  personal  habits  the  Chinooks  are  disgustingly  filthy, 
although  said  to  be  fond  of  baths  for  health  and  pleas 
ure.  The  Clatsops,  as  reported  by  one  visitor,  form  a 
partial  exception  to  this  rule,  as  they  occasionally  wash 
the  hands  and  face.12* 

Their  chief  weapons  are. bows  and  arrows,  the  former 
of  which  is  made  of  cedar,  or  occasionally,  as  it  is  said, 
of  horn  and  bone;  its  elasticity  is  increased  by  a  cov 
ering  of  sinew  glued  on.  The  arrow-head  is  of  bone, 
flint,  or  copper,  and  the  shaft  consists  of  a  short  piece  of 
some  hard  wood,  and  a  longer  one  of  a  lighter  material. 
The  bows  are  from  two  and  a  half  to  four  feet  long ;  five 
styles,  differing  in  form  and  curve,  are  pictured  by  School- 
craft.  Another  weapon  in  common  use  was  a  double- 
edged  wooden  broad-sword,  or  sharp  club,  two  and  a  half 
or  three  feet  long ;  spears,  tomahawks,  and  scalping  knives 
are  mentioned  by  many  travelers,  but  not  described,  and 
it  is  doubtful  if  either  were  ever  used  by  these  aborig 
ines.125  I  have  already  spoken  of  their  thick  arrow- 
proof  elk-skin  armor,  and  of  a  coat  of  short  sticks  bound 
together  with  grass;  a  bark  helmet  is  also  employed  of 
sufficient  strength  to  ward  off  arrows  and  light  blows. 
Ross  states  that  they  also  carry  a  circular  elk-skin  shield 
about  eighteen  inches  in  diameter.  Although  by  no 
means  a  blood-thirsty  race,  the  Chinook  tribes  were  fre 
quently  involved  in  quarrels,  resulting,  it  is  said,  from 
the  abduction  of  women  more  frequently  than  from  other 
causes.  They,  like  almost  all  other  American  tribes, 


123  For  description  of  the  various  roots  and  berries  used  by  the  Chinooks 
as  food,  see  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  450-5. 

124  The  Multnomahs  '  are  very  fond  of  cold,  hot,  and  vapour  baths,  which 
are  used  at  all  seasons,  and  for  the  purpose  of  health  as  well  as  pleasure. 
They,  however,  add  a  species  of  bath  peculiar  to  themselves,  by  washing  the 
whole  body  with  urine  every  morning.'  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  509, 
409.     Eat  insects  from  each  other's  head,  for  the  animals  bite  them,  and 
they  claim  the  right  to  bite  back.  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  183-4. 

Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  323-4;  vol.  ii.,  p.  13;  Irving' s  Astoria,  pp.  324, 


338;  Ross'  Adven.,  p.  90;  Kane's  Wand.,  p.  189;  Catlin's  N.  Am.  Ind.,  vol.  ii., 

pp. 124-5;  ~ 
31,  509;  Hines'  Ogn.,  p.  110;  Franchere's  Nar.,  p.  253;  Emmons,  in  Schooler  aft' s 


p.  113,  pi.  210%;  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  124-5;  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  429- 
31,  509;  Hines'  Ogn.,  p.  110;  Franchere's  " 
Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  206-7,  215-16,  468. 


236  COLUMBIANS. 

make  a  free  use  of  war  paint,  laying  it  on  grotesquely 
and  in  bright  colors ;  but  unlike  most  other  nations,  they 
never  resorted  to  treachery,  surprise,  night  attacks,  or 
massacre  of  women  and  children.  Fighting  was  gen 
erally  done  upon  the  water.  When  efforts  to  settle  am 
icably  their  differences,  always  the  first  expedient,  failed, 
a  party  of  warriors,  covered  from  head  to  foot  with  armor, 
and  armed  with  bows,  arrows,  and  bludgeons,  was  pad 
dled  by  women  to  the  enemies'  village,  where  diplomatic 
efforts  for  peace  were  renewed.  If  still  unsuccessful,  the 
women  were  removed  from  danger,  and  the  battle  com 
menced,  or,  if  the  hour  was  late,  fighting  was  postponed 
till  the  next  morning.  As  their  armor  was  arrow-proof 
and  as  they  rarely  came  near  enough  for  hand-to-hand 
conflict,  the  battles  were  of  short  duration  and  accompa 
nied  by  little  bloodshed ;  the  fall  of  a  few  warriors  de 
cided  the  victory,  the  victors  gained  their  point  in  the 
original  dispute,  the  vanquished  paid  some  damages,  and 
the  affair  ended.120 

Troughs  dug  out  of  one  piece  of  cedar,  and  woven 
baskets  served  this  people  for  dishes,  and  were  used  for 
every  purpose.  The  best  baskets  were  of  silk  grass  or 
fine  fibre,  of  a  conical  form,  woven  in  colors  so  closely 
as  to  hold  liquids,  and  with  a  capacity  of  from  one  to 
six  gallons.  Coarser  baskets  were  made  of  roots  and 
rushes,  rude  spoons  of  ash-wood,  and  circular  mats  did 
duty  as  plates.  Wapato  diggers  used  a  curved  stick 
with  handle  of  horn ;  fish-hooks  and  spears  were  made 
of  wood  and  bone  in  a  variety  of  forms;  the  wing-bone 
of  the  crane  supplied  a  needle.  With  regard  to  their 
original  cutting  instruments,  by  which  trees  were  felled 
for  canoes  or  for  planks  which  were  split  off  by  wedges, 
there  is  much  uncertainty;  since  nearly  all  authorities 

126  « When  the  conflict  is  postponed  till  the  next  day, ....  they  keep  up 
frighful  cries  all  night  long,  and,  when  they  are  sufficiently  near  to  understand 
each  other,  defy  one  another  by  menaces,  railleries,  and  sarcasms,  like  the 
heroes  of  Homer  and  Virgil.'  Franchere's  Nar.,  pp.  251-4;  Cox's  Adven.,vo\. 
i.,  pp.  322-3;  Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  124;  Irving' s  Astoria,  pp.  340-1;  Ross'  Fur 
Hunters  vol.  i.,  pp.  88,  105-8;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  354;  Stanty's 
Portraits,  pp.  61-2;  Foster's  Pre-Hist.  Races,  p.  232. 


•  IMPLEMENTS,  MANUFACTUKES,  BOATS.  237 

state  that  before  their  intercourse  with  Europeans,  chisels 
made  of i  old  files/  were  employed,  and  driven  by  an  oblong 
stone  or  a  spruce-knot  mallet.  Pipe-bowls  were  of  hard 
wood  fitted  to  an  elder  stem,  but  the  best  ones,  of  stone  ele 
gantly  carved,  were  of  Haidah  manufacture  and  obtained 
from  the  north.127  To  kindle  a  fire  the  Chinook  twirls 
rapidly  between  the  palms  a  cedar  stick,  the  point  of 
which  is  pressed  into  a  small  hollow  in  a  flat  piece  of  the 
same  material,  the  sparks  falling  on  finely-frayed  bark. 
Sticks  are  commonly  carried  for  the  purpose,  improving 
with  use.  Besides  woven  baskets,  matting  is  the  chief 
article  of  Chinook  manufacture.  It  is  made  by  the  wo 
men  by  placing  side  by  side  common  bulrushes  or  flags 
about  three  feet  long,  tying  the  ends,  and  passing  strings 
of  twisted  rushes  through  the  whole  length,  sometimes 
twenty  or  thirty  feet,  about  four  inches  apart,  by  means 
of  a  bone  needle.128 

Chinook  boats  do  not  differ  essentially,  either  in  mate 
rial,  form,  or  method  of  manufacture,  from  those  already 
described  as  in  use  among  the  Sound  family.  Always  dug 
out  of  a  single  log  of  white  cedar,  fir,  or  pine,  they  vary  in 
length  from  ten  to  fifty  feet,  and  in  form  according  to  the 
waters  they  are  intended  to  navigate  or  the  freight  they 
are  to  carry.  In  these  canoes  lightness,  strength,  and  ele 
gance  combine  to  make  them  perfect  models  of  water- 
craft.  Lewis  and  Clarke  describe  four  forms  in  use  in 
this  region,  and  their  description  of  boats,  as  of  most  other 
matters  connected  with  this  people,  has  been  taken  with 
or  without  credit  by  nearly  all  who  have  treated  of  the 
subject.  I  cannot  do  better  than  to  give  their  account 
of  the  largest  and  best  boats  used  by  the  Killamooks  and 


127  Pickering  makes  '  the  substitution  of  the  water-proof  basket,  for  the 
square  wooden  bucket  of  the  straits '  the  chief  difference  between  this  and 
the  Sound  Family.  Races,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol  ix.,  p.  25;  Emmons,  in  /School- 
craft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  206;  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  77;  Ross'  Adven., 
p.  92;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  241,  260;  Franchere's  Nar.,  pp.  248-9; 
Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp,  432-5;  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  329-32;  Dunn's 
Oregon,  pp.  138-9;  Catlin's  N.  Am.  Lid.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  113,  pi.  210%,  showing 
cradle,  ladles,  Wapato  diggers,  Paulomaugons,  or  war  clubs  and  pipes.  Park 
er's  Explor.  Tour.,  pp.  248-9;  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  184-5,  188-9. 

128  Swan's  N.  W.  Coast,  pp.  161-3;  Parker's  Explor.  Tour.,  p.  253. 


238  COLUMBIANS. 

other  tribes  on  the  coast  outside  the  river.  "The  sides 
are  secured  by  cross-bars,  or  round  sticks,  two  or  three 
inches  in  thickness,  which  are  inserted  through  holes 
just  below  the  gunwale,  and  made  fast  with  cords.  The 
upper  edge  of  the  gunwale  itself  is  about  five-eighths 
of  an  inch  thick,  and  four  or  five  in  breadth,  and  folds 
outwards,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  rim,  which  prevents 
the  water  from  beating  into  the  boat.  The  bow  and  stern 
are  about  the  same  height,  and  each  provided  with  a 
cornb,  reaching  to  the  bottom  of  the  boat.  At  each  end, 
also,  are  pedestals,  formed  of  the  same  solid  piece,  on 
which  are  placed  strange  grotesque  figures  of  men  or 
animals,  rising  sometimes  to  the  height  of  five  feet,  and 
composed  of  small  pieces  of  wood,  firmly  united,  with  great 
ingenuity,  by  inlaying  and  mortising,  without  a  spike 
of  any  kind.  The  paddle  is  usually  from  four  feet  and 
a  half  to  five  feet  in  length ;  the  handle  being  thick  for 
one-third  of  its  length,  when  it  ^widens,  and  is  hollowed 
and  thinned  on  each  side  of  the  centre,  which  forms  a 
sort  of  rib.  When  they  embark,  one  Indian  sits  in  the 
stern,  and  steers  with  a  paddle,  the  others  kneel  in  pairs 
in  the  bottom  of  the  canoe,  and  sitting  on  their  heels, 
paddle  over  the  gunwale  next  to  them.  In  this  way 
they  ride  with  perfect  safety  the  highest  waves,  and  ven 
ture  without  the  least  concern  in  seas  where  other  boats 
or  seamen  could  not  live  an  instant."  The  women  are 
as  expert  as  the  men  in  the  management  of  canoes.129 

The  Chinooks  were  always  a  commercial  rather  than 
a  warlike  people,  and  are  excelled  by  none  in  their 

129  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  433-5.  'Hollowed  out  of  the  cedar  by 
fire,  and  smoothed  off  with  stone  axes.'  Itane's  Wand.,  p.  189.  At  Cape  Or- 
ford  '  their  shape  much  resembled  that  of  a  butcher's  tray.'  Vancouver's  Voy., 
vol.  i.,  p.  204.  '  A  human  face  or  a  white-headed  eagle,  as  large  as  life,  carved 
on  the  prow,  and  raised  high  in  front.'  Itoss'  Adven.,  pp.  97-8.  'In  landing 
they  put  the  canoe  round,  so  as  to  strike  the  beach  stern  on.'  Franchere's 
ftar.,  p.  246.  '  The  larger  canoes  on  the  Columbia  are  sometimes  propelled 
by  short  oars.'  Emmons,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  218.  'Finest  ca 
noes  in  the  world.'  Wiikes'  Hist.  Oan.,  p.  107;  Parker's  Explor.  Tour.,  p.  252; 
Dimn'H  Oregon,  pp.  121-2;  Swan's  N.  W.  Coast,  pp.  79-82,  with  cuts;  Irving's 
Astoria,  pp.  86,  324;  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  325-7;  Hole's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S. 
Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  217;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  276-7;  Brownells  Ind. 
Races,  pp.  535-7;  Gass'  Jour.,  p.  279. 


CHINOOK  PROPERTY  AND  TRADE.  239 

shrewdness  at  bargaining.  Before  the  arrival  of  the 
Europeans  they  repaired  annually  to  the  region  of  the 
Cascades  and  Dalles,  where  they  met  the  tribes  of  the 
interior,  with  whom  they  exchanged  their  few  articles  of 
trade — fish,  oil,  shells,  and  Wapato — for  the  skins,  roots, 
and  grasses  of  their  eastern  neighbors.  The  coming  of 
ships  to  the  coast  gave  the  Chinooks  the  advantage  in 
this  trade,  since  they  controlled  the  traffic  in  beads, 
trinkets  and  weapons;  they  found  also  in  the  strangers 
ready  buyers  of  the  skins  obtained  from  the  interior  in 
exchange  for  these  articles.  Their  original  currency  or 
standard  of  value  was  the  hiaqua  shell  from  the  north 
ern  coast,  whose  value  was  in  proportion  to  its  length,  a 
fathom  string  of  forty  shells  being  worth  nearly  double 
a  string  of  fifty  to  the  fathom.  Since  the  white  men 
came,  beaver-skins  and  blankets  have  been  added  to  their 
currency.  Individuals  were  protected  in  their  rights  to 
personal  property,  such  as  slaves,  canoes,  and  imple 
ments,  but  they  had  no  idea  of  personal  property  in 
lands,  the  title  to  which  rested  in  the  tribe  for  purposes 
of  fishing  and  the  chase.130 

In  decorative  art  this  family  cannot  be  said  to  hold  a 
high  place  compared  with  more  northern  nations,  their 
only  superior  work  being  the  modeling  of  their  canoes, 
and  the  weaving  of  ornamental  baskets.  In  carving 
they  are  far  inferior  to  the  Haidahs ;  the  Cathlamets,  ac 
cording  to  Lewis  and  Clarke,  being  somewhat  superior 
to  the  others,  or  at  least  more  fond  of  the  art.  Their 
attempts  at  painting  are  exceedingly  rude.131 

130  Dried  and  pounded  salmon,  prepared  by  a  method  not  understood  ex 
cept  at  the  falls,  formed  a  prominent  article  of  commerce,  both  with  coast 
and  interior  nations.  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  444-7,  413.     A  fathom  of 
the  largest  hiaqua  shells  is  worth  about  ten  beaver-skins.      A  dying  man 
gave  his  property  to  his  intimate  friends  '  with  a  promise  on  their  part  to 
restore  them  if  he  recovered.'  Franchere' s  Nar.,  pp.  244-5,  137;  7/o.ss'  Adcen., 
pp.  8T-8,  95-6;  Swan's  N.  W.  Coast,  p.  166;  Irving' s  Astoria,  p.  322;  Dunn's 
Oregon,  pp.  133-4;  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  p.  333;  Thornton's  Ogn.  and  CaL,  vol. 
i.,  p.  392;  Kane's  Wand.,  p.  185;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii  ,  p.  '250;  Gass' 
Jour.,  p.  227;  Morton's  Crania  Am.,  pp.  202-1 t;  Fe'dix,  1'Ore.jon,  pp.  44-5. 

131  Have  no  idea  of  drawing  maps  on  the  sand.    '  Their  powers  of  computa 
tion.  . .  .are  very  limited.'  Emmons,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  205, 
207;  Lewis  aul  Clarke's  Trav.,  p.  493;  Ross'  Adcen.,  pp.  88-9,  98;  Kane's 
Wand.,  p.  185. 


240  COLUMBIANS. 

Little  can  be  said  of  their  system  of  government  ex 
cept  that  it  was  eminently  successful  in  producing  peace 
ful  and  well  regulated  communities.  Each  band  or 
village  was  usually  a  sovereignty,  nominally  ruled  by  a 
chief,  either  hereditary  or  selected  for  his  wealth  and  pop 
ularity,  who  exerted  over  his  tribe  influence  rather  than 
authority,  but  who  was  rarely  opposed  in  his  measures. 
Sometimes  a  league  existed,  more  or  less  permanent,  for 
warlike  expeditions.  Slight  offenses  against  usage — the 
tribal  common  law — were  expiated  by  the  payment  of 
an  amount  of  property  satisfactory  to  the  party  offended. 
Theft  was  an  offense,  but  the  return  of  the  article  stolen 
removed  every  trace  of  dishonor.  Serious  crimes,  as  the 
robbery  of  a  burial-place,  were  sometimes  punished  with 
death  by  the  people,  but  no  special  authorities  or  pro 
cesses  seem  to  have  been  employed,  either  for  detection 
or  punishment.132 

Slavery,  common  to  all  the  coast  families,  is  also 
practiced  by  the  Chinooks,  but  there  is  less  difference 
here  perhaps  than  elsewhere  between  the  condition  of 
the  slaves  and  the  free.  Obtained  from  without  the 
limits  of  the  family,  towards  the  south  or  east,  by  war, 
or  more  commonly  by  trade,  the  slaves  are  obliged  to 
perform  all  the  drudgery  for  their  masters,  and  their 
children  must  remain  in  their  parents'  condition,  their 
round  heads  serving  as  a  distinguishing  mark  from  free 
men.  But  the  amount  of  the  work  connected  with  the 
Chinook  household  is  never  great,  and  so  long  as  the 
slaves  are  well  and  strong,  they  are  liberally  fed  and  well 
treated.  True,  many  instances  are  known  of  slaves 
murdered  by  the  whim  of  a  cruel  and  rich  master,  and 
it  was  not  very  uncommon  to  kill  slaves  on  the  occasion 
of  the  death  of  prominent  persons,  but  wives  and  friends 
are  also  known  to  have  been  sacrificed  on  similar  oc- 

132  The  Willamette  tribes,  nine  in  number,  were  under  four  principal 
chiefs.  Ross'  Adven.,  pp.  235-6,  88,  216.  Casanov,  a  famous  chief  at  Fort 
Vancouver  employed  a  hired  assassin  to  remove  obnoxious  persons.  Kane 's 
Wand.,  pp.  173-6;  Franchere's  Nar.,  p.  250;  Irving's  Astoria,  pp.  88,  340, 
Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  322-3;  Parker's  Explor.  Tour.,  p.  253;  Lewis  and 
Clarke's  Trav.,  p.  443. 


MAKITAL  RELATIONS  OF  THE  CHINOOKS.  241 

casions.  No  burial  rights  are  accorded  to  slaves,  and 
no  care  taken  of  them  in  serious  illness ;  when  unable  to 
work  they  are  left  to  die,  and  their  bodies  cast  into  the 
sea  or  forest  as  food  for  fish  or  beast.  It  was  not  a  rare 
occurrence  for  a  freeman  to  voluntarily  subject  himself 
to  servitude  in  payment  of  a  gambling-debt;  nor  for  a 
slave  to  be  adopted  into  the  tribe,  and  the  privilege  of 
head -flattening  accorded  to  his  offspring.133 

Not  only  were  the  Chinooks  a  peaceable  people  in 
their  tribal  intercourse,  but  eminently  so  in  their  family 
relations.  The  young  men  when  they  married  brought 
their  wives  to  their  father's  home,  and  thus  several  gen 
erations  lived  amicably  in  their  large  dwellings  until 
forced  to  separate  by  numbers,  the  chief  authority  being 
exercised  not  by  the  oldest  but  by  the  most  active  and 
useful  member  of  the  household.  Overtures  for  mar 
riage  were  made  by  friends  of  the  would-be  bridegroom, 
who  offered  a  certain  price,  and  if  accepted  by  the  maid 
en's  parents,  the  wedding  ceremony  was  celebrated  sim 
ply  by  an  interchange  and  exhibition  of  presents  with 
the  congratulations  of  invited  guests.  A  man  might 
take  as  many  wives  as  he  could  buy  and  support,  and 
all  lived  together  without  jealousy;  but  practically  few, 
and  those  among  the  rich  and  powerful,  indulged  in 
the  luxury  of  more  than  one  wife.  It  has  been  noticed 
that  there  was  often  great  disparity  in  the  ages  of  bride 
and  groom,  for,  say  the  Chinooks,  a  very  young  or  very 
aged  couple  lack  either  the  experience  or  the  activity 
necessary  for  fighting  the  battles  of  life.  Divorce  or 
separation  is  easily  accomplished,  but  is  not  of  frequent 
occurrence.  A  husband  can  repudiate  his  wife  for  in 
fidelity,  or  any  cause  of  dissatisfaction,  and  she  can  marry 
again.  Some  cases  are  known  of  infidelity  punished  with 

133  '  Live  in  the  same  dwelling  with  their  masters,  and  often  intermarry 
with  those  who  are  free.'  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  pp.  197,  247.  'Treat  them 
with  humanity  while  their  services  are  useful.'  Franchere's  Nar.,  p.  241. 
Treated  with  great  severity.  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  181-2;  Lewis  and  Clarke's 
Trav.,  p.  447;  Ross'  Adven.,  pp.  92-3;  Iruing's  Astoria,  p.  88;  Cox's  Adven., 
vol.  i.,  pp.  305-6;  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.- 129-30;  Fitzgerald's  Hud.  B.  Co.,  pp. 
196-7;  Stanly's  Portraits,  pp.  61-2. 
VOL.  I.  16 


242  COLUMBIANS. 

death.  Barrenness  is  common,  the  birth  of  twins  rare, 
and  families  do  not  usually  exceed  two  children.  Child 
birth,  as  elsewhere  among  aboriginals,  is  accompanied 
with  but  little  inconvenience,  and  children  are  often 
nursed  until  three  or  five  years  old.  They  are  carried 
about  on  the  mother's  back  until  able  to  walk;  at  first  in 
the  head-flattening  cradle,  and  later  in  wicker  baskets. 
Unmarried  women  have  not  the  slightest  idea  of  chas 
tity,  and  freely  bestow  their  favors  in  return  for  a  kind 
ness,  or  for  a  very  small  consideration  in  property  paid 
to  themselves  or  parents.  When  married,  all  this  is 
changed — female  virtue  acquires  a  marketable  value,  the 
possessorship  being  lodged  in  the  man  and  not  in  the 
woman.  Rarely  are  wives  unfaithful  to  their  husbands ; 
but  the  chastity  of  the  wife  is  the  recognized  property 
of  the  husband,  who  sells  it  whenever  he  pleases.  Al 
though  attaching  no  honor  to  chastity,  the  Chinook 
woman  feels  something  like  shame  at  becoming  the 
mother  of  an  illegitimate  child,  and  it  is  supposed  to  be 
partly  from  this  instinct  that  infanticide  and  abortion 
are  of  frequent  occurrence.  At  her  first  menstruation  a 
girl  must  perform  a  certain  penance,  much  less  severe, 
however,  than  among  the  northern  nations.  In  some 
tribes  she  must  bathe  frequently  for  a  moon,  and  rub 
the  body  with  rotten  hemlock,  carefully  abstaining  from 
all  fish  and  berries  which  are  in  season,  and  remaining 
•closely  in  the  house  during  a  south  wind.  Did  she  par 
take  of  the  forbidden  food,  the  fish  would  leave  the 
.streams  and  the  berries  drop  from  the  bushes ;  or  did  she 
,go  out  in  a  south  wind,  the  thunder-bird  would  come  and 
shake  his  wings.  All  thunder-storms  are  thus  caused. 
Both  young  children  and  the  old  and  infirm  are  kindly 
treated.  Work  is  equally  divided  between  the  sexes; 
the  women  prepare  the  food  which  the  men  provide; 
they  also  manufacture  baskets  and  matting;  they  are 
nearly  as  skillful  as  the  men  with  the  canoe,  and  are 
consulted  on  all  important  matters.  Their  condition  is 
by  no  means  a  hard  one.  It  is  among  tribes  that  live 
by  the  chase  or  by  other  means  in  which  women  can  be 


CHINOOK  FEASTS  AND  FESTIVITIES.  243 

of  little  service,  that  we  find  the  sex  most  oppressed  and 
cruelly  treated.134 

Like  all  Indians,  the  Chinooks  are  fond  of  feasting, 
but  their  feasts  are  simply  the  coming  together  of  men 
and  women  during  the  fishing  season  with  the  determina 
tion  to  eat  as  much  as  possible,  and  this  meeting  is  devoid 
of  those  complicated  ceremonies  of  invitation,  reception, 
and  social  etiquette,  observed  farther  north ;  nor  has  any 
traveler  noticed  the  distribution  of  property  as  a  feature 
of  these  festivals.  Fantastically  dressed  and  gaudily 
decked  with  paint,  they  are  wont  to  jump  about  on  cer 
tain  occasions  in  a  hopping,  jolting  kind  of  dance,  ac 
companied  by  songs,  beating  of  sticks,  clapping  of  hands, 
and  occasional  yells,  the  women  usually  dancing  in  a 
separate  set.  As  few  visitors  mention  their  dances,  it  is 
probable  that  dancing  was  less  prevalent  than  with  others. 
Their  songs  were  often  soft  and  pleasing,  differing  in  style 
for  various  occasions,  the  words  extemporized,  the  tunes 
being  often  sung  with  meaningless  sounds,  like  our  tra- 
la-la.  Swan  gives  examples  of  the  music  used  under  dif 
ferent  circumstances.  Smoking  was  universal,  the  leaves 
of  the  bear-berry  being  employed,  mixed  in  later  times 
with  tobacco  obtained  from  the  whites.  Smoke  is  swal 
lowed  and  retained  in  the  stomach  and  lungs  until  partial 
intoxication  ensues.  No  intoxicating  drink  was  known 
to  them  before  the  whites  came,  and  after  their  coming 
for  a  little  time  they  looked  on  strong  drink  with  sus 
picion,  and  were  averse  to  its  use.  They  are  sometimes 
sober  even  now,  when  no  whisky  is  at  hand.  But  the 
favorite  amusement  of  all  the  Chinook  nations  is  gamb 
ling,  which  occupies  the  larger  part  of  their  time  when 

13*  Swan's  N.  W.  Coast,  pp.  161,  171;  Emmons,  in  SchoolcrafVs  Arch.,  vol. 
hi.,  pp.  211-2.  'In  proportion  as  we  approach  the  rapids  from  the  sea,  fe 
male  impurity  becomes  less  perceptible ;  beyond  this  point  it  entirely  ceases. ' 
Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  134, 159;  vol.  i.,  pp.  366-7,  318;  Wells,  in  Harper's 
Mag.,  vol.  xiii.,  p. 602;  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  439-43.  Ceremonies  of 
a  widow  in  her  endeavors  to  obtain  a  new  husband.  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex. 
Ex.,  vol.  v.,  p.  124;  Ross'  Adven.,  pp.  88,  92-3;  Franchere's  Nar.,  pp.  245, 
254-5;  Hunter's  Cap.,  p.  70;  Hines'  Voy.,  p.  113;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii., 
pp.  16,  294-5;  Irving's  Astoria,  p.  340;  'Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  132-3;  Lord's  Nat., 
vol.  ii.,  pp.  231-2;  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  175-7,  182;  Oass'  Jour.,  p.  275;  Strick 
land's  Hist.  Missions,  pp.  139-40. 


244  COLUMBIANS. 

not  engaged  in  sleeping,  eating,  or  absolutely  necessary 
work.  In  their  games  they  risk  all  their  property,  their 
wives  and  children,  and  in  many  instances  their  own 
freedom,  losing  all  with  composure,  and  nearly  always 
accompanying  the  game  with  a  song.  Two  persons,  or 
two  parties  large  or  small,  play  one  against  the  other;  a 
banking  game  is  also  in  vogue,  in  which  one  individual 
plays  against  all  comers.  A  favorite  method  is  to  pass 
rapidly  from  hand  to  hand  two  small  sticks,  one  of  which 
is  marked,  the  opponent  meanwhile  guessing  at  the  hand 
containing  the  marked  stick.  The  sticks  sometimes  take 
the  form  of  discs  of  the  size  of  a  silver  dollar,  each  play 
er  having  ten ;  these  are  wrapped  in  a  mass  of  fine  bark- 
fibre,  shuffled  and  separated  in  two  portions ;  the  winner 
naming  the  bunch  containing  the  marked  or  trump  piece. 
Differently  marked  sticks  may  also  be  shuffled  or  tossed 
in  the  air,  and  the  lucky  player  correctly  names  the  rel 
ative  position  in  which  they  shall  fall.  A  favorite  game 
of  females,  called  ahikia,  is  played  with  beaver-teeth, 
having  figured  sides,  which  are  thrown  like  dice;  the 
issue  depends  on  the  combinations  of  figures  which  are 
turned  up.  In  all  these  games  the  players  squat  upon 
mats ;  sticks  are  used  as  counters ;  and  an  essential  point 
for  a  successful  gambler  is  to  make  as  much  noise  as  pos 
sible,  in  order  to  confuse  the  judgment  of  opponents. 
In  still  another  game  the  players  attempt  to  roll  small 
pieces  of  wood  between  two  pins  set  up  a  few  inches  apart, 
at  a  distance  of  ten  feet,  into  a  hole  in  the  floor  just 
beyond.  The  only  sports  of  an  athletic  nature  are  shoot 
ing  at  targets  with  arrows  and  spears,  and  a  game  of  ball 
in  which  two  goals  are  placed  a  mile  apart,  and  each 
party — sometimes  a  whole  tribe — endeavors  to  force  the 
ball  past  the  other's  goal,  as  in  foot-ball,  except  that  the 
ball  is  thrown  with  a  stick,  to  one  end  of  which  is  fixed 
a  small  hoop  or  ring.135  Children's  sports  are  described 

135  '  I  saw  neither  musical  instruments,  nor  dancing,  among  the  Oregon 
tribes.'  Pickering's  Races,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  p.  43.  'All  extrava 
gantly  fond  of  ardent  spirits,  and  are  not  particular  what  kind  they  have, 
provided  it  is  strong,  and  gets  them  drunk  quickly.'  Swan's  N.  W.  Coast,  pp. 


CUSTOMS  AND  SUPERSTITIONS.  245 

only  by  Swan,  and  as  rag  babies  and  imitated  Catholic 
baptisms  were  the  favorite  pastimes  mentioned,  they  may 
be  supposed  not  altogether  aboriginal. 

Personal  names  with  the  Chinooks  are  hereditary,  but 
in  many  cases  they  either  have  no  meaning  or  their 
original  signification  is  soon  forgotten.  They  are  averse 
to  telling  their  true  name  to  strangers,  for  fear,  as  they 
sometimes  say,  that  it  may  be  stolen ;  the  truth  is,  how 
ever,  that  with  them  the  name  assumes  a  personality ;  it 
is  the  shadow  or  spirit,  or  other  self,  of  the  flesh  and 
blood  person,  and  between  the  name  and  the  individual 
there  is  a  mysterious  connection,  and  injury  cannot  be 
done  to  one  without  affecting  the  other;  therefore,  to 
give  one's  name  to  a  friend  is  a  high  mark  of  Chinook 
favor.  No  account  is  kept  of  age.  They  are  believers 
in  sorcery  and  secret  influences,  and  not  without  fear  of 
their  medicine-men  or  conjurers,  but,  except  perhaps 
in  their  quality  of  physicians,  the  latter  do  not  exert  the 
influence  which  is  theirs  farther  north ;  their  ceremonies 
and  tricks  are  consequently  fewer  and  less  ridiculous. 
Inventions  of  the  whites  not  understood  by  the  natives 
are  looked  on  with  great  superstition.  It  was,  for  in 
stance,  very  difficult  at  first  to  persuade  them  to  risk 
their  lives  before  a  photographic  apparatus,  and  this  for 
the  reason  before  mentioned;  they  fancied  that  their 
spirit  thus  passed  into  the  keeping  of  others,  who  could 
torment  it  at  pleasure.136  Consumption,  liver  complaint 
and  ophthalmia  are  the  most  prevalent  Chinook  maladies ; 
to  which,  since  the  whites  came,  fever  and  ague  have  been 
added,  and  have  killed  eighty  or  ninety  per  cent,  of  the 

155-8,  197-202.  'Not  addicted  to  intemperance.'  Franchere's  Nar.,  p.  242. 
At  gambling  '  they  will  cheat  if  they  can,  and  pride  themselves  on  their  suc 
cess.'  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  190,  196.  Seldom  cheat,  and  submit  to  their  losses 
with  resignation.  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  p.  332;  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp. 
410,  443-4;  Wells,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  601,  and  cut  of  dance  at 
Coos  Bay;  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  392-3;  vol.  v.,  p.  123; 


Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  77;  Ross'  Fur  Hunters,  vol.  i.,  pp.  90-4,  112-13; 
Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  114-15,  121,  125-8,  130-1;  Parker's  Explor.  Tour.,  pp. 
247-8;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  242;  Irving 's  Astoria,  p.  341;  Palmer's 


Jour.,  p.  86. 

Tolndem  Bora's  J\at.,  vol.u.,  p.  248;  Uass'  Joar.,  pp. 
Oregon,  pp.  123-8;  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  205,  255-6;  Swan's  N.  W.  Coast,  p.  267; 


136  Tolmiein.  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.ii.,  p.  248;  Gass'  Joar.,  pp.  232,  275;  Dunn's 
sgon,  pp.  123-8;  Kane's  Wand.,  j 
Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  654. 


246  COLUMBIANS. 

whole  people,  utterly  exterminating  some  tribes.  The 
cause  of  this  excessive  mortality  is  supposed  to  be  the 
native  method  of  treatment,  which  allays  a  raging  fever 
by  plunging  the  patient  in  the  river  or  sea.  On  the 
Columbia  this  alleviating  plunge  is  preceded  by  violent 
perspiration  in  a  vapor  bath;  consequently  the  treat 
ment  has  been  much  more  fatal  there  than  on  the  coast 
where  the  vapor  bath  is  not  in  use.  For  slight  ills  and 
pains,  especially  for  external  injuries,  the  Chinooks  em 
ploy  simple  remedies  obtained  from  various  plants  and 
trees.  Many  of  these  remedies  have  been  found  to  be 
of  actual  value,  while  others  are  evidently  quack  nos 
trums,  as  when  the  ashes  of  the  hair  of  particular  animals 
are  considered  essential  ingredients  of  certain  ointments. 
Fasting  and  bathing  serve  to  relieve  many  slight  internal 
complaints.  Strangely  enough,  they  never  suffer  from 
diseases  of  the  digestive  organs,  notwithstanding  the 
greasy  compounds  used  as  food.  When  illness  becomes 
serious  or  refuses  to  yield  to  simple  treatment,  the  con 
clusion  is  that  either  the  spirits  of  the  dead  are  striving 
to  remove  the  spirit  of  the  sick  person  from  the  troubles 
of  earth  to  a  happier  existence,  or  certain  evil  spirits 
prefer  this  world  and  the  patient's  body  for  their  dwell 
ing-place.  Then  the  doctor  is  summoned.  Medical 
celebrities  are  numerous,  each  with  his  favorite  method 
of  treatment,  but  all  agree  that  singing,  beating  of  sticks, 
indeed  a  noise,  however  made,  accompanied  by  mysteri 
ous  passes  and  motions,  with  violent  pressure  and  knead 
ing  of  the  body  are  indispensable.  The  patient  frequently 
survives  the  treatment.  Several  observers  believe  that 
mesmeric  influences  are  exerted,  sometimes  with  benefit, 
by  the  doctors  in  their  mummeries.137 

137  Doctors,  if  unsuccessful,  are  sometimes  subjected  to  rough  treatment, 
but  rarely  killed,  except  when  they  have  previously  threatened  the  life  of  the 
patient.  Swan's  N.  W.  Coast,  pp.  176-185.  At  the  Dalles  an  old  woman, 
whose  incantations  had  caused  a  fatal  sickness,  was  beheaded  by  a  brother 
of  the  deceased.  Ind.  Life,  pp.  173-4,  142-3.  Whole  tribes  have  been  al 
most  exterminated  by  the  small-pox.  Stevens,  in  Pac.  R.  E.  Kept.,  vol.  i., 
pp.  82,  179.  Venereal  disease  prevalent,  and  a  complete  cure  is  never  ef 
fected.  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  440,  508.  Generally  succeed  in  curing 
venereal  disease  even  in  its  worst  stage.  Ross'  Adven.,  p.  96-9.  The  unsuc- 


CHINOOK  BUKIAL  KITES.  247 

When  the  Chinook  dies,  relatives  are  careful  to  speak 
in  whispers,  and  indulge  in  no  loud  manifestations  of 
grief  so  long  as  the  body  remains  in  the  house.     The 
body  is  prepared  for  final  disposition  by  wrapping  it  in 
blankets,  together  with  ornaments  and  other  property  of 
a  valuable  but  not  bulky  nature.     For  a  burial  place  an 
elevated  but  retired  spot  near  the  river  bank  or  on  an 
island  is  almost  always  selected,  but  the  methods  of  dis 
posing  of  the  dead  in  these  cemeteries  differ  somewhat 
among  the  various  tribes.    In  the  region  about  the  mouth 
of  the  Columbia,  the  body  with  its  wrappings  is  placed  in 
the  best  canoe  of  the  deceased,  which  is  washed  for  the 
purpose,  covered  with  additional  blankets,  mats,  and  prop 
erty,  again  covered,  when  the  deceased  is  of  the  richer 
class,  by  another  inverted  canoe,  the  whole  bound  to 
gether  with  matting  and  cords,  and  deposited  usually  on 
a  plank  platform  five  or  six  feet  high,  but  sometimes 
suspended  from  the  branches  of  trees,  or  even  left  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground.     The  more  bulky  articles  of  prop 
erty,  such  as  utensils,  and  weapons,  are  deposited  about  or 
hung  from  the  platform,  being  previously  spoiled  for  use 
that  they  may  not  tempt  desecrators  among  the  whites  or 
foreign  tribes ;  or,  it  may  be  that  the  sacrifice  or  death  of 
the  implements  is  necessary  before  the  spirits  of  the  imple 
ments  can  accompany  the  spirit  of  the  owner.     For  the 
same  purpose,  and  to  allow  the  water  to  pass  off,  holes  are 
bored  in  the  bottom  of  the  canoe,  the  head  of  the  corpse 
being  raised  a  little  higher  than  the  feet.     Some  travelers 
have  observed  a  uniformity  in  the  position  of  the  canoe, 
the  head  pointing  towards  the  east,  or  down  the  current 
of  the  stream.     After  about  a  year,  the  bones  are  some 
times  taken  out  and  buried,  but  the  canoe  and  platform 
are  never  removed.     Chiefs'  canoes  are  often  repainted. 

cessful  doctor  killed,  unless  able  to  buy  his  life.  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex., 
vol.  iv.,  p.  394.  Flatheads  more  subject  to  apoplexy  than  others.  Domenech's 
Deserts,  vol  i.,  p.  87;  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  p.  126-7,  307,  312-15,  335,  vol.  ii.. 
pp.  94-5;  Townxend's  War.,  pp.  158,  178-9;  Franchere's  Nar.,  p.  250;  Dunn's 
Oregon,  pp.  115-9,  127;  Thornton's  Ogn.  and  Cal.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  53;  Parker's  Ex- 
plor.  Tour.,  pp.  176,  191-2;  Fitzgerald's  Hud.  B.  Co.,  pp.  171-2;  Strickland's 
Hist.  Missions,  pp.  139-40. 


248  COLUMBIANS. 

Farther  up  both  the  Columbia  and  Willamette  Rivers, 
excavations  of  little  depth  are  often  made,  in  which 
bodies  are  deposited  on  horizontal  boards  and  covered 
over  with  a  slightly  inclining  roof  of  heavy  planks  or 
poles.  In  these  vaults  several  tiers  of  corpses  are  often 
placed  one  above  another.  At  the  Cascades,  depositories 
of  the  dead  have  been  noticed  in  the  form  of  a  roofed 
inclosure  of  planks,  eight  feet  long,  six  feet  wide,  and 
five  feet  high,  with  a  door  in  one  end,  and  the  whole 
exterior  painted.  The  Calapooyas  also  buried  their  dead 
in  regular  graves,  over  which  was  erected  a  wrooden 
head-board.  Desecration  of  burial  places  is  a  great  crime 
with  the  Chinook ;  he  also  attaches  great  importance  to 
having  his  bones  rest  in  his  tribal  cemetery  wherever  he 
may  die.  .For  a  long  time  after  a  death,  relatives  repair 
daily  at  sunrise  and  sunset  to  the  vicinity  of  the  grave 
to  sing  songs  of  mourning  and  praise.  Until  the  bones 
are  finally  disposed  of,  the  name  of  the  deceased  must 
not  be  spoken,  and  for  several  years  it  is  spoken  only 
with  great  reluctance.  Near  relatives  often  change  their 
name  under  the  impression  that  spirits  will  be. attracted 
back  to  earth  if  they  hear  familiar  names  often  repeated. 
Chiefs  are  supposed  to  die  through  the  evil  influence  of 
another  person,  and  the  suspected,  though  a  dear  friend, 
was  formerly  often  sacrificed.  The  dead  bodies  of  slaves 
are  never  touched  save  by  other  slaves.138 

138  A  chief  on  the  death  of  his  daughter  '  had  an  Indian  slave  bound  hand 
and  foot,  and  fastened  to  the  body  of  the  deceased,  and  enclosed  the  two  in 
another  mat,  leaving  out  the  head  of  the  living  one.  The  Indian  then  took  the 
canoe  and  carried  it  to  a  high  rock  and  left  it  there.  Their  custom  is  to  let 
the  slave  live  for  three  days;  then  another  slave  is  compelled  to  strangle  the 
victim  by  a  cord.'  Letter,  in  SchoolcrafVs  Arch.,  vol.  ii.,  p. 71.  See  also  vol. 
iii.,  pp.  217-18;  vol.  vi.,  pp.  616-23,  with  plate;  vol.  v.,  p.  655.  'The  emblem 
of  a  squaw's  grave  is  generally  a  camass-root  digger,  made  of  a  deer's  horns, 
and  fastened  on  the  end  of  a  stick.'  Willces'  Nar.  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  v., 
pp.  233-4,  vol.  iv.,  p.  394.  '  I  believe  I  saw  as  many  as  an  hundred  canoes 
at  one  burying  place  of  the  Chinooks.'  Gass'  Jour.,  p.  274.  '  Four  stakes,  in 
terlaced  with  twigs  and  covered  with  brush, '  filled  with  dead  bodies.  Abbott, 
in  Pac.  jR.  E.  Kept.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  88.  At  Goose  Bay,  '  formerly  the  body  was 
burned,  and  the  wife  of  the  corpse  killed  and  interred.'  Now  the  body  is 
sprinkled  with  sand  and  ashes,  the  ankles  are  bent  up  and  fastened  to  the 
neck;  relatives  shave  their  heads  and  put  the  hair  on  the  body  with  shells 
and  roots,  and  the  corpse  is  then  buried  and  trampled  on  by  the  whole  tribe. 
Wells,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  602.  '  The  canoe-coffins  were  decorated 
with  rude  carved  work.'  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  54.  Strangers  are  paid 


CHINOOK  CHARACTER.  2tL9 

There  is  little  difference  of  opinion  concerning  the 
character  of  the  Chinooks.  All  agree  that  they  are  in 
telligent  and  very  acute  in  trade;  some  travelers  have 
found  them  at  different  points  harmless  and  inoffensive; 
and  in  a  few  instances  honesty  has  been  detected.  So 
much  for  their  good  qualities.  As  to  the  bad,  there  is 
unanimity  nearly  as  great  that  they  are  thieves  and  liars, 
and  for  the  rest  each  observer  applies  to  them  a  selection 
of  such  adjectives  as  lazy,  superstitious,  cowardly,  in 
quisitive,  intrusive,  libidinous,  treacherous,  turbulent, 
hypocritical,  fickle,  etc.  The  Clatsops,  with  some  authors, 
have  the  reputation  of  being  the  most  honest  and  moral ; 
for  the  lowest  position  in  the  scale  all  the  rest  might 
present  a  claim.  It  should  however  be  said  in  their 
favor  that  they  are  devotedly  attached  to  their  homes, 
and  treat  kindly  both  their  young  children  and  aged 
parents ;  also  that  not  a  few  of  their  bad  traits  originated 
with  or  have  been  aggravated  by  contact  with  civiliza 
tion.139 

to  join  in  the  lamentations.  Ross'  Adven.,  p.  97.  Children  who  die  during 
the  head-flattening  process  are  set  afloat  in  their  .cradles  upon  the  surface  of 
some  sacred  pool,  where  the  bodies  of  the  old  are  also  placed  in  their  canoes. 
Catlin's  N.  Am.  Ind.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  111.  On  burial  and  mourning  see  also, 
Swan's  N.  W.  Coast,  pp.  72-3,  153,  186-9,  with  cut  of  canoe  on  platform. 
Mofras'  Explor.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  355,  and  pi.  18  of  Atlas;  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav., 
pp.  423,  429,  509,  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  176-8,  181,  202-5;  Cox's  Adcen.,  vol.  i., 
pp.  124-5,  335-6,  vol.  ii.,  p.  157;  Parker's  Explor.  Tour.,  pp.  144,  151-2; 
Thornton's  Ogn.  and  CaL,  vol.  i.,  pp.  281-2,  vol.  ii.,  p.  53;  Belcher's  Voy., 
vol.  i.,  p.  292;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  i.,  p.  255;  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  119-20, 
131-2;  Nicolay's  Ogn.  Ter.,  pp.  149-50;  Fremont's  Ogn.  and  CaL,  p.  186;  Irving's 
Astoria,  p.  99;  Franchere's  JVar.,  p.  106;  Palmer's  Jour.,  p.  87;  Ind.  Life,  p. 
210;  Totonsend's  Nar.,  p.  180. 

139  'The  clumsy  thief,  who  is  detected,  is  scoffed  at  and  despised.'  Dunn's 
Oregon,  pp.  130-1,  114.  '  The  Kalapuya,  like  the  Umkwa, . . .  .are  more  regu 
lar  and  quiet '  than  the  inland  tribes,  '  and  more  cleanly,  honest  and  moral 
than  the '  coast  tribes.  The  Chinooks  are  a  quarrelsome,  thievish,  and 
treacherous  people.  Hole's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  pp.  217,  215, 
198,  204.  '  A  rascally,  thieving  set.'  Gass'  Jour.,  p.  304.  *  When  well  treated, 
kind  and  hospitable.'  Swan's  N.  W.  Coast,  pp.  215,  110,  152.  At  Cape  Or- 
ford  'pleasing  and  courteous  deportment. . .  .scrupulously  honest.'  Vancouv 
er's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  204-5.  Laziness  is  probably  induced  by  the  ease  with 
which  they  obtain  food.  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  181, 185.  '  Crafty  and  intriguing.' 
Easily  irritated,  but  a  trifle  will  appease  him.  Ross'  Fur  Hunters.,  vol.  i.,  p. 
61,  70-1,  77,  88,  90-1,  124-5,  235-6.  '  They  possess  in  an  eminent  degree, 
the  qualities  opposed  to  indolence,  improvidence,  and  stupidity :  the  chiefs 
above  all,  are  distinguished  for  their  good  sense  and  intelligence.  Generally 
speaking,  they  have  a  ready  intellect  and  a  tenacious  memory.'  *  Rarely  re 
sist  the  temptation  of  stealing'  white  men's  goods.  Franchere's  Nar.,  pp. 
241-2,  261.  Loquacious,  never  gay,  knavish,  impertinent.  Lewis  and  Clarke's 


250  COLUMBIANS. 

THE  INLAND  FAMILIES,  constituting  the  fifth  and  last 
division  of  the  Columbians,  inhabit  the  region  between 
the  Cascade  Range  and  the  eastern  limit  of  what  I  term 
the  Pacific  States,  from  52°  30'  to  45°  of  north  latitude. 
These  bounds  are  tolerably  distinct ;  though  that  on  the 
south,  separating  the  eastern  portions  of  the  Columbian 
and  CaHfornian  groups,  is  irregular  and  marked  by  no 
great  river,  mountain  chain,  or  other  prominent  physical 
feature.  These  inland  natives  of  the  Northwest  occupy, 
in  person,  character,  and  customs,  as  well  as  in  the  loca 
tion  of  their  home,  an  intermediate  position  between  the 
coast  people  already  described  —  to  wrhom  they  are  pro 
nounced  superior  in  most  respects  —  and  the  Rocky 
Mountain  or  eastern  tribes.  Travelers  crossing  the 
Rocky  Mountains  into  this  territory  from  the  east,  or 
entering  it  from  the  Pacific  by  way  of  the  Columbia  or 
Fraser,  note  contrasts  on  passing  the  limits,  sufficient  to 
justify  me  in  regarding  its  inhabitants  as  one  people  for 
the  purposes  aimed  at  in  this  volume.140  Instead,  there- 

Trav.,  pp.  416,  441-2,  504,  523-4.  '  Thorough-bred  hypocrites  and  liars.' 
'The  Killymucks  the  most  roguish.'  Industry,  patience,  sobriety  and  in 
genuity  are  their  chief  virtues;  thieving,  lying,  incontinence,  gambling  and 
cruelty  may  be  classed  among  their  vices.  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  115,  131, 
296-7,  302,  304-5,  321,  vol.  ii.,  p.  133.  At  Wishiam  '  they  were  a  community 
of  arrant  rogues  and  freebooters.'  Irving' s  Astoria,  pp.  322,  342.  'Lying  is 
very  common;  thieving  comparatively  rare.'  White's  Ogn.,  p.  207.  'Do  not 
appear  to  possess  a  particle  of  natural  good  feeling.'  Townsend's  Nar.,  p.  183. 
At  Coos  Bay  '  by  no  means  the  fierce  and  warlike  race  found  further  to  the 
northward.'  Wells,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  601.  Umqua  and  Goose 
tribes  are  naturally  industrious;  the  Suislaws  the  most  advanced;  the  Alcea 
not  so  enterprising.  SyJces,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1860,  p.  215.  Calapooias,  a 


poor,  cowardly,  and  thievish  race.  Miller,  in  Id.,  1857,  p.  364;  Nicolay'sOgn. 
Ter.,  p.  151;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  i.,  p.  87,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  16,  36;  Warre  and 
Vavasour,  in  Martin's  Hud.  B.,  p.  83;  Palmer's  Jour.,  pp.  84,  105;  Parker's 
Explor.  Tour.,  pp.  249-50;  Ind.  Life,  pp.  1-4,  210;  Fitzgerald's  Vane.  Isl.,  p. 
196;  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  207,  etc. 

140  'They  all  resemble  each  other  in  general  characteristics.'  Parker's 
Explor.  Tour.,  p.  229.  Shush  waps  and  Salish  all  one  race.  Maym's  B.  C., 
p.  296-7.  '  The  Indians  of  the  interior  are,  both  physically  aiid  morally, 
vastly  superior  to  the  tribes  of  the  coast.'  Id.,  p.  242.  'The  Kliketat  near 
Mount  Rainier,  the  Walla-Wallas,  and  the  Okanagan ....  speak  kindred  dia 
lects.'  Ludewig,  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  170.  The  best-supported  opinion  is  that  the 
inland  were  of  the  same  original  stock  with  the  lower  tribes.  Dunn's  Oregon, 
p.  316.  '  On  leaving  the  verge  of  the  Carrier  country,  near  Alexandria,  a 
marked  change  is  at  once  perceptible.'  Anderson,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  vii.,  p. 
77.  Inland  tribes  differ  widely  from  the  piscatorial  tribes.  Ross'  Adven.,  p. 
127.  'Those  residing  near  the  Rocky  Mountains ....  are  and  always  have 
been  superior  races  to  those  living  on  the  lower  Columbia.'  Alvord,  in 
Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  654.  'I  was  particularly  struck  with  their 


THE  SHUSHWAPS.  251 

fore,  of  treating  each  family  separately,  as  has  been 
done  with  the  coast  divisions  of  the  group,  I  deem  it  more 
convenient,  as  well  as  less  monotonous  to  the  reader,  to 
avoid  repetition  by  describing  the  manners  and  customs 
of  all  the  people  within  these  limits  together,  taking 
care  to  note  such  variations  as  may  be  found  to  exist. 
The  division  into  families  and  nations,  made  according 
to  principles  already  sufficiently  explained,  is  as  follows, 
beginning  again  at  the  north: 

THE  SHUSHWAPS,  our  first  family  division,  live  be 
tween  52°  30'  and  49°  in  the  interior  of  British  Colum 
bia,  occupying  the  valleys  of  the  Fraser,  Thompson,  and 
Upper  Columbia  rivers  with  their  tributary  streams  and 
lakes.  They  are  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Nootkas 
and  on  the  north  by  the  Carriers,  from  both  of  which 
families  they  seem  to  be  distinct.  As  national  divisions 
of  this  family  may  be  mentioned  the  Shush waps  proper, 
or  Atnahs^1  who  occupy  the  whole  northern  portion  of 
the  territory;  the  Okanagans^  in  the  valley  of  the  lake 
and  river  of  the  same  name;  and  the  Kootenais^  who 

vast  superiority  (on  the  Similkameen  River,  Lat.  49°  30',  Long.  120°  30')  in 
point  of  intelligence  and  energy  to  the  Fish  Indians  on  the  Fraser  River, 
and  in  its  neighbourhood.'  Palmer,  in  B.  C.  Papers,  vol.  iii.,  p.  84.  Striking 
contrast  noted  in  passing  up  the  Columbia.  Hole's  Ethnoy.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex., 
vol.  vi.,  p.  199. 

HI  'The  Shewhapmuch who  compose  a  large  branch  of  the  Saeliss 

family, '  known  as  Nicute-much — corrupted  by  the  Canadians  into  Couteaux — 
below  the  jiinction  of  the  Fraser  and  Thompson.  Anderson,  in  Hist.  Mag., 
vol.  vii.,  p.  76-7.  Atnahs  is  their  name  in  the  Takali  language,  and  signifies 
'strangers.'  'Differ  so  little  from  their  southern  neighbors,  the  Salish,  as 
to  render  a  particular  description  unnecessary.'  Halt's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex. 
Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  205.  They  were  called  by  Mackenzie  the  Chin  tribe,  accord 
ing  to  Prickard's  Rssearches,  vol.  v.,  p.  427,  but  Mackenzie's  Chin  tribe  was 
north  of  the  Atnahs,  being  the  Nagailer  tribe  of  the  Carriers.  See  Macken 
zie's  Voy.,  pp.  257-8,  and  map. 

142  'About  Okanagan,  various  branches  of  the  Carrier  tribe.'  Nicolay's 
Ogn.  Ter.,  p.  143.  '  Okanagans,  on  the  upper  part  of  Frazer's  Eiver.'  Lude- 
wig,  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  170. 

i«  Also  known  as  Flat-bows.  '  The  poorest  of  the  tribes  composing  the 
Flathead  nation.'  McCormick,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1867,  p.  211.  'Speaking  a 
language  of  their  own,  it  is  not  easy  to  imagine  their  origin;  but  it  appears 
probable  that  they  once  belonged  to  some  more  southern  tribe,  from  which 
they  became  shut  off  by  the  intervention  of  larger  tribes.'  Maym's  B.  C., 
p.  297.  '  In  appearance,  character,  and  customs,  they  resemble  more  the 
Indians  east  of  the  Kocky  Mountains  than  those  of  Lower  Oregon.'  Hate's 
Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  205.  '  Les  Arcs-k-Plats,  et  les  Koetenais 
sent  connus  dans  le  pays  sous  le  nom  de  Skalzi.'  De  Smet,  Miss,  de  I' Ore 
gon,  p.  80. 


252  COLUMBIANS. 

inhabit  the  triangle  bounded  by  the  Upper  Columbia, 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  the  49th  parallel,  living 
chiefly  on  Flatbow  river  and  lake.  All  three  nations 
might  probably  be  joined  with  quite  as  much  reason  to 
the  Salish  family  farther  south,  as  indeed  has  usually 
been  done  with  the  Okanagans;  while  the  Kootenais  are 
by  some  considered  distinct  from  any  of  their  adjoining 
nations. 

THE  SALISH  FAMILY  dwells  south  of  the  Shushwaps,' 
between  49°  and  47°,  altogether  on  the  Columbia  and  its 
tributaries.  Its  nations,  more  clearly  defined  than  in 
most  other  families,  are  the  Flatheads^  or  Salish  proper, 
between  the  Bitter  Root  and  Rocky  Mountains  on  Flat- 
head  and  Clarke  rivers;  the  Pend  d'Oreilles^  who  dwell 
about  the  lake  of  the  same  name  and  on  Clarke  River, 
for  fifty  to  seventy-five  miles  above  and  below  the  lake ; 
the  Ooeurs  d'Alene™  south  of  the  Pend  d'Oreilles,  on 
Coeur  d'Alene  Lake  and  the  streams  falling  into  it;  the 
Colvittes™  a  term  which  may  be  used  to  designate  the 
variously  named  bands  about  Kettle  Falls,  and  north 
ward  along  the  Columbia  to  the  Arrow  Lakes ;  the  Spo- 
Jcanes,us  on  the  Spokane  River  and  plateau  along  the 
Columbia  below  Kettle  Falls,  nearly  to  the  mouth  of  the 

144  The  origin  of  the   name  Flathead,  as  applied  to  this  nation,  is  not 
known,  as  they  have  never  been  known  to  flatten  the  head.     '  The  mass  of 
the  nation  consists  of  persons  who  have  more  or  less  of  the  blood  of  the 
Spokanes,  Pend  d'Oreilles,  Nez  Perces,  and  Iroquois.'  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
Rept.,  1854,  p.  207;  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  150;  Catlin's  N.  Am.  Ind.,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  108;  Stuart's  Montana,  p.  82.     G-ass  applied  the  name  apparently  to 
tribes  on  the  Clearwater  of  the  Sahaptin  family.  Jour.,  p.  224. 

145  Also  called  Kalispelms  and  Ponderas.      The  Upper  Pend  d'Oreilles 
consist  of  a  number  of  wandering  families  of  Spokanes,  Kalispelms  prop 
er,  and  Flatheads.  Suckley,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  294;  Stevens,  in 
Id.,  p.   149;   Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,   1854,  p.  210.      'Very  similar  in 
manners,  etc.,  to  the  Flatheads,  and  form  one  people  with  them."  De  Smet, 
Miss,  de  I' Oregon,  p.  32. 

146  The  native  name,  according  to  Hale,  is  Skitsuish,  and  Coeur  d'Alene, 
'  Awl  heart, '  is  a  nickname  applied  from  the  circumstance  that  a  chief  used 
these  words  to  express  his  idea  of  the  Canadian  traders'  meanness.  Etlinog., 
in  U.  S,  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  210. 

1*7  Quiarlpi,  'Basket  People,'  Chaudieres,  'Kettles,'  Kettle  Falls,  Chualpays, 
Skoielpoi,  and  Lakes,  are  some  of  the  names  applied  to  these  bands. 

143  '  Us  s'appellent  entre  eux  les  Enfants  du  Soleil,  dans  leur  langue  Spo 
kane.'  De  Smet,  Miss,  de  r Oregon,  p.  31.  'Differing  very  little  from  the 
Indians  at  Colville,  either  in  their  appearance,  habits,  or  language.'  Kane's 
Wand.,  p.  307. 


THE  SAHAPTIN  FAMILY.  253 

Okanagan^and  the  Pisquouse™  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Columbia  between  the  Okanagan  and  Priest  Rapids. 

THE  SAHAPTIN  FAMILY,  the  last  of  the  Columbian 
group,  is  immediately  south  of  the  Salish,  between  the 
Cascade  and  Bitter  Root  mountains,  reaching  southward, 
in  general  terms,  to  the  'forty-fifth  parallel,  but  very  ir 
regularly  bounded  by  the  Shoshone  tribes  of  the  Cali- 
fornian  group.  Of  its  nations,  the  Nez  Perces™  or  Sa- 
haptins  proper,  dwell  on  the  Clearwater  and  its  branches, 
and  on  the  Snake  about  the  forks;  the  Palouse151  occupy 
the  region  north  of  the  Snake  about  the  mouth  of  the 
Palouse;  the  south  banks  of  the  Columbia  and  Snake 
near  their  confluence,  and  the  banks  of  the  lower  Walla 
Walla  are  occupied  by  the  Walla  Wallas-™  the  YaJcimas 
and  Kliketats™  inhabit  the  region  north  of  the  Dalles, 

wo  « So  much  intermarried  with  the  Yakamas  that  they  have  almost  lost 
their  nationality.'  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1854,  p.  236. 

150  'Pierced  Noses,'  so  named  by  the  Canadians,  perhaps  from  the  nasal 
ornaments  of  the  first  of  the  tribe  seen,  although  the  custom  of  piercing  the 
nose  has  never  been  known  to  be  prevalent  with  this  people.     '  Generally 
known  and  distinguished  by  the  name  of  ' '  black  robes, ' '  in  contradistinction 
to  those  who  live  on  fish.'     Named  Nez  Perces  from  the  custom  of  boring 
the  nose  to  receive  a  white  shell,  like  the  fluke  of  an  anchor.  Ross'  Fur 
Hunters,  vol.  i.,  pp.  305,  185-6.     '  There  are  two  tribes  of  the  Pierced-Nose 
Indians,  the  upper  and  the  lower.'  BroucnelVs  Ind,  Races,  pp.  533-5.    '  Though 
originally  the  same  people,  their  dialect  varies  very  perceptibly  from  that  of 
the  Tushepaws.'  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  p.  341.     Called   Thou;a-rik-kah, 
Tsoi-gah,  '  Cowse-eaters, '  by  the  Snakes.     '  Ten  times  better  off  to-day  than 
they  were  then  ' — 'a  practical  refutation  of  the  time-honored  lie,  that  inter 
course  with  whites  is  an  injury  to  Indians.'  Stuart's  Montana,  pp.  70-7.     'In 
character  and  appearance,  they  resemble  more  the  Indians  of  the  Missouri 
than  their  neighbors,  the  Salish.'  Hole's  Ethnog.  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p. 
212;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  54. 

151  '  La  tribu  Paloose  appartient  a  la  nation  des  Nez-perces  et  leur  ressem- 
ble  sous  tous  les  rapports.'  De  Stnet,  Voy.,  p.  31. 

152  The  name  comes  from  thai  of  the  river.     It  should  be  pronounced 
Wala-Wala,  very  short.  Pandosy's  Gram.,  p.  9.      'Descended  from  slaves 
formerly  owned  and  liberated  by  the  Nez  Perces.'  Parker's  Explor.  Tour.  p. 
247.     'Not  unlike  the  Pierced-Noses  in  general  appearance,  language,  and 
habits.'  Brownell's  Ind.  Races,  pp.  533-5.     Parts  of  three  different  nations  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Snake  and  Columbia.  Gass'  Jour.,  pp.  218-19.     '  None 
of  the  Indians  have  any  permanent  habitations '  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Columbia   about  and  above  the  Dalles.   Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  p.  365. 
'  Generally  camping  in  winter  on  the  north  side  of  the  river.'  Ind.  Aff.  Rent., 
1854,  p.  223. 

153  The  name  Yakima  is  a  word  meaning  '  Black  Bear  '  in  the  Walla  Walla 
dialect.     They  are  called  Klikatats  west  of  the  mountains.  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R. 
R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  407.     '  The  Klikatats  and  Yakimas,  in  all  essential  pecul 
iarities  of  character,  are  identical,  and  their  intercourse  is  constant.'  Id.,  p. 
403,  and  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  p.  225.     '  Pshawanwappam  bands, 
usually  called  Yakamas.'    The  name  signifies  '  Stony  Ground.'  Gibbs,  in  Pan* 


254  COLUMBIANS. 

between  the  Cascade  Range  and  the  Columbia,  the  former 
in  the  valley  of  the  Yakima,  the  latter  in  the  mountains 
about  Mt.  Adams.  Both  nations  extend  in  some  bands 
across  into  the  territory  of  the  Sound  family.  The  na 
tives  of  Oregon  east  of  the  Cascade  Range,  who  have  not 
usually  been  included  in  the  Sahaptin  family,  I  will  di 
vide  somewhat  arbitrarily  into  the  Wascos,  extending 
from  the  mountains  eastward  to  John  Day  River,  and 
the  Cayuse^  from  this  river  across  the  Blue  Mountains 
to  the  Grande  Ronde. 

The  inland  Columbians  are  of  medium  stature,  usu 
ally  from  five  feet  seven  to  five  feet  ten  inches,  but  some 
times  reaching  a  height  of  six  feet;  spare  in  flesh,  but 
muscular  and  symmetrical ;  with  well-formed  limbs,  the 
legs  not  being  deformed  as  among  the  Chinooks  by  con 
stant  sitting  in  the  canoe ;  feet  and  hands  are  in  many 
tribes  small  and  well  made.  In  bodily  strength  they 
are  inferior  to  whites,  but  superior,  as  might  be  expected 
from  their  habits,  to  the  more  indolent  fish-eaters  on  the 
Pacific.  The  women,  though  never  corpulent,  are  more 
inclined  to  rotundity  than  the  men.  The  Nez  Perces 
and  Cayuses  are  considered  the  best  specimens,  while  in 


dosy's  Gram.,  p.  vii.  '  Roil-roil-pam,  is  the  Klikatat  country.'  '  Its  meaning 
is  "  the  Mouse  country."  '  Id.  The  Yakima  valley  is  a  great  national  rendez 
vous  for  these  and  surrounding  nations.  Ross'  Fur  Hunters,  vol.  i.,  pp.  19, 
21.  Kliketats,  meaning  robbers,  was  first  the  name  given  to  the  "Whulwhy- 
pums,  and  then  extended  to  all  speaking  the  same  language.  For  twenty-five 
years  before  1854  they  overran  the  Willamette  Valley,  but  at  that  time  were 
forced  by  government  to  retire  to  their  own  country.  Tolmie,  in  Lord's  Nat., 
vol.  ii.,  pp.  244-7. 

i j*  Wasco  is  said  to  mean  « basin, '  and  the  tribe  derives  its  name,  tradi 
tionally,  from  the  fact  that  formerly  one  of  their  chiefs,  his  wife  having  died, 
spent  much  of  his  time  in  making  cavities  or  basins  in  the  soft  rock  for  his 
children  to  fill  with  water  and  pebbles,  and  thereby  amuse  themselves.  Vic 
tor's  All  over  Ogn.}  pp.  94-5.  The  word  Cayuse  is  perhaps  the  French  Cail- 
loux,  'pebbles.'  Called  by  Tolmie,  'Wyeilats  or  Kyoose.'  He  says  their 
language  has  an  affinity  to  that  of  the  Carriers  and  Umpquas.  Lord's  Nat., 
vol.  ii.,  pp.  249-50.  'Resemble  the  Walla- Wallas  very  much.'  Kane's  Wand., 
pp.  279-80.  'The  imperial  tribe  of  Oregon'  claiming  jurisdiction  over  the 
whole  Columbia  region.  Farnham's  Trav.,  p.  81.  The  Snakes,  Walla-Wallas, 
and  Cayuse  meet  annually  in  the  Grande  Ronde  Valley.  Thornton's  Ogn.  and 
Cal.,  vol.  i.,  p.  270.  'Individuals  of  the  pure  blood  are  few,  the  majority 
being  intermixed  with  the  Nez  Perces  and  the  Wallah-Wallahs.'  Stevens,  in 
Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1854,  pp.  218-19.  The  region  which  I  give  to  the  Wascos  and 
Cayuses  is  divided  on  Hale's  map  between  the  Walla-Wallas,  Waiilatpu,  and 
Molele. 


PHYSIQUE  OF:THE  INLAND  TRIBES.  255 

the  north  the  Kootenais  seem  to  be  superior  to  the  other 
Shush wap  nations.  The  Salish  are  assigned  by  Wilkes 
and  Hale  an  intermediate  place  in  physical  attributes 
between  the  coast  and  mountain  tribes,  being  in  stature 
and  proportion  superior  to  the  Chinooks,  but  inferior  to 
the  Nez  Perces.155  Inland,  a  higher  order  of  face  is  ob 
served  than  on  the  coast.  The  cheek-bones  are  still 
high,  the  forehead  is  rather  low,  the  face  long,  the  eyes 
black,  rarely  oblique,  the  nose  prominent  and  frequently 
aquiline,  the  lips  thin,  the  teeth  white  and  regular  but 
generally  much  worn.  The  general  expression  of  the 
features  is  stern,  often  melancholy,  but  not  as  a  rule 
harsh  or  repulsive.  Dignified,  fine-looking  men,  and 
handsome  young  women  have  been  remarked  in  nearly 
all  the  tribes,  but  here  again  the  Sahaptins  bear  off  the 
palm.  The  complexion  is  not  darker  than  on  the  coast, 
but  has  more  of  a  coppery  hue.  The  hair  is  black,  gen 
erally  coarse,  and  worn  long.  The  beard  is  very  thin, 
and  its  growth  is  carefully  prevented  by  plucking.1 


156 


155  In  the  interior  the  '  men  are  tall,  the  women  are  of  common  stature,  and 
both  are  well  formed.'  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  p.  229.  '  Of  middle  height,  slen 
der/  Hole's  Ethnog,  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  199.  The  inland  tribes  of 
British  Columbia,  compared  with  those  on  the  coast,  '  are  of  a  better  cast, 
being  generally  of  the  middle  height.'  /(/.,  p.  198.  See  also  p.  206.  The 
Nez  Perces  and  Cayuses  'are  almost  universally  fine-looking,  robust  men.' 
In  criticising  the  person  of  one  of  that  tribe  '  one  was  forcibly  reminded  of 
the  Apollo  Belvidere.'  Townsend's  Nar.,  pp.  148,  98.  The  Klikatat  'stature 
is  low,  with  light,  sinewy  limbs.'  Id.,  p.  178;  also  pp.  158-174.  The  Walla- 
Wallas  are  generally  powerful  men,  at  least  six  feet  high,  and  the  Cayuse 
are  still  'stouter  and  more  athletic.'  Gairdner,  in  Land.  Geoy.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol. 
xi.,  p.  256.  The  Umatillas  'may  be  a  superior  r.-ice  to  the  "  Snakes,"  but  I 
doubt  it.'  Barnhart,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1862,  p.  271.  The  Salish  are  'rather 
below  the  average  size,  but  are  well  knit,  muscular,  and  good-looking.'  St  <:- 
ens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1854,  p.  208.  'Well  made  and  active.'  Dunn's  Oregon, 
pp.  311,  327.  'Below  t-he  middle  hight,  with  thick-set  limbs.'  Domenech's 
Deserts,  vol.  i.,  p.  88,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  55-6,  64-5.  The  Cootonais  are  above  the 
medium  height.  Very  few  Shush waps  reach  the  height  of  five  feet  nine 
inches.  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  155,  376,  vol.  i.,  p.  240.  See  also  on  phy 
sique  of  the  inland  nations,  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  321,  340,  356.  359, 
382,  527-8,  55(3-7;  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  475;  Dunn,  in 
Gal.  Farmer,  April  26,  1861;  San  Francisco  Herald,  June,  1858;  Stevens,  in  Pac. 
R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  309,  414;  Nicolay's  Ogn.  Ter.,  p.  151;  Lord's  Nat., 
vol.  ii.,  pp.  105-6,  and  vol.  i.,  frontispiece,  cut  of  a  group  of  Spokanes. 
De  Smet,  Voy.,  pp.  30,  198;  Palmer's  Jour.,  p.  54;  Ross'  Adven.,  pp.  127,  294; 
Stuart's  Montana,  p.  82. 

J56  The  interior  tribes  have  'long  faces,  and  bold  features,  thin  lips,  wide 
cheek-bones,  smooth  skins,  and  the  usual  tawny  complexion  of  the  American 
tribes. '  '  Features  of  a  less  exaggerated  harshness  '  than  the  coast  tribes. 


256  COLUMBIANS. 

The  custom  of  head-flattening,  apparently  of  seaboard 
origin  and  growth,  extends,  nevertheless,  across  the  Cas 
cade  barrier,  and  is  practiced  to  a  greater  or  less  extent 
by  all  the  tribes  of  the  Sahaptin  family.  Among  them 
all,  however,  with  the  exception  perhaps  of  the  Klikc- 
tats,  the  deformity  consists  only  of  a  very  slight  com 
pression  of  the  forehead,  which  nearly  or  quite  disap 
pears  at  maturity.  The  practice  also  extends  inland  up 
the  valley  of  the  Fraser,  and  is  found  at  least  in  nearly 
all  the  more  western  tribes  of  the  Shushwaps.  The  Sa- 
lish  family  do  not  flatten  the  skull.157  Other  methods  of 

Hole's  Ethnog.,  in  II.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  198-9.  'Hair  and  eyes  are 
black,  their  cheek  bones  high,  and  very  frequently  they  have  aquiline  noses.' 
'  They  wear  their  hair  long,  part  it  upon  their  forehead,  and  let  it  hang  in 
tresses  on  each  side,  or  down  behind.'  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  p.  229.  Com 
plexion  'a  little  fairer  than  other  Indians.'  Id.  The  Okanagans  are  'better 
featured  and  handsomer  in  their  persons,  though  darker,  than  the  Chinooks 
or  other  Indians  along  the  sea-coast.'  'Teeth  white  as  ivory,  well  set  and 
regular.'  The  voices  of  Walla  Wallas,  Nez  Perces,  and  Cayuses,  are  strong 
and  masculine.  Ross'  Adven.,  pp.  294,  127.  The  Flatheads  (Nez  Perces)  are 
'the  whitest  Indians  I  ever  saw.'  Gass'  Jour.,  p.  189.  The  Shushwap  'com 
plexion  is  darker,  and  of  a  more  muddy,  coppery  hue  than  that  of  the  true  Eed 
Indian.'  Milton  and  Cheadle's  N.W.  Pass.,  p.  335.  The  Nez  Perces  darker 
than  the  Tushepaws.  Dignified  and  pleasant  features.  Would  have  quite 
heavy  beards  if  they  shaved.  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  340,  356,  359, 
527-8,  556-7,  321.  The  inland  natives  are  an  ugly  race,  with  'broad  faces, 
low  foreheads,  and  rough,  coppery  and  tanned  skins.'  The  Salish  'features 
are  less  regular,  and  their  complexion  darker '  than  the  Sahaptins.  Dotn- 
enech's  Deserts,  vol.  i.,  p.  88,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  55-6.  Teeth  of  the  river  tribes  worn 
down  by  sanded  salmon.  Anderson,  in  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  228;  Kane's 
Wand.,  p.  273.  Nez  Perces  and  Cayuses  'are  almost  universally  fine  look 
ing,  robust  men,  with  strong  aquiline  features,  and  a  much  more  cheerful 
cast  of  countenance  than  is  usual  amongst  the  race.  Some  of  the  women 
might  almost  be  called  beautiful,  and  none  that  I  have  seen  are  homely.' 
Some  very  handsome  young  girls  among  the  Walla  Wallas.  The  Kliketat 
features  are  'regular,  though  often  devoid  of  expression.'  Townscnd's  Nar., 
pp.  78,  148,  158,  178.  Flatheads  '  comparatively  very  fair  in  complexion, 
....with  oval  faces,  and  a  mild,  and  playful  expression  of  countenance.' 
Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  311.  The  Kayulshad  long  dark  hair,  and  regular  features. 


Morton's  Crania,  p.  214,  pi.  48.     '  The  Flatheads  are  the  ugliest,  and  most  of 
their  women  are  far  from  being  beauties.'  Stuart's  Montana,  p.  82. 


Coke's  Rocky  Mountains,  p.  304.     Cut  and  description  of  a  Clickitat  skull,  in 
"  I  pi.  48.     '  The  Flatheads  are  the  u  " 

dng  beauties.'  Stuart's  Montana,  p.  8 
157  « The  Sahaptin  and  Walla  wallas  compress  the  head,  but  not  so  much 
as  the  tribes  near  the  coast.  It  merely  serves  with  them  to  make  the  fore 
head  more  retreating,  which,  with  the  aquiline  nose  common  to  these  natives, 
gives  to  them  occasionally,  a  physiognomy  similar  to  that  represented  in  the 
hieroglyphical  paintings  of  Central  America.'  Hale's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex., 
vol.  vi.,  pp.  214,  205.  All  the  Shushwaps  flatten  the  head  more  or  less. 
Mayne's  B.  C.,  p.  303.  'II  est  a  remarquer  que  les  tribus  etablies  au-dessns 
de  la  jonction  de  la  branche  sud  de  la  Colombie,  et  designees  sous  le  nom  de 
Tetes  Plates,  ont  renonce  depnis  longtemps  a  cet  usage.'  Mofras,  Explor., 
torn.  ii..  p.  349.  'A  roundhead  Klickatat  woman  would  be  a  pariah.'  THn- 
throp's  Canoe  and  SaddL,  p.  '-04.  Nc.:  Perces  '  seldom  known  to  flatten  the 


HEAD-FLATTENING  IN  THE  INTEKIOE.  257 

deforming  the  person,  such  as  tattooing  and  perforating 
the  features  are  as  a  rule  not  employed;  the  Yakimas 
and  Kliketats,  however,  with  some  other  lower  Colum 
bia  tribes,  pierce  or  cut  away  the  septum  of  the  nose,158 
and  the  Nez  Perces  probably  derived  their  name  from  a 
similar  custom  formerly  practiced  by  them.  Paint,  how 
ever,  is  used  by  all  inland  as  well  as  coast  tribes  on 
occasions  when  decoration  is  desired,  but  applied  in  less 
profusion  by  the  latter.  The  favorite  color  is  vermilion, 
applied  as  a  rule  only  to  the  face  and  hair.159  Elaborate 
hair-dressing  is  not  common,  and  both  sexes  usually  wear 
the  hair  in  the  same  style,  soaked  in  grease,  often  painted, 
and  hanging  in  a  natural  state,  or  in  braids,  plaits,  or 
queues,  over  the  shoulders.  Some  of  the  southern  tribes 
cut  the  hair  across  the  forehead,  while  others  farther 
north  tie  it  up  in  knots  on  the  back  of  the  head.160 
The  coast  dress — robes  or  blankets  of  bark-fibre  or 

head.'  Catlin's  N.  Am.  Ind.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  108.  See  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii., 
pp.  55-6,  64-5;  Tolmie,  in  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  231-2,  249-51;  Townsend's 
Nar.,  p.  175;  Kane's  Wand.,  p.  263;  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1854,  pp.  207-8;  Wilkes' 
Nar.,  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  415,  with  cut.  Walla  Wallas,  Skyuse,  and 
Nez  Perces  flatten  the  head  and  perforate  the  nose.  Farnham's  Trav.,  p.  85; 
Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  374,  359;  Gass'  Jour.,  p.  224. 

15*  Pickering's  Races,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  pp.  38-9;  Lewis  and  Clarke' » 
Trav.,  pp.  362,  382-3. 

1^9  The  Salish  'profuse  in  the  use  of  paint.'  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept., 
1854,  pp.  207-8,  and  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  309.  Nez  Perces  painted 
in  colored  stripes.  Nine's  Voy.,  p.  173.  'Four  Indians  (Nez  Perces)  streaked 
all  over  with  white  mud.'  Kane's  Wand.,  p.  291.  Walla  Walla  '  faces  painted 
red.'  The  Okanagan  '  young  of  both  sexes  always  paint  their  faces  with  red 
and  black  bars.'  Ross'  Adven.,  pp.  127,  294-8.  The  inland  tribes  'appear 
to  have  less  of  the  propensity  to  adorn  themselves  with  painting,  than  the 
Indians  east  of  the  mountains,  but  not  unfrequently  vermilion  mixed  with 
red  clay,  is  used  not  only  upon  their  faces  but  upon  their  hair.'  Parker's 
Explor.  Tour,  p.  229.  Red  clay  for  face  paint,  obtained  at  Vermilion  Forks 
of  the  Similkaineen  River,  in  13.  C.  Palmer,  in  B.  C.  Papers,  vol.  iii.,  p.  84. 
Pend  d'Oreille  women  rub  the  face  every  morning  with  a  mixture  of  red  and 
brown  powder,  which  is  made  to  stick  by  a  coating  of  fish-oil.  De  Smet,  Voy., 
p.  198. 

leo  The  Oakinack  '  women  wear  their  hair  neatly  clubbed  on  each  side  of 
the  head  behind  the  ears,  and  ornamented  with  double  rows  of  the  snowy 
higua,  which  are  among  the  Oakinackens  called  Shet-la-cane ;  but  they  keep 
it  shed  or  divided  in  front.  The  men's  hair  is  queued  or  rolled  up  into  a 
knot  behind  the  head,  and  ornamented  like  that  of  the  women;  but  in  front 
it  falls  or  hangs  down  loosely  before  the  face,  covering  the  forehead  and  the 
eyes,  which  causes  them  every  now  and  then  to  shake  the  head,  or  use  the 
hands  to  uncover  their  eyes.'  Ross'  Adven.,  pp.  294-5.  The  head  of  the  Nez 
Perces  not  ornamented.  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  341,  321,  351,  377,  528, 
532-3;  Coke's  Rocky  Mts.,  p.  304;  Kane's  Wand,  p.  274. 
VOL.  I.  17 


258  COLUMBIANS. 

small  skins — is  also  used  for  some  distance  inland  on 
the  banks  of  the  Columbia  and  Fraser,  as  among  the 
Nicoutamuch,  Kliketats,  and  Wascos;  but  the  distinctive 
inland  dress  is  of  dressed  skin  of  deer,  antelope,  or  mount 
ain  sheep;  made  into  a  rude  frock,  or  shirt,  with  loose 
sleeves;  leggins  reaching  half-way  up  the  thigh,  and 
either  bound  to  the  leg  or  attached  by  strings  to  a  belt 
about  the  waist;  moccasins,  and  rarely  a  cap.  Men's 
frocks  descend  half-way  to  the  knees;  women's  nearly 
to  the  ankles.  Over  this  dress,  or  to  conceal  the  want 
of  some  part  of  it,  a  buffalo  or  elk  robe  is  worn,  espe 
cially  in  winter.  All  garments  are  profusely  and  often 
tastefully  decorated  with  leather  fringes,  feathers,  shells, 
and  porcupine  quills ;  beads,  trinkets  and  various  bright- 
colored  cloths  having  been  added  to  Indian  ornamenta 
tion  since  the  whites  came.  A  new  suit  of  this  native 
skin  clothing  is  not  without  beauty,  but  by  most  tribes 
the  suit  is  worn  without  change  till  nearly  ready  to  drop 
off,  and  becomes  disgustingly  filthy.  Some  tribes  clean 
and  whiten  their  clothing  occasionally  with  white  earth, 
or  pipe-clay.  The  buffalo  and  most  of  the  other  large 
skins  are  obtained  from  the  country  east  of  the  mount- 


ains.161 


161  The  Ootlashoot  women  wear  '  a  long  shirt  of  skin,  reaching  down  to 
the  ancles,  and  tied  round  the  waist.'  Few  ornaments.  The  Nez  Perces 
wear  '  the  buffalo  or  elk-skin  robe  decorated  with  beads,  sea-shells,  chiefly 
mother-of-pearl,  attached  to  an  otter-skin  collar  and  hung  in  the  hair.' 
Leggins  and  moccasins  are  painted;  a  plait  of  twisted  grass  is  worn  round 
the  neck.  The  women  wear  their  long  robe  without  a  girdle,  but  to  it  '  are 
tied  little  pieces  of  brass  and  shells,  and  other  small  articles.'  'The  dress 
of  the  female  is  indeed  more  modest,  and  more  studiously  so  than  any  we 
have  observed,  though  the  other  sex  is  careless  of  the  indelicacy  of  exposure.' 
'  The  Sokulk  females  have  no  other  covering  but  a  truss  or  piece  of  leather 
tied  round  the  hips  and  then  drawn  tight  between  the  legs.'  Three  fourths 
of  the  Pisquitpaws  'have  scarcely  any  robes  at  all.'  The  Chilluckittequaws 
use  skins  of  wolves,  deer,  elk,  and  wild  cats.  '  Hound  their  neck  is  put  a 
strip  of  some  skin  with  the  tail  of  the  animal  hanging  down  over  the  breast.' 
Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  321,  340-1,  351,  359,  361,  377,  526,  528,  532-3. 
Many  of  the  Walla  Walla,  Nez  Perce,  and  Cayuse  females  wore  robes  '  richly 
garnished  with  beads,  higuas,'  etc.  The  war  chief  wears  as  a  head-dress  the 
whole  skin  of  a  wolf's  head,  with  the  ears  standing  erect.  The  Okanagans 
wear  in  winter  long  detachable  sleeves  or  mittens  of  wolf  or  fox  skin,  also 
wolf  or  bear  skin  caps  when  hunting.  Men  and  women  dress  nearly  alike, 
and  are  profuse  in  the  use  of  ornaments.  Ross'  Aduen.,  p.  127,  294-8;  Id., 
Fur  Hunters,  vol.  i.,  p.  306.  The  Flatheads  often  change  their  clothing  and 
clean  it  with  pipe-clay.  They  have  no  regular  head-dress.  From  the  Ya- 


INLAND  DWELLINGS.  259 

The  inland  dwelling  is  a  frame  of  poles,  covered  with 
rush  matting,  or  with  the  skins  of  the  buffalo  or  elk. 
As  a  rule  the  richest  tribes  and  individuals  use  skins, 
although  many  of  the  finest  Sahaptin  houses  are  covered 
with  mats  only.  Notwithstanding  these  nations  are  rich 
in  horses,  I  find  no  mention  that  horse-hides  are  ever 
employed  for  this  or  any  other  purpose.  The  form  of 
the  lodge  is  that  of  a  tent,  conical  or  oblong,  and  usually 
sharp  at  the  top,  where  an  open  space  is  left  for  light 
and  air  to  enter,  and  smoke  to  escape.  Their  internal 
condition  presents  a  marked  contrast  with  that  of  the 
Chinook  and  Nootka  habitations,  since  they  are  by  many 
interior  tribes  kept  free  from  vermin  and  filth.  Their 
light  material  and  the  frequency  with  which  their  loca 
tion  is  changed  contributes  to  this  result.  The  lodges 
are  pitched  by  the  women,  who  acquire  great  skill  and 
celerity  in  the  work.  Holes  are  left  along  the  sides  for 
entrance,  and  within,  a  floor  of  sticks  is  laid,  or  more 
frequently  the  ground  is  spread  with  mats,  and  skins 
serve  for  beds.  Dwellings  are  often  built  suilieiently 
large  to  accommodate  many  families,  each  of  which  in 
such  case  has  its  own  fireplace  on  a  central  longitudinal 
line,  a  definite  space  being  allotted  for  its  goods,  but  no 
dividing  partitions  are  ever  used.  The  dwellings  are 

kima  to  the  Okanagan  the  men  go  naked,  and  the  women  wear  only  a  belt 
with  a  slip  passing  between  the  legs.  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  133,  148, 
240-1,  vol.  ii.,  p.  144.  Nez  Perces  better  clad  than  any  others,  Cayuses 
well  clothed,  Walla  Wallas  naked  and  half  starved.  Palmer's  Jour.,  pp.  54, 
124,  127-8.  At  the  Dalles,  women  'go  nearly  naked,  for  they  wear  little 
else  than  what  may  be  termed  a  breech-cloth,  of  buckskin,  which  is  black 
and  filthy  with  dirt.'  WUkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  409-10, 
42G,  473.  The  Kliketat  women  wear  a  short  pine-bark  petticoat  tied  round 
the  loins.  Townsend's  Nar.,  pp.  78,  178,  148.  '  Their  buffaloe  robes  and  other 
skins  they  chiefly  procure  on  the  Missouri,  when  they  go  over  to  hunt,  as 
there  are  no  buffaloe  in  this  part  of  the  country  and  very  little  other  game.' 
Gass'  Jour.,  pp.  189,  205,  218-19,  295.  Tusshepaw  'women  wore  caps  of 
willow  neatly  worked  and  figured.'  Irving' s  Astoria,  pp.  315,  317,  319;  Id., 
Bonnemlle's  Adven.,  p.  301.  The  Flathead  women  wear  straw  hats,  used  also 
for  drinking  and  cooking  purposes.  De  Smet,  Voy.,  pp.  45-7,  198.  The  Shu- 
shwaps  wear  in  wet  weather  capes  of  bark  trimmed  with  fur,  and  reaching 
to  the  elbows.  Moccasins  are  more  common  than  on  the  coast,  but  they 
often  ride  barefoot.  Mayne's  B.  C.,  p.  301.  Parker's  Explor.  Tour.,  pp.  229^- 
30;  Kane's  Wand.,  p.  264,  and  cut;  Fremont's  Ogn.  and  CaL,  pp.  186-7;  Stev 
ens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1854,  p.  222;  Nicolay's  Ogn.  Ter.,  p.  153;  Franchere's 
Nar.,  p.  268;  Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  311;  Coke's  Rocky  Mis.,  p.  304;  Hunt,  in  Nou- 
velles  Annaks  des  Voy.,  torn,  x.,  1821,  pp.  74-5,  78. 


260  COLUMBIANS. 

arranged  in  small  villages  generally  located  in  winter  on 
the  banks  of  small  streams  a  little  away  from  the  main 
rivers.  For  a  short  distance  up  the  Columbia,  houses 
similar  to  those  of  the  Chinooks  are  built  of  split  cedar 
and  bark.  The  Walla  Wallas,  living  in  summer  in  the 
ordinary  mat  lodge,  often  construct  for  winter  a  subter 
ranean  abode  by  digging  a  circular  hole  ten  or  twelve 
feet  deep,  roofing  it  with  poles  or  split  cedar  covered 
with  grass  and  mud,  leaving  a  small  opening  at  the  top 
for  exit  and  entrance  by  means  of  a  notched-log  ladder. 
The  Atnahs  on  Eraser  River  spend  the  winter  in  similar 
structures,  a  simple  slant  roof  of  mats  or  bark  sufficing 
for  shade  and  shelter  in  summer.  The  Okanagans  con 
struct  their  lodges  over  an  excavation  in  the  ground 
several  feet  deep,  and  like  many  other  nations,  cover 
their  matting  in  winter  with  grass  and  earth.162 

!62  The  Sokulk  houses  '  generally  of  a  square  or  oblong  form,  varying  in 
length  from  fifteen  to  sixty  feet,  and  supported  in  the  inside  by  poles  or 
forks  about  six  feet  high.'  The  roof  is  nearly  flat.  The  Echeloot  and  Chil- 
luckittequaw  houses  were  of  the  Chinook  style,  partially  sunk  in  the  ground. 
The  Nez  Perces  live  in  houses  built  '  of  straw  and  mats,  in  the  form  of  the 
roof  of  a  house.'  One  of  these  'was  one  hundred  and  fifty-six  feet  long, 
and  about  fifteen  wide,  closed  at  the  ends,  and  having  a  number  of  doors  on 
each  side.'  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  340,  351,  369-70,  381-2,  540.  Nez 
Perce  dwellings  twenty  to  seventy  feet  long  and  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet 
wide;  free  from  vermin.  Flathead  houses  conical  but  spacious,  made  of 
buffalo  and  moose  skins  over  long  poles.  Spokane  lodges  oblong  or  con 
ical,  covered  with  skins  or  mats.  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  148,  192,  200. 
Nez  Perce  and  Cayuse  lodges  '  composed  of  ten  long  poles,  the  lower  ends 
of  which  are  pointed  and  driven  into  the  ground;  the  upper  blunt  and  drawn 
together  at  the  top  by  thongs '  covered  with  skins.  '  Universally  used  by 
the  mountain  Indians  while  travelling.'  Umatillas  live  in  'shantys  or  wig 
wams  of  driftwood,  covered  with  buffalo  or  deer  skins.'  Klicatats  'in  mis 
erable  loose  hovels.'  Townsend's  Nar.,  pp.  104-5,  156,  174.  Okanagan  winter 
lodges  are  long  and  narrow,  '  chiefly  of  mats  and  poles,  covered  over  with 
grass  and  earth;'  dug  one  or  two  feet  below  the  surface;  look  like  the  roof 
of  a  common  house  set  on  the  ground.  Ross'  Advtn.,  pp.  313-4.  On  the 
Yakima  River  'a  small  canopy,  hardly  sufficient  to  shelter  a  sheep,  was 
found  to  contain  four  generations  of  human  beings.'  Pickering's  Races,  in 
U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  pp.  34,  37.  On  the  Clearwater  'there  are  not  more 
than  four  lodges  in  a  place  or  village,  and  these  small  camps  or  villages  are 
eight  or  ten  miles  apart.'  'Summer  lodges  are  made  of  willows  and  flags, 
and  their  winter  lodges  of  split  pine.'  Gass'  Jour.,  pp.  212,  221,  223.  At 
Kettle  Falls,  the  lodges  are  of  rush  mats.'  'A  flooring  is  made  of  sticks, 
raised  three  or  four  feet  from  the  ground,  leaving  the  space  beneath  it  en 


tirely  open,  and  forming  a  cool,  airy,  and  shady  place,  in  which  to  hang  their 
salmon.'  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  309,  272-3.  The  Pend  d'Oreilles  roll  their  tent- 
mats  into  cylindrical  bundles  for  convenience  in  traveling.  Stevens,  in  Ind. 


salmon.'  Kam's  Wand.,  pi 
mats  into  cylindrical  bum 

Aff.  EepL,  1854,  pp.  215,  238,  282.  Barnhart,  in  Id.,  1862,  p.  271.  The  Shu- 
shwap  den  is  warm  but  'necessarily  unwholesome,  and  redolent. . .  .of  any 
thing  but  roses.'  Anderson,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  vii.,  p.  77.  Yakimas,  'rude 


FOOD  OF  THE  INLAND  NATIONS.  261 

The  inland  families  eat  fish  and  game,  with  roots  and 
fruit;  no  nation  subsists  without  all  these  supplies;  but 
the  proportion  of  each  consumed  varies  greatly  according 
to  locality.  Some  tribes  divide  their  forces  regularly 
into  bands,  of  men  to  fish  and  hunt,  of  women  to  cure 
fish  and  flesh,  and  to  gather  roots  and  berries.  I  have 
spoken  of  the  coast  tribes  as  a  fish-eating,  and  the  in 
terior  tribes  as  a  hunting  people,  attributing  in  great 
degree  their  differences  of  person  and  character  to  their 
food,  or  rather  to  their  methods  of  obtaining  it;  yet  fish 
constitutes  an  important  element  of  inland  subsistence 
as  well.  Few  tribes  live  altogether  without  salmon, 
the  great  staple  of  the  Northwest;  since  those  dwelling 
on  streams  inaccessible  to  the  salmon  by  reason  of  in 
tervening  falls,  obtain  their  supply  by  annual  migrations 
to  the  fishing-grounds,  or  by  trade  with  other  nations. 
The  principal  salmon  fisheries  of  the  Columbia  are  at 
the  Dalles,  the  falls  ten  miles  above,  and  at  Kettle 
Falls.  Other  productive  stations  are  on  the  Powder, 
Snake,  Yakima,  Okanagan,  and  Clarke  rivers.  On  the 
Fraser,  which  has  no  falls  in  its  lower  course,  fishing  is 
carried  on  all  along  the  banks  of  the  river  instead  of  at 
regular  stations,  as  on  the  Columbia.  Nets,  weirs,  hooks, 
spears,  and  all  the  implements  and  methods  by  which 
fish  are  taken  and  cured  have  been  sufficiently  described 
in  treating  of  the  coast  region ;  in  the  interior  I  find  no 
important  variations  except  in  the  basket  method  in  use 
at  the  Chaudieres  or  Kettle  Falls  by  the  Quiarlpi  tribe. 
Here  an  immense  willow  basket,  often  ten  feet  in  diam 
eter  and  twelve  feet  deep,  is  suspended  at  the  falls  from 

huts  covered  with  mats.'  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Kept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  407.  Shu- 
shwaps  erect  rude  slants  of  bark  or  matting;  have  no  tents  or  houses.  Milton 
and  Cheadle's  N.  W.  Pass.,  p.  242.  From  the  swamps  south  of  Flatbow  Lake, 
*  the  Kootanie  Indians  obtain  the  klusquis  or  thick  reed,  which  is  the  only 
article  that  serves  them  in  the  construction  of  their  lodges,'  and  is  traded 
with  other  tribes.  Sullivan,  in  Palliser's  Explor.,  p.  15.  In  winter  the  Salish 
cover  their  mats  with  earth.  Hale's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  207. 
Flag  huts  of  the  Walla  Wallas.  Farnham's  Trav.,  p.  85;  Mullan's  Kept,  pp. 
49-50;  Palmer's  Jour.,  p.  61;  Coke's  Rocky  Mts.,  p.  295;  Irving's  Astoria,  pp. 
315,  319;  Id.,  Bonneville's  Adven.,  p.  301;  De  Smet,  Voy.,  p.  185;  Id.,  West. 
Missions,  p.  284;  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  105-6.  Hunt,  in  Nouvdles  Annales 
des  Voy.,  torn,  x.,  1821,  pp.  74-5,  79. 


262  COLUMBIANS. 

strong  timbers  fixed  in  crevices  of  the  rocks,  and  above 
this  is  a  frame  so  attached  that  the  salmon  in  attempt 
ing  to  leap  the  fall  strike  the  sticks  of  the  frame  and  are 
thrown  back  into  the  basket,  in  the  largest  of  which 
naked  men  armed  with  clubs  await  them.  Five  thou 
sand  pounds  of  salmon  have  thus  been  taken  in  a  day 
by  means  of  a  single  basket.  During  the  fishing- season 
the  Salmon  Chief  has  full  authority;  his  basket  is  the 
largest,  and  must  be  located  a  month  before  others  are 
allowed  to  fish.  The  small  nets  used  in  the  same  region 
have  also  the  peculiarity  of  a  stick  which  keeps  the 
mouth  open  when  the  net  is  empty,  but  is  removed  by 
the  weight  of  the  fish.  Besides  the  salmon,  sturgeon  are 
extensively  taken  in  the  Fraser,  and  in  the  Arrow  Lakes, 
while  trout  and  other  varieties  of  small  fish  abound  in 
most  of  the  streams.  The  fishing-season  is  the  summer, 
between  June  and  September,  varying  a  month  or  more 
according  to  locality.  This  is  also  the  season  of  trade 
and  festivity,  when  tribes  from  all  directions  assemble 
to  exchange  commodities,  gamble,  dance,  and  in  later 
times  to  drink  and  fight.163 

163  Natives  begin  to  assemble  at  Kettle  Falls  about  three  weeks  before  the 
salmon  begin  to  run;  feuds  are  laid  by;  horse-racing,  gambling,  love-making, 
etc.,  occupy  the  assembly;  and  the  medicine-men  are  busy  working  charms 
for  a  successful  season.  The  fish  are  cut  open,  dried  on  poles  over  a  small 
fire,  and  packed  in  bales.  On  the  Fraser  each  family  or  village  fishes  for 
itself;  near  the  mouth  large  gaff-hooks  are  used,  higher  up  a  net  managed 
between  two  canoes.  All  the  principal  Indian  fishing-stations  on  the  Fraser 
are  below  Fort  Hope.  For  sturgeon  a  spear  seventy  to  eighty  feet  long  is 
used.  Cut  of  sturgeon-fishing.  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  71-6,  181, 184-6.  The 
Pend  d'Oreilles  '  annually  construct  a  fence  which  reaches  across  the  stream, 
and  guides  the  fish  into  a  weir  or  rack. '  on  Clarke  River,  just  above  the 
lake.  The  Walla  Walla  '  fisheries  at  the  Dalles  and  the  falls,  ten  miles  above, 
are  the  finest  on  the  river, '  The  Yakima  weirs  constructed  '  upon  horizontal 
spars,  and  supported  by  tripods  of  strong  poles  erected  at  short  distances 
apart;  two  of  the  logs  fronting  up  stream,  and  one  supporting  them  below;' 
some  fifty  or  sixty  yards  long.  The  salmon  of  the  Okanagan  were  '  of  a  small 
species,  which  had  assumed  a  uniform  red  color.'  'The  fishery  at  the  Ket 
tle  Falls  is  one  of  the  most  important  on  the  river,  and  the  arrangements  of 
the  Indians  in  the  shape  of  drying-scaffolds  and  store-houses  are  on  a  corre 
sponding  scale.'  Ind.  Aff.  Sept.,  1854,  pp.  214,  223,  231,  238;  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R. 
R.  Kept,,  vol.  i.,  pp.  407-8.  The  salmon  chief  at  Kettle  Falls  distributes  the 
fish  among  the  people,  every  one,  even  the  smallest  child,  getting  an  equal 
share.  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  3li-14.  On  Des  Chutes  River  '  they  spear  the  fish 
with  barbed  iron  points,  fitted  loosely  by  sockets  to  the  ends  of  poles  about 
eight  feet  long, '  to  which  they  are  fastened  by  a  thong  about  twelve  feet 
long.  Abbott,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rspt.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  90.  On  the  upper  Columbia  an 
'Indian^ cut  off  a  bit  of  his  leathern  shirt,  about  the  size  of  a  small  bean; 


HUNTING  BY  SHUSHWAPS,  SALISH,  AND  SAHAPTINS.      263 

The  larger  varieties  of  game  are  hunted  by  the  natives 
on  horseback  wherever  the  nature  of  the  country  will 
permit.  Buffalo  are  now  never  found  west  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  there  are  but  few  localities  where  large 
game  has  ever  been  abundant,  at  least  since  the  country 
became  known  to  white  men.  Consequently  the  Flat- 
heads,  Nez  Perces,  and  Kootenais,  the  distinctively  hunt 
ing  nations,  as  well  as  bands  from  nearly  every  other  tribe, 
cross  the  mountains  once  or  twice  each  year,  penetrating 
to  the  buffalo- plains  between  the  Yellowstone  and  the 
Missouri,  in  the  territory  of  hostile  nations.  The  bow 
and  arrow  was  the  weapon  with  which  buffalo  and  all 
other  game  were  shot.  No  peculiar  cunning  seems  to 
have  been  necessary  to  the  native  hunter  of  buffalo;  he 
had  only  to  ride  into  the  immense  herds  on  his  well- 
trained  horse,  and  select  the  fattest  animals  for  his  ar 
rows.  Various  devices  are  mentioned  as  being  practiced 
in  the  chase  of  deer,  elk,  and  mountain  sheep;  such  as 
driving  them  by  a  circle  of  fire  on  the  prairie  towards 
the  concealed  hunters,  or  approaching  within  arrow-shot 

then  pulling  out  two  or  three  hairs  from  his  horse's  tail  for  a  line,  tied  the 
bit  of  leather  to  one  end  of  it,  in  place  of  a  hook  or  fly.'  Ross'  Adven.,  pp. 
132-3.  At  the  mouth  of  Flatbow  River  '  a  dike  of  round  stones,  which 
runs  up  obliquely  ag.dnst  the  main  stream,  on  the  west  side,  for  more- 
than  one  hundred  yards  in  length,  resembling  the  foundation  of  a  wall.' 
Similar  range  on  the  east  side,  supposed  to  be  for  taking  fish  at  low  water. 
Ross'  Fur  Hunters,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  1G5-6.  West  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  they  fish 
'  with  great  success  by  means  of  a  kind  of  large  basket  suspended  from  a 
long  cord.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  240-1.  On  Powder  River  they  use 
the  hook  as  a  gaff.  Coke's  Rocky  Mts.,  p.  283.  A  Wasco  spears  three  or' four 
salmon  of  twenty  to  thirty  pounds  each  in  ten  minutes.  Remy  and  Brenchley's 
Jour.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  506.  No  salmon  are  taken  above  the  upper  falls  of  the  Co 
lumbia.  Thornton's  Ogn.  and  CaL,  vol.  i.,  p.  392.  Walla  Walla  fish-weirs 
'  formed  of  two  curtains  of  small  willow  switches  matted  together  with 
withes  of  the  same  plant,  and  extending  across  the  river  in  two  parallel  lines, 
six  feet  asunder.  These  are  supported  by  several  parcels  of  poles, ....  and 
are  either  rolled  up  or  let  down  at  pleasure  for  a  few  feet ....  A  seine  of  fif 
teen  or  eighteen  feet  in  length  is  then  dragged  down  the  river  by  two  per 
sons,  and  the  bottom  drawn  up  against  the  curtain  of  willows.'  Lewis  and 
Clarke's  Trav.,  p.  532.  Make  fishing-nets  of  flax.  Parker's  Explor.  Tour.,  p. 


'live  solely  by  fishing.'  Mullan's  Rept.,  p.  49.  Salmon  cannot  ascend  to 
Coeur  d'Alene  Lake.  Hole's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  pp.  209-10. 
Okanagan  food  '  consists  principally  of  salmon  and  a  small  fish  which  they 
call  carp.'  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  462.  The  Walla  Wallas 
'may  well  be  termed  the  fishermen  of  the  Skyuse  camp.'  Farnham's  Trav., 
p.  82. 


264  COLUMBIANS. 

by  skillful  manipulations  of  a  decoy  animal;  or  the 
frightened  deer  are  driven  into  an  ambush  by  converg 
ing  lines  of  bright-colored  rags  so  placed  in  the  bushes 
as  to  represent  men.  Kane  states  that  about  the  Arrow 
Lakes  hunting  dogs  are  trained  to  follow  the  deer  and 
to  bring  back  the  game  to  their  masters  even  from  very 
long  distances.  Deer  are  also  pursued  in  the  winter  on 
snow-shoes,  and  in  deep  snow  often  knocked  down  with 
clubs.  -  Bear  and  beaver  are  trapped  in  some  places;  and, 
especially  about  the  northern  lakes  and  marshes,  wild 
fowl  are  very  abundant,  and  help  materially  to  eke  out 
the  supply  of  native  food.164 

Their  natural  improvidence,  or  an  occasional  unlucky 
hunting  or  fishing  season,  often  reduces  them  to  want, 
and  in  such  case  the  resort  is  to  roots,  berries,  and  mosses, 
several  varieties  of  which  are  also  gathered  and  laid  up 


164  The  Shushwaps  formerly  crossed  the  mountains  to  the  Assinniboine 
territory.  The  Okanagans  when  hunting  wear  wolf  or  bear  skin  caps;  there  is 
no  bird  or  beast  whose  voice  they  cannot  imitate.  War  and  hunting  were  the 
Nez  Perce  occupation;  cross  the  mountains  for  buffalo.  Ross1  Fur  Hunters, 
vol.  i.,  pp.  148,  219,  297-8,  305.  The  chief  game  of  the  Nez  Perces  is  the 
deer,  '  and  whenever  the  ground  will  permit,  the  favourite  hunt  is  on  horse 
back.'  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  p.  555.  The  Salish  live  by  the  chase,  on 
elk,  moose,  deer,  big-horn  and  bears ;  make  two  trips  annually,  spring  to  fall, 
and  fall  to  mid-winter,  across  the  mountains,  accompanied  by  other  nations. 
The  Pend  d'Oreilles  hunt  deer  in  the  snow  with  clubs;  have  distinct  locali 
ties  for  hunting  each  kind  of  game.  Nez  Perces,  Flatheads,  Coeurs  d'Alene, 
Spokanes,  Pend  d'Oreilles,  etc.,  hunt  together.  Yakimas  formerly  joined 
the  Flatheads  in  eastern  hunt.  Ind.  Aff.  Rspt.,  1854,  pp.  207-8,  212-15,  218, 
225-6.  '  Two  hunts  annually  across  the  mountains — one  in  April,  for  the  bulls, 
from  which  they  return  in  June  and  July;  and  another,  after  about  a  month's 
recruit,  to  kill  cows,  which  have  by  that  time  become  fat.'  Stevens,  Gibbs, 
and  Suckley,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Kept.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  415,  408,  296-7,  vol.  xii.,  p.  134. 
Kootenais  live  by  the  chase  principally.  Hutching,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1863, 
p.  455.  Spokanes  rather  indolent  in  hunting;  hunting  deer  by  fire.  Cox's 
Adven.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  197,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  40-7.  The  Kootenais  'seldom  hunt;' 
there  is  not  much  to  shoot  except  wild  fowl  in  fall.  Trap  beaver  and  carri- 
boeuf  on  a  tributary  of  the  Kootanie  River.  Palliser's  Explor.,  pp.  10,  15,  73.! 
Flatheads  '  follow  the  buffalo  upon  the  headwaters  of  Clarke  and  Salmon 
rivers.'  Nez  Perce  women  accompany  the  men  to  the  buffalo-hunt.  Park 
er's  Explor.  Tour.,  pp.  107,  311.  Kootenais  cross  the  mountains  for  buffalo. 
Mayne's  B.  C.,  p.  297.  Coeurs  d'Alene  ditto.  Mullan's  Rcpt.,  p.  49.  Half  of 
the  Nez  Perces  '  usually  make  a  trip  to  the  buffalo  country  for  three  months.' 
WUJces'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  494.  Shushwaps  'live  by  hunting 
the  bighorns,  mountain  goats,  and  marmots.'  •  Milton  and  Cheadle's  N.  W. 
Pass.,  p.  242.  Buffalo  never  pass  to  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Lord's 
Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  179;  Kane's  Wand.,  p.  328;  Z>e  Smet,  Voy.,  pp.  31,  45,  144-5; 
Ind.  Life,  pp.  23-4,  34-41;  Franchere's  Nar.,  pp.  268-9;  Hunt,  in  Noumlles 
Annales  des  Voy.,  torn,  x.,  1821,  pp.  77-82,  87;  Stuart,  in  Id.,  torn,  xii.,  pp. 
26,  35-6;  Joset,  in  Id,,  torn,  cxxiii.,  1849,  pp.  334-40. 


FOOD  AND  ITS  PKEPARATION.  265 

as  a  part  of  their  regular  winter  supplies.  Chief  among 
the  roots  are  the  camas,  a  sweet,  onion-like  bulb,  which 
grows  in  moist  prairies,  the  couse,  which  flourishes  in 
more  sterile  and  rocky  spots,  and  the  bitter-root,  which 
names  a  valley  and  mountain  range.  To  obtain  these 
roots  the  natives  make  regular  migrations,  as  for  game 
or  fish.  The  varieties  of  roots  and  berries  used  for  food 
are  very  numerous ;  and  none  seem  to  grow  in  the  country 
which  to  the  native  taste  are  unpalatable  or  injurious, 
though  many  are  both  to  the  European.165 

Towards  obtaining  food  the  men  hunt  and  fish;  all 
the  other  work  of  digging  roots,  picking  berries,  as  well 
as  dressing,  preserving,  and  cooking  all  kinds  of  food  is 
done  by  the  women,  with  some  exceptions  among  the 
Nez  Perces  and  Pend  d'Oreilles.  Buffalo-meat  is  jerked 
by  cutting  in  thin  pieces  and  drying  in  the  sun  and  over 
smouldering  fires  on  scaffolds  of  poles.  Fish  is  sun-dried 
on  scaffolds,  and  by  some  tribes  on  the  lower  Columbia 

w^  The  Kliketats  gather  and  eat  peahay,  a  bitter  root  boiled  into  a  jelly; 
n'poolthla,  ground  into  flour;  mamum  and  scckywa,  made  into  bitter  white 
cakes;  karnass;  calz,  a  kind  of  wild  sunflower.  Tolmie,  in  Lord's  Nat.,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  247.  The  Flatheads  go  every  spring  to  Camass  Prairie.  De  Smet, 
Voy.,  p.  183.  The  Kootenais  eat  kainash  and  an  edible  moss.  Id.,  Missions 

de  rOre'flOn,  pp.  75-6.       'The  CayOOSeS,   N"0*    TWmie     ovl    nfVior  wnrlilrA  frihoe 


assemble  (in  Yakima  Valley)  every  spring  to  lay  in  a  stock  of  the  favourite  ka- 
mass  and  pelua,  or  sweet  potatoes.'  Ross'  Fur  Hunters,  vol.  i.  p.  19.  Quamash, 
round,  onion-shaped,  and  sweet,  eaten  by  the  Nez  Perces.  Lewis  and  Clarke's 
Trav.,  p.  330.  Couse  root  dug  in  April  or  May;  camas  in  June  and  July. 
Alvord,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  656.  ^  The  Skyuses'  '  main  subsist 
ence  is  however  upon  roots.'  The  Nez  Perces  eat  kamash,  cowish  or  biscuit 
root,  jackap,  aisish,  quako,  etc.  Irviny's  Bonneville's  Adven.,  p.  301,  388. 
Okanagans  live  extensively  on  moss  made  into  bread.  The  Nez  Perces  also 
eat  moss.  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  pp,  462,  494.  Pend 
d'Oreilles  at  the  last  extremity  live  on  pine-tree  moss;  also  collect  camash, 
bitter-roots,  and  sugar  pears.  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  p.  211,  214-15. 
'  I  never  saw  any  berry  in  the  course  of  my  travels  which  the  Indians  scruple 
to  eat,  nor  have  I  seen  any  ill  effect  from  their  doing  so.'  Kane's  Wand.,  p. 
327.  The  Kootenai  food  in  September  '  appears  to  be  almost  entirely  berries; 
namely,  the  "  sasketoom  "  of  the  Crees,  a  delicious  fruit,  and  a  small  species 
of  cherry,  also  a  sweet  root  which  they  obtain  to  the  southward. '  Blaklston, 
in  Palliser's  Explor.,  p.  73.  Flatheads  dig  konah,  '  bitter  root '  in  May.  It 
is  very  nutritious  and  very  bitter.  PaJiseego,  camas,  or  '  water  seego, '  is  a 
sweet,  gummy,  bulbous  root.  Stuart's  Montana,  pp.  57-8.  Colvilles  cut  down 
pines  for  their  moss  (alectoria  ?).  Kamas  also  eaten.  Pickering's  Races,  in 
U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  p.  34.  The  Shushwaps  eat  moss  and  lichens,  chiefly 
the  black  lichen,  or  whyelkine.  Mayne's  B.  G.,  p.  301;  Parker's  Explor.  Tour., 
p.  127.  The  Salish  in  March  and  April  eat popkah,  an  onion-like  bulb;  in 
May,  spatlam,  a  root  like  vermicelli;  in  June  and  July,  itwha,  like  roasted 
chestnuts;  in  August,  wild  fruits;  in  September,  marani,  a  grain.  Domenech's 
Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  312. 


266  COLUMBIANS. 

is  also  pulverized  between  two  stones  and  packed  in 
baskets  lined  with  fish-skin.  Here,  as  on  the  coast,  the 
heads  and  offal  only  are  eaten  during  the  fishing-season. 
The  Walla  Wallas  are  said  usually  to  eat  fish  without 
cooking.  Roots,  mosses,  and  such  berries  as  are  pre 
served,  are  usually  kept  in  cakes,  which  for  eating  are 
moistened,  mixed  in  various  proportions  and  cooked,  or 
eaten  without  preparation.  To  make  the  cakes  simply 
drying,  pulverizing,  moistening,  and  sun-drying  usually 
suffice  ;  but  camas  and  pine-moss  are  baked  or  fermented 
for  several  days  in  an  underground  kiln  by  means  of  hot 
stones,  coming  out  in  the  form  of  a  dark  gluey  paste  of 
the  proper  consistency  for  moulding.  Many  of  these 
powdered  roots  may  be  preserved  for  years  without  in 
jury.  Boiling  by  means  of  hot  stones  and  roasting  on 
sharp  sticks  fixed  in  the  ground  near  the  fire,  are  the 
universal  methods  of  cooking.  No  mention  is  made  of 
peculiar  customs  in  eating;  to  eat  often  and  much  is  the 
aim  ;  the  style  of  serving  is  a  secondary  consideration.166 
Life  with  all  these  nations  is  but  a  struggle  for  food, 

!66  At  the  Dalles  '  during  the  fishing  season,  the  Indians  live  entirely  on 
the  heads,  hearts  and  offal  of  the  salmon,  which  they  string  on  sticks,  and 
roast  over  a  small  fire.'  Besides  pine-moss,  the  Okanagans  use  the  seed  of 
the  balsam  oriza  pounded  into  meal,  called  mielito.  '  To  this  is  added  the 
siffleurs.'  Berries  made  into  cakes  by  the  Nez  Perces.  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S. 
Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  410,  462,  494.  Quamash,  '  eaten  either  in  its  natural 
state,  or  boiled  into  a  kind  of  soup,  or  made  into  a  cake,  which  is  then  called 
pasheco.'  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  330,  353,  365,  369.  Women's  head 
dress  serves  the  Flatheads  for  cooking,  etc.  De  Smet,  Voy.,  pp.  47,  193-9; 
Id.,  Missions  de  I  'Oregon,  pp.  75-6.  '  The  dog's  tongue  is  the  only  dish-cloth 
known  '  to  the  Okanagans.  Pine-moss  cooked,  or  squill-ape,  will  keep  for 
years.  'At  their  meals  they  generally  eat  separately  and  in  succession  — 
man,  woman  and  child.'  Ross'  Adven.,  pp.  132-3,  295,  317-18.  '  Most  of  their 
food  is  roasted,  and  they  excel  in  roasting  fish.'  Parker's  Explor.  Tour.,  pp. 
231,  107.  '  Pine  moss,  which  they  boil  till  it  is  reduced  to  a  sort  of  glue  or 
black  paste,  of  a  sufficient  consistence  to  take  the  form  of  biscuit.'  Franchere's 
Nar.,  p.  279.  Couse  tastes  like  parsnips,  is  dried  and  pulverized,  and  some 

' 


ing  mashed,  and  pressed  together,  and  slightly  baked  in  the  sun.'  White- 
root,  pulverized  with  stones,  moistened  and  sun-baked,  tastes  not  unlike  stale 
biscuits.  Townsend's  Nar.,  pp.  126-7.  Camas  and  sun-flower  seed  mixed 
with  salmon-heads  caused  in  the  eater  great  distension  of  the  stomach. 
Remy  and  Brenchley's  Jour.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  509-11.  Sowete,  is  the  name  of  the 
mixture  last  named,  among  the  Cayuses.  Coke's  Rocky  Mts.,  p.  310;  Ind. 
Life,  p.  41;  Stuart's  Montana,  pp.  57-8;  Pickering's  Races,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex., 
vol.  ix.,  p.  34;  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  272-3;  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  pp.  214-15. 


PEBSONAL  HABITS  IN  THE  INTERIOR.  267 

and  the  poorer  tribes  are  often  reduced  nearly  to  starva 
tion;  yet  they  never  are  known  to  kill  dogs  or  horses 
for  food.  About  the  missions  and  on  the  reservations 
cattle  have  been  introduced  and  the  soil  is  cultivated  by 
the  natives  to  considerable  extent.167 

In  their  personal  habits,  as  well  as  the  care  of  their 
lodges,  the  Cayuses,  Nez  Perces,  and  Kootenais,  are 
mentioned  as  neat  and  cleanly;  the  rest,  though  filthy, 
are  still  somewhat  superior  to  the  dwellers  on  the  coast. 
The  Flatheads  wash  themselves  daily,  but  their  dishes 
and  utensils  never.  De  Smet  represents  the  Pend  d'O- 
reille  women  as  untidy  even  for  savages.168  Guns, 

167  Additional  notes  and  references  on  procuring  food.     The  Okanagans 
breakup  winter  quarters  in  February;  wander  about  in  small  bands  till  June. 
Assemble  on  the  river  and  divide  into  two  parties  of  men  and  two  of  women 
for  fishing  and  dressing  fish,  hunting  and  digging  roots,  until  October;  hunt 
in  small  parties  in  the  mountains  or  the  intericfr  for  four  of  six  weeks;  and 
then  go  into  winter  quarters  on  the  small  rivers.  Ross'  Adven.,  pp.  314-16. 
Further  south  on  the  Columbia  plains  the  natives  collect  and  dry  roots  until 
May;  fish  on  the  north  bank  of  the  river  till  September,  burying  the  fish; 
dig  camas  on  the  plains  till  snow  falls;  and  retire  to  the  foot  of  the  mount 
ains  to  hunt  deer  and  elk  through  the  winter.    The  Nez  Perces  catch  salmon 
and  dig  roots  in  summer;  hunt  deer  on  snow-shoes  in  winter;  and  cross  the 
mountains  for  buffalo  in  spring.     Sokulks  live  on  fish,  roots,  and  antelope. 
Eneeshur,  Echeloots,  and  Chilluckittequaw,  on  fish,  berries,  roots  and  nuts. 
Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  444-5,  340-1,  352,  365,  370.     Spokanes  live  on 
deer,  wild  fowl,  salmon,  trout,  carp,  pine-moss,  roots  and  wild  fruit.     They 
have  no  repugnance  to  horse-flesh,  but  never  kill  horses  for  food.    The  Sina- 
poils  live  on  salmon,  camas,  and  an  occasional  small  deer.     The  Chaudiere 
country  well  stocked  with  game,  fish  and  fruit.  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  p.  201, 
vol.  ii.,  p.  145.     The  Kayuse  live  on  fish,  game,  and  camass  bread.  De  Sinet, 
Voy.,  pp.  30-1.      'Us  cultivent  avec  succes  le  ble,  les  patates,  les  pois  et 
plusteurs  autres  legumes  et  fruits.'   Id.,   Miss,  de  I'Oregon.,  p.  67.      Pend 
d'Oreilles;  fish,  Kamash,  and  pine-tree  moss.    Id.,  West.  Missions,  p.  284. 
'  Whole  time  was  occupied  in  providing  for  their  bellies,  which  were  rarely 
full.'  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  p.  21J.     Yakimas  and  Kliketats;  Unis  or  fresh 
water  muscles,  little  game,  sage-fowl  and  grouse,  kamas,  berries,  salmon. 
The  Okanagans  raise  some  potatoes.  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Kept.,  vol.  i.,  pp. 
404,  408,  413.    Kootenais;  fish  and  wild  fowl,  berries  and  pounded  meat,  have 
cows  and  oxen.  Palliser's  Explor.,  pp.  10,  72.     Palouse;  fish,  birds,  and  small 
animals.     Umatillas;  fish,  sage-cocks,  prairie-hares.   Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  pp. 
97,  105-6.     Tushepaws  would  not  permit  horses  or  dogs  to  be  eaten.  Irvine's 
Astoria,  p.  316.    Nez  Perces;  beaver,  elk,  deer,  white  bear,  and  mountain 
sheep,  also  steamed  roots.  Id.,  Bonmville's  Adven.,  p.  301.    Sahaptm;  gather 
cherries  and  berries  on  Clarke  River.  Gass'  Jour.,  p.  193;  Nicolay's  Ogn.  Ter., 
p.  151;  Hints'  Voy.,  p.  167;  BrowndVs  Ind.  Races,  pp.  533-5;  Stanley's  Por 
traits,  pp.  63-71;  Catlin's  N.  Am.  Ind.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  108;  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  263-4; 
Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  pp.  228-31,  309;  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol. 
iv.,  p.  474;  Hale's  Elhnog.,  lb.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  206. 

168  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  383,  548;  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  pp.  230, 
312;  Townsend's  Nar.,  p,  148;  De  Smet,  Voy.,  pp.  46-7,  198;  Cox's  Adven., 
vol.  i.,  pp.  197-9,  358,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  155,  373,  375;  Coke's  Rocky  Mts.,  p.  295; 
Palmer's  Jour.,  pp.  54,  58,  59. 


268  COLUMBIANS. 

knives  and  tomahawks  have  generally  taken  the  place 
of  such  native  weapons  as  these  natives  may  have  used 
against  their  foes  originally.  Only  the  bow  and  arrow 
have  survived  intercourse  with  white  men,  and  no  other 
native  weapon  is  described,  except  one  peculiar  to  the 
Okanagans, — a  kind  of  Indian  slung-shot.  This  is  a 
small  cylindrical  ruler  of  hard  wood,  covered  with  raw 
hide,  which  at  one  end  forms  a  small  bag  and  holds  a 
round  stone  as  large  as  a  goose-egg;  the  other  end  of 
the  weapon  is  tied  to  the  wrist.  Arrow-shafts  are  of 
hard  wood,  carefully  straightened  by  rolling  between 
two  blocks,  fitted  by  means  of  sinews  with  stone  or  flint 
heads  at  one  end,  and  pinnated  with  feathers  at  the 
other.  The  most  elastic  woods  are  chosen  for  the  bow, 
and  its  force  is  augmented  by  tendons  glued  to  its 
back.169 

The  inland  families  cannot  be  called  a  warlike  race. 
Resort  to  arms  for  the  settlement  of  their  intertribal 
disputes  seems  to  have  been  very  rare.  Yet  all  are 
brave  warriors  when  fighting  becomes  necessary  for  de 
fense  or  vengeance  against  a  foreign  foe ;  notably  so  the 
Cayuses,  Nez  Perces,  Flatheads  and  Kootenais.  The 
two  former  waged  both  aggressive  and  defensive  war 
fare  against  the  Snakes  of  the  south;  while  the  latter 
joined  their  arms  against  their  common  foes,  the  eastern 
Blackfeet,  who,  though  their  inferiors  in  bravery,  nearly 
exterminated  the  Flathead  nation  by  superiority  in  num 
bers,  and  by  being  the  first  to  obtain  the  white  man's 
weapons.  Departure  on  a  warlike  expedition  is  always 
preceded  by  ceremonious  preparation,  including  councils 
of  the  wise,  great,  and  old ;  smoking  the  pipe,  harangues 
by  the  chiefs,  dances,  and  a  general  review,  or  display  of 
equestrian  feats  and  the  manoeuvres  of  battle.  The  war 
riors  are  always  mounted ;  in  many  tribes  white  or  speck- 

169  The  Okanagan  weapon  is  called  a  Spampt.  Ross'  Adven.,  pp.  318-19; 
Id.,  Fur  Hunters,  vol.  i.,  pp.  306-8.  '  Us.  . .  .faire  leurs  arcs  d'un  bois  tres- 
elastique,  ou  de  la  corne  du  cerf.'  De  Sm?t,  Voy.,  p.  48;  Wilkes'  Nor.,  in  U.  S. 
Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  486;  Stevens,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  405;  Town- 
send's  Nar.,  p.  98;  Irvine's  Astoria,  p.  317;  Lewis  and  Clarice's  Tray.,  p.  351; 
Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  pp.  106-7,  233;  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  p.  216. 


THE  INLAND  NATIONS  AT  WAR.  269 

led  war-horses  are  selected,  and  both  rider  and  steed  are 
gaily  painted,  and  decked  with  feathers,  trinkets,  and 
bright-colored  cloths.  The  war-party  in  most  nations  is 
under  the  command  of  a  chief  periodically  elected  by 
the  tribe,  who  has  no  authority  whatever  in  peace,  but 
who  keeps  his  soldiers  in  the  strictest  discipline  in  time 
of  war.  Stealthy  approach  and  an  unexpected  attack 
in  the  early  morning  constitute  their  favorite  tactics. 
They  rush  on  the  enemy  like  a  whirlwind,  with  terrific 
yells,  discharge  their  guns  or  arrows,  and  retire  to  pre 
pare  for  another  attack.  The  number  slain  is  rarely 
large ;  the  fall  of  a  few  men,  or  the  loss  of  a  chief  de 
cides  the  victory.  When  a  man  falls,  a  rush  is  made  for 
his  scalp,  which  is  defended  by  his  party,  arid  a  fierce 
hand-to-hand  conflict  ensues,  generally  terminating  the 
battle.  After  the  fight,  or  before  it  when  either  party 
lacks  confidence  in  the  result,  a  peace  is  made  by  smok 
ing  the  pipe,  with  the  most  solemn  protestations  of  good 
will,  and  promises  which  neither  party  has  the  slightest 
intention  of  fulfilling.  The  dead  having  been  scalped, 
and  prisoners  bound  and  taken  up  behind  the  victors, 
the  party  starts  homeward.  Torture  of  the  prisoners, 
chiefly  perpetrated  by  the  women,  follows  the  arrival. 
By  the  Flatheads  and  northern  nations  captives  are  gen 
erally  killed  by  their  sufferings;  among  the  Sahaptins 
some  survive  and  are  made  slaves.  In  the  Flathead 
torture  of  the  Blackfeet  are  practiced  all  the  fiendish 
acts  of  cruelty  that  native  cunning  can  devise,  all  of 
which  are  borne  with  the  traditional  stoicism  and  taunts 
of  the  North  American  Indian.  The  Nez  Perce  system 
is  a  little  less  cruel  in  order  to  save  life  for  future  slavery. 
Day  after  day,  at  a  stated  hour,  the  captives  are  brought 
out  and  made  to  hold  the  scalps  of  their  dead  friends 
aloft  on  poles  while  the  scalp-dance  is  performed  about 
them,  the  female  participators  meanwhile  exerting  all 
their  devilish  ingenuity  in  tormenting  their  victims.170 

170  Torture  of  Blackfeet  prisoners;  burning  with  a  red-hot  gun-barrel, 
pulling  out  the  nails,  taking  off  fingers,  scooping  out  the  eyes,  scalping, 
revolting  cruelties  to  female  captives.  The  disputed  right  of  the  Flatheads 
to  hunt  buffalo  at  the  eastern  foot  of  the  mountains  is  the  cause  of  the  long- 


270  COLUMBIANS. 

The  native  saddle  consists  of  a  rude  wooden  frame, 
under  and  over  which  is  thrown  a  buffalo-robe,  and  which 
is  bound  to  the  horse  by  a  very  narrow  thong  of  hide 
in  place  of  the  Mexican  dncha.  A  raw-hide  crupper  is 
used;  a  deer-skin  pad  sometimes  takes  the  place  of  the 
upper  robe,  or  the  robe  and  pad  are  used  without  the 
wooden  frame.  Stirrups  are  made  by  binding  three 
straight  pieces  of  wood  or  bone  together  in  triangular 
form,  and  sometimes  covering  all  with  raw-hide  put  on 
wet;  or  one  straight  piece  is  suspended  from  a  forked 
thong,  and  often  the  simple  thong  passing  round  the  foot 
suffices.  The  bridle  is  a  rope  of  horse-hair  or  of  skin, 
made  fast  with  a  half  hitch  round  the  animal's  lower 
jaw.  The  same  rope  usually  serves  for  bridle  and  lariat. 
Sharp  bones,  at  least  in  later  times,  are  used  for  spurs. 
Wood  is  split  for  the  few  native  uses  by  elk-horn  wedges 
driven  by  bottle-shaped  stone  mallets.  Baskets  and  ves 
sels  for  holding  water  and  cooking  are  woven  of  willow, 
bark,  and  grasses.  Rushes,  growing  in  all  swampy  lo 
calities  are  cut  of  uniform  length,  laid  parallel  and  tied 

continued  hostility.  The  wisest  and  bravest  is  annually  elected  war  chief. 
The  war  chief  carries  a  long  whip  and  secures  discipline  by  flagellation. 
Except  a  few  feathers  and  pieces  of  red  cloth,  both  the  Flathead  and  Koo- 
tenai  enter  battle  perfectly  naked.  'Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  232-45,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  160.  The  Cayuse  and  Sahaptin  are  the  most  warlike  of  all  the  south 
ern  tribes.  The  Nez  Perces  good  warriors,  but  do  not  follow  war  as  a 
profession.  .Ross'  Fur  Hunters,  vol.  i.,  pp.  185-6,  305,  308-12,  vol.  ii.,  pp. 
93-6,  139.  Among  the  Okanagans  '  the  hot  bath,  council,  and  ceremony  of 
smoking  the  great  pipe  before  war,  is  always  religiously  observed.  Their 
laws,  however,  admit  of  no  compulsion,  nor  is  the  chief's  authority  implicitly 
obeyed  on  these  occasions;  consequently,  eve^  one  judges  for  himself,  and 
either  goes  or  stays  as  he  thinks  proper.  With  a  view,  however,  to  obviate 
this  defect  in  their  system,  they  have  instituted  the  dance,  which  answers  every 
purpose  of  a  recruiting  service. '  '  Every  man,  therefore,  who  enters  within  this 

ring  and  joins  in  the  dance is  in  honour  bound  to  assist  in  carrying  on  the 

war.'  Id.,  Adven.,  pp.  319-20.  Mock  battles  and  military  display  for  the  enter 
tainment  of  white  visitors.  limes'  Voy.,  pp.  173-4.  The  Chilluckittequaws  cut 
off  the  forefingers  of  a  slain  enemy  as  trophies.  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp. 
375-6.  When  scouting,  '  Flathead  chief  would  ride  at  full  gallop  so  near  the  foe 
as  to  flap  in  their  faces  the  eagle's  tail  streaming  behind  (from  his  cap),  yet 
no  one  dared  seize  the  tail  or  streamer,  it  being  considered  sacrilegious  and 
fraught  with  misfortune  to  touch  it.'  Tolmie,  in  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  238. 
A  thousand  Walla  Wallas  came  to  the  Sacramento  Biver  in  1846,  to  avenge 
the  death  of  a  young  chief  killed  by  an  American  about  a  year  before.  Col- 
ton's  Three  Years  in  Gal.,  p.  52.  One  Flathead  is  said  to  be  equal  to  four 
Blackfeet  in  battle.  De  Smet,  Voy.,  pp.  31,  49;  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  312-13; 
Gray's  Hist.  Oi/n.,  pp.  171-4;  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  pp.  233-7;  Stanley's  Por 
traits,  pp.  65-71;  Ind.  Life,  pp.  23-5;  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol. 
iv.,  p.  495. 


PKEPARATION  OF  SKINS.     RIVER-BOATS.  271 

together  for  matting.    Rude  bowls  and  spoons  are  some 
times  dug  out  of  horn  or  wood,  but  the  fingers,  with 
pieces  of  bark  and  small  mats  are  the  ordinary  table 
furniture.     Skins  are  dressed  by  spreading,  scraping  off 
the  flesh,  and  for  some  purposes  the  hair,  with  a  sharp 
piece  of  bone,  stone,  or  iron  attached  to  a  short  handle, 
and  used  like  an  adze.     The  skin  is  then  smeared  with 
the  animal's  brains,  and  rubbed  or  pounded  by  a  very 
tedious  process  till  it  becomes  soft  and  white,  some  hides 
being  previously  smoked  and  bleached  with  white  clay.171 
On  the  lower  Columbia  the  Wascos,  Kliketats,  Walla 
Wallas,  and  other  tribes  use  dug-out  boats  like  those  of 
the  coast,  except  that  little  skill  or  labor  is  expended  on 
their  construction  or  ornamentation;  the  only  requisite 
being  supporting  capacity,  as  is  natural  in  a  country 
where  canoes  play  but  a  small  part  in  the  work  of  pro 
curing  food.    Farther  in  the  interior  the  mountain  tribes 
of  the  Sahaptin  family,  as  the  Cayuses  and  Nez  Perces, 
make  no  boats,  but  use  rude  rafts  or  purchase  an  occa 
sional  canoe  from  their  neighbors,  for  the  rare  cases  when 
it  becomes  necessary  to  transport  property  across  an  un- 
fordable  stream.     The  Flatheads  sew  up  their  lodge-skins 
into  a  temporary  boat  for  the  same  purpose.     On  the 
Fraser  the  Kootka  dug-out  is  in  use.     But  on  the  north 
ern  lakes  and  rivers  of  the  interior,  the  Pend  d'Oreille, 
Flatbow,  Arrow,  and  Okanagan,  northward  to  the  Ta- 

171  White  marl  clay  used  to  cleanse  skin  robes,  by  making  it  into  a  paste, 
rubbing  it  on  the  hide  and  leaving  it  to  dry,  after  which  it  is  rubbed  off. 
Saddles  usually  sit  uneasily  on  the  horse's  back.  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  pp. 
106,  232-4.  '  Mallet  of  stone  curiously  carved '  among  the  Sokulks.  Near 
the  Cascades  was  seen  a  ladder  resembling  those  used  by  the  whites.  The 
Pishquitpaws  used  '  a  saddle  or  pad  of  dressed  skin,  stuffed  with  goats'  hair.' 
Levo'is  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  353,  370,  375,  528.  On  the  Fraser  a  rough  kind 
of  isinglass  was  at  one  time  prepared  and  traded  to  the  Hudson  Bay  Com 
pany.  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  177.  '  The  Sahaptins  still  make  a  kind  of  vase 
of  lava,  somewhat  in  the  shape  of  a  crucible,  but  very  wide;  they  use  it  as  a 
mortar  for  pounding  the  grain,  of  which  they  make  cakes. '  Domenech's  Deserts, 
vol.  ii.,  pp.  64,  243.  (Undoubtedly  an  error.)  Pend  d'Oreilles;  'lesfemmes 

font  des  nattes  de  joncs,  des  paniers,  et  des  chapeaux  sans  bords.' 

De  Smet,  Voy.,  p.  199.  '  Nearly  all  (the  Shushwaps)  use  the  Spanish  wooden 
saddle,  which  they  make  with  much  skill.'  Mayne's  B.  C.,  pp.  301-2.  'The 
saddles  for  women  differ  in  form,  being  furnished  with  the  antlers  of  a  deer, 
so  as  to  resemble  the  high  pommelled  saddle  of  the  Mexican  ladies.'  Fran- 
chere's  Nar.,  pp.  269-70;  Palmer's  Jour.,  p.  129;  Irving1  s  Astoria,  p.  317,  365; 
Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  148-9. 


272  COLUMBIANS. 

cully  territory,  the  natives  manufacture  and  navigate 
bark  canoes.  Both  birch  and  pine  are  employed,  by 
stretching  it  over  a  cedar  hoop-work  frame,  sewing  the 
ends  with  fine  roots,  and  gumming  the  seams  and  knots. 
The  form  is  very  peculiar;  the  stem  and  stern  are 
pointed,  but  the  points  are  on  a  level  with  the  bottom 
of  the  boat,  and  the  slope  or  curve  is  upward  towards 
the  centre.  Travelers  describe  them  as  carrying  a  heavy 
load,  but  easily  capsized  unless  when  very  skillfully  man 
aged.172 

Horses  constitute  the  native  wealth,  and  poor  indeed 
is  the  family  which  has  not  for  each  member,  young  and 
old,  an  animal  to  ride,  as  well  as  others  sufficient  to  trans 
port  all  the  household  goods,  and  to  trade  for  the  few 
foreign  articles  needed.  The  Nez  Perces,  Cayuses  and 
Walla  Wallas  have  more  and  better  stock  than  other 
nations,  individuals  often  possessing  bands  of  from  one 
thousand  to  three  thousand.  The  Kootenais  are  the 
most  northern  equestrian  tribes  mentioned.  How  the 
natives  originally  obtained  horses  is  unknown,  although 
there  are  some  slight  traditions  in  support  of  the  natural 
supposition  thajt  they  were  first  introduced  from  the 
south  by  way  of  the  Shoshones.  The  latter  are  one 
people  with  the  Comanches,  by  whom  horses  were  ob 
tained  during  the  Spanish  expeditions  to  New  Mexico 
in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  horses  of  the  natives  are 

172  •  The  white-pine  bark  is  a  very  good  substitute  for  birch,  but  has  the  dis 
advantage  of  being  more  brittle  in  cold  weather.'  Suckky,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Kept., 
vol.  i.,  p.  296.  Yakima  boats  are  'simply  logs  hollowed  out  and  sloped  up 
at  the  ends,  without  form  or  finish.'  Gibbs,  in  Id.,  p.  408.  The  Flatheads 
'  have  no  canoes,  but  in  ferrying  streams  use  their  lodge  skins,  which  are 
drawn  up  into  an  oval  form  by  cords,  and  stretched  on  a  few  twigs.  These 
they  tow  with  horses,  riding  sometimes  three  abreast.'  Stevens,  in  Id.,  p.  415. 
In  the  Kootenai  canoe  '  the  upper  part  is  covered,  except  a  space  in  the 
middle.'  The  length  is  twenty-two  feet,  the  bottom  being  a  dead  level  from 
end  to  end.  Ross'  Fur  Hunters,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  169-70.  '  The  length  of  the  bottom 
of  the  one  I  measured  was  twelve  feet,  the  width  between  the  gunwales  ouly 
seven  and  one  half  feet.'  '  When  an  Indian  paddles  it,  he  sits  at  the  extreme 
end,  and  thus  sinks  the  conical  point,  which  serves  to  steady  the  canoe  like 
a  fish's  tail.'  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  178-9,  255-7.  On  the  Arrow  Lakes 
'  their  form  is  also  peculiar  and  very  beautiful.  These  canoes  run  the  rapids 
with  more  safety  than  those  of  any  other  shape.'  Kane's  Wand.,  p.  328.  Sea 
De  Smet,  Voy.,  pp.  35,  187;  Irvinfs  Astoria,  p.  319;  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav., 
p.  375;  Hector,  in  Palliser's  Explor.,  p.  27;  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854, 
pp.  208,  214,  223,  238. 


HOESES,  PKOPERTY,  AND  TKADE.          273 

of  small  size,  probably  degenerated  from  a  superior  stock, 
but  hardy  and  surefooted ;  sustaining  hunger  and  hard 
usage  better  than  those  of  the  whites,  but  inferior  to  them 
in  build,  action,  and  endurance.  All  colors  are  met  with, 
spotted  and  mixed  colors  being  especially  prized.173 

The  different  articles  of  food,  skins  and  grasses  for 
clothing  and  lodges  and  implements,  shells  and  trinkets 
for  ornamentation  and  currency  are  also  bartered  be 
tween  the  nations,  and  the  annual  summer  gatherings 
on  the  rivers  serve  as  fairs  for  the  display  and  exchange 
of  commodities;  some  tribes  even  visit  the  coast  for 
purposes  of  trade.  Smoking  the  pipe  often  precedes  and 
follows  a  trade,  and  some  peculiar  commercial  customs 
prevail,  as  for  instance  when  a  horse  dies  soon  after 
purchase,  the  price  may  be  reclaimed.  The  rights  of 
property  are  jealously  defended,  but  in  the  Salish  na 
tions,  according  to  Hale,  on  the  death  of  a  father  his 
relatives  seize  the  most  valuable  property  with  very  lit 
tle  attention  to  the  rights  of  children  too  young  to  look 
out  for  their  own  interests.174  Indeed,  I  have  heard  of 

173  « The  tradition  is  that  horses  were  obtained  from  the  southward, '  not 
many  generations  back.   Tolmie,  in  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  247,  177-8.     In 
dividuals  of  the  Walla  Wallas  have  over  one  thousand  horses.   Warre  and 
Vavasour,  in  Martin's  Hud.  Bay,  p.  83.     Kootenais  rich  in  horses  and  cat 
tle.  Palliser's  Explor.,  pp.  44,  73.     Kliketat  and  Yakima  horses  sometimes 
fine,  but  injured  by  early  usage;  deteriorated  from  a  good  stock;  vicious  and 
lazy.  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  405.     'La  richesse  principale  des 
sauvages  de  1'ouest  consiste  en  chevaux.'  De  Smet,  Voy.,  pp.  47,  56.     At  an 
assemblage  of  Walla  Wallas,  Shahaptains  and  Kyoots,  '  the  plains  were  lit 
erally  covered  with  horses,  of  which  there  could  not  have  been  less  than  four 
thousand  in  sight  of  the  camp.'  Ross'  Adven.,  p.  127.     The  Kootanies  about 
Arrow  Lake,  or  Sinatcheggs  have  no  horses,  as  the  country  is  not  suitable 
for  them.  Id.,  Fur  Hunters,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  171-2.     Of  the  Spokanes  the  'chief 
riches  are  their  horses,  which  they  generally  obtain  in  barter  from  the  Nez 
Perces.'  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  p.  200.     A  Skyuse  is  poor  who  has  but  fifteen 
or  twenty  horses.     The  horses  are  a  fine  race,  '  as  large  and  of  better  form 
and  more  activity  than  most  of  the  horses  of  the  States.'  Farnham's  Tray.y 
p.  82.     The  Flatheads  'are  the  most  northern  of  the  equestrian  tribes. 'Nico- 
lay's  Ogn.  Ter.,  p.  153.     Many  Nez  Perces  'have  from  five  to  fifteen  hundred 
head  of  horses.'  Palmer's  Jour.,  pp.  128-9.     Indians  of  the  Spokane  and 
Flathead  tribes  '  own  from  one  thousand  to  four  thousand  head  of  horses 
and  cattle.'  Stevens'  Address,  p.  12.     The  Nez  Perce  horses  'are  principally 
of  the  pony  breed;  but  remarkably  stout  and  long- winded.'  Irving' s  Bonne- 
ville's  Adven.,  p.  301;  Hastings'  Em.  Guide,  p.  59;  /fines'  Voy.,  p.  344;  Gass' 
Jour.,  p.  295;  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  p.  230. 

174  The  Chilluckittequaw  intercourse  seems  to  be  an  intermediate  trade 
with  the  nations  near  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia.     The  Chopunnish  trade 
for,  as  well  as  hunt,  buffalo-robes  east  of  the  mountains.    Course  of  trade  in 

VOL.  I.    18 


274  COLUMBIANS. 

deeds  of  similar  import  in  white  races.  In  decorative 
art  the  inland  natives  must  be  pronounced  inferior  to 
those  of  the  coast,  perhaps  only  because  they  have  less 
time  to  devote  to  such  unproductive  labor.  Sculpture 
and  painting  are  rare  and  exceedingly  rude.  On  the 
coast  the  passion  for  ornamentation  finds  vent  in  carv 
ing  and  otherwise  decorating  the  canoe,  house,  and  im 
plements  ;  in  the  interior  it  expends  itself  on  the  capari 
son  of  the  horse,  or  in  bead  and  fringe  work  on  garments. 
Systems  of  numeration  are  simple,  progressing  by  fours, 
fives,  or  tens,  according  to  the  different  languages,  and  is 
sufficiently  extensive  to  include  large  numbers ;  but  the 
native  rarely  has  occasion  to  count  beyond  a  few  hun- 
•dreds,  commonly  using  his  fingers  as  an  aid  to  his  nu 
meration.  Years  are  reckoned  by  winters,  divided  by 
moons  into  months,  and  these  months  named  from  the 
•ripening  of  some  plant,  the  occurrence  of  a  fishing  or 
hunting  season,  or  some  other  periodicity  in  their  lives, 
•or  by  the  temperature.  Among  the  Salish  the  day  is 
•divided  according  to  the  position  of  the  sun  into  nine 
.parts.  De  Smet  states  that  maps  are  made  on  bark  or 
.skins  by  which  to  direct  their  course  on  distant  excur- 


the  Sahaptin  county:  The  plain  Indians  during  their  stay  on  the  river  from 
May  to  September,  before  they  begin  fishing,  go  down  to  the  falls  with  skins, 
mats,  silk-grass,  rushes  and  chapelell  bread.  Here  they  meet  the  mountain 
tribes  from  the  Kooskooskie  (Clearwater)  and  Lewis  rivers,  who  bring  bear- 
grass,  horses,  quamash  and  a  few  skins  obtained  by  hunting  or  by  barter 
from  the  Tushepaws.  At  the  falls  are  the  Chilluckittequawrs,  Eneeshurs, 
Echeloots  and  Skilloots,  the  latter  being  intermediate  traders  between  the 
upper  and  lower  tribes.  These  tribes  have  pounded  fish  for  sale;  and  the 
Chinooks  bring  wappato,  sea-fish,  berries,  and  trinkets  obtained  from  the 
whites.  Then  the  trade  begins;  the  Chopunnish  and  mountain  tribes  buy 
wappato,  pounded  fish  and  beads;  and  the  plain  Indians  buy  wappato, 
horses,  beads,  etc.  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  341,  382,  444-5.  Horse- 
fairs  in  which  the  natives  display  the  qualities  of  their  steeds  with  a  view  to 
sell.  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  86-7.  The  Oakinacks  make  trips  to  the  Pacific 
to  trade  wild  hemp  for  hiaqua  shells  and  trinkets.  Boss'  Adven.,  pp.  291,  323. 
Trade  conducted  in  silence  between  a  Flathead  and  Crow.  De  Smet,  Voy.,  p. 
56.  Kliketats  and  Yakimas  '  have  become  to  the  neighboring  tribes  what  the 
Yankees  were  to  the  once  Western  States,  the  traveling  retailers  of  notions.' 
Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  403,  406.  Cayuses,  Walla  Wallas,  and 
Nez  Perces  meet  in  Grande  Konde  Valley  to  trade  with  the  Snakes.  Thorn 
ton's  Ogn,  and  Cal.,  vol.  i.,  p.  270;  Hole's  Etlinog.  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi., 
p.  208;  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  88-9,  156;  Palmer's  Jour.,  pp.  46,  54;  Dun- 
niway's  Capt.  Gray's  Comp.,  p.  160;  Coke's  Rocky  Mis.,  p.  294;  Mayne's  B.  C., 
p.  299;  Gass'  Jour.,  p.  205. 


CHIEFS  AND  THEIR  AUTHORITY.  275 

sions,  and  that  they  are  guided  at  night   by  the  polar 
star.175 

War  chiefs  are  elected  for  their  bravery  and  past  suc 
cess,  having  full  authority  in  all  expeditions,  marching 
at  the  head  of  their  forces,  and,  especially  among  the 
Flatheads,  maintaining  the  strictest  discipline,  even  to 
the  extent  of  inflicting  flagellation  on  insubordinates. 
With  the  war  their  power  ceases,  yet  they  make  no.  effort 
by  partiality  during  office  to  insure  re-election,  and  sub 
mit  without  complaint  to  a  successor.  Except  by  the 
war  chiefs  no  real  authority  is  exercised.  The  regular 
chieftainship  is  hereditary  so  far  as  any  system  is  ob 
served,  but  chiefs  who  have  raised  themselves  to  their 
position  by  their  merits  are  mentioned  among  nearly 
all  the  nations.  The  leaders  are  always  men  of  com 
manding  influence  and  often  of  great  intelligence.  They 
take  the  lead  in  haranguing  at  the  councils  of  wise  men, 
which  meet  to  smoke  and  deliberate  on  matters  of  public 
moment.  These  councils  decide  the  amount  of  fine  ne 
cessary  to  atone  for  murder,  theft,  and  the  few  crimes 
known  to  the  native  code;  a  fine,  the  chief's  reprimand, 
and  rarely  flogging,  probably  not  of  native  origin,  are 
the  only  punishments ;  and  the  criminal  seldom  attempts 
to  escape.  As  the  more  warlike  nations  have  especial 
chiefs  with  real  power  in  time  of  war,  so  the  fishing 
tribes,  some  of  them,  grant  great  authority  to  a  'salmon 
chief  during  the  fishing-season.  But  the  regular  inland 

"5  In  calculating  time  the  Okanagans  use  their  fingers,  each  finger  stand 
ing  for  ten;  some  will  reckon  to  a  thousand  with  tolerable  accuracy,  but  most 
can  scarcely  count  to  twenty.  Ross'  Adven.,  p.  324.  The  Flatheads  'font 
neamnoins  avec  precision,  sur  des  ecorces  d'arbres  ou  sur  des  peaux  le  plan, 
des  pays  qu'ils  ont  parcourus,  marquant  les  distances  par  journees,  demi- 
journees  ou  quarts  de  journees.'  De  Smet,  Voy.,  p.  205.  Count  years  by 
snows,  months  by  moons,  and  days  by  sleeps.  Have  names  for  each  num 
ber  up  to  ten;  then  add  ten  to  each;  and  then  add  a  word  to  multiply  by 
ten.  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  p.  242.  Names  of  the  months  in  the  Pisquouse 
and  Salish  languages  beginning  with  January; — 'cold,  a  certain  herb,  snow- 
gone,  bitter-root,  going  to  root-ground,  camass-root,  hot,  gathering  berries, 
exhausted  salmon,  dry,  house-building,  snow.'  Hale's  Ethnofj.,  in  U.  8.  Ek. 
Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  211.  '  Menses  computant  lunis,  ex  spkanf,  sol  vel  lima  et  dies 
per  ferias.  Hebdomadam  unicam  per  splchaskat,  septem  dies,  plures  vero 
hebdomadas  per  s'chaxeus,  id  est,  vexillum  quod  a  duce  maximo  qualibet  die 
dominica  suspendebatur.  Dies  autem  in  novem  dividitur  partes.'  Mengarini, 
Grammatiea  Linguae  Selicae,  p.  120;  Sproat's  Scenes,  p.  270;  Lewis  and  Clarke's 
Trav.,  p.  374. 


276  COLUMBIANS. 

chiefs  never  collect  taxes  nor  presume  to  interfere  with 
the  rights  or  actions  of  individuals  or  families.176  Pris 
oners  of  war,  not  killed  by  torture,  are  made  slaves,  but 
they  are  few  in  number,  and  their  children  are  adopted 
into  the  victorious  tribe.  Hereditary  slavery  and  the 
slave-trade  are  unknown.  The  Shushwaps  are  said  to 
have  no  slaves.177 

In  choosing  a  helpmate,  or  helpmates,  for  his  bed  and 
board,  'the  inland  native  makes  capacity  for  work  the 
standard  of  female  excellence,  and  having  made  a  selec 
tion  buys  a  wife  from  her  parents  by  the  payment  of 
an  amount  of  property,  generally  horses,  which  among 
the  southern  nations  must  be  equaled  by  the  girl's  par 
ents.  Often  a  betrothal  is  made  by  parents  while  both 

176  The  twelve  Oakinack  tribes  '  form,  as  it  were,  so  many  states  belonging 
to  the  same  union,  and  are  governed  by  petty  chiefs.'  The  chieftainship 
descends  from  father  to  son;  and  though  merely  nominal  in  authority,  the 
chief  is  rarely  disobeyed.  Property  pays  for  all  crimes.  Ross'  Adven.,  pp. 
289-94,  322-3,  327.  The  Chualpays  are  governed  by  the  '  chief  of  the  earth  ' 
and  '  chief  of  the  waters, '  the  latter  having  exclusive  authority  in  the  fishing- 
season.  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  309-13.  The  Nez  Perces  offered  a  Flathead  the 
position  of  head  chief,  through  admiration  of  his  qualities.  De  Smet,  Voy., 
pp.  50,  171.  Among  the  Kalispels  the  chief  appoints  his  successor,  or  if  he 
fails  to  do  so,  one  is  elected.  De  Smet,  Western  Miss.,  p.  297.  The  Flathead  war 
chief  carries  a  long  whip,  decorated  with  scalps  and  feathers  to  enforce  strict 
discipline.  The  principal  chief  is  hereditary.  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  241-2, 
vol.  ii.,  p.  88.  The  'camp  chief  of  the  Flatheads  as  well  as  the  war  chief 
was  chosen  for  his  merits.  Ind.  Life,  pp.  28-9.  Among  the  Nez  Perces  and 
Wascos  '  the  form  of  government  is  patriarchal.  They  acknowledge  the  he 
reditary  principle — blood  generally  decides  who  shall  be  the  chief.'  Alvord,  in 
Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  pp.  652-4.  No  regularly  recognized  chief  among 
the  Spok'anes,  but  an  intelligent  and  rich  man  often  controls  the  tribe  by  his 
influence.  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  475-6.  'The  Salish 
can  hardly  be  said  to  have  any  regular  form  of  government. '  Hale's  Ethnog.,  in 
U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  pp.  207-8.  Every  winter  the  Cayuses  go  down  to  the 
Dalles  to  hold  a  council  over  the  Chinooks  '  to  ascertain  their  misdemeanors 
and  punish  them  therefor  by  whipping '!  Farnham's  Trav.,  p.  81-2.  Among 
the  Salish  '  criminals  are  sometimes  punished  by  banishment  from  their  tribe.' 
'  Fraternal  union  and  the  obedience  to  the  chiefs  are  truly  admirable.'  Dom- 
enech's  Deserts,  vol.jii.,  pp.  343-4;  Nines'  Voy.,  p.  157 -^Stanley's  Portraits,  p.  63; 
Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  311-12;  White's  Oregon,  p.  189;  Pickering's  Races,  in  U.  8. 
Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  p.  108;  Joset,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  torn,  cxxiii,  1849, 
pp.  334-40. 

177  '  Slavery  is  common  with  all  the  tribes.'  Warre  and  Vavasour,  in  Mar 
tin's  Hud.  B.,  p.  83.  Sahaptins  always  make  slaves  of  prisoners  of  war.  The 
Cayuses  have  many.  Alvord,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  654;  Palmer's 
Jour.,  p.  56.  Among  the  Okanagans '  there  are  but  few  slaves .  . .  and  these  few 
are  adopted  as  children,  and  treated  in  all  respects  as  members  of  the  family.' 
Ross'  Adven.,  p.  320.  The  inland  tribes  formerly  practiced  slavery,  but  long 
since  abolished  it.  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  p.  247.  '  Not  practised  in  the  in 
terior.'  Mayne's  S.  C.,  p.  243.  Not  practiced  by  the  Shushwaps.  Anderson, 
in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  vii.,  p.  78. 


FAMILY  RELATIONS.  277 

parties  are  yet  children,  and  such  a  contract,  guaranteed 
by  an  interchange  of  presents,  is  rarely  broken.  To 
give  away  a  wife  without  a  price  is  in  the  highest  degree 
disgraceful  to  her  family.  Besides  payment  of  the  price, 
generally  made  for  the  suitor  by  his  friends,  courtship 
in  some  nations  includes  certain  visits  to  the  bride  before 
marriage ;  and  the  Spokane  suitor  must  consult  both  the 
chief  and  the  young  lady,  as  well  as  her  parents ;  indeed 
the  latter  may  herself  propose  if  she  wishes.  Runaway 
matches  are  not  unknown,  but  by  the  Nez  Perces  the 
woman  is  in  such  cases  considered  a  prostitute,  and  the 
bride's  parents  may  seize  upon  the  man's  property.  Many 
tribes  seem  to  require  no  marriage  ceremony,  but  in  others 
an  assemblage  of  friends  for  smoking  and  feasting  is 
called  for  on  such  occasions;  and  among  the  Flatheads 
more  complicated  ceremonies  are  mentioned,  of  which 
long  lectures  to  the  couple,  baths,  change  of  clothing, 
torch-light  processions,  and  dancing  form  a  part.  In  the 
married  state  the  wife  must  do  all  the  heavy  work  and 
drudgery,  but  is  not  otherwise  ill  treated,  and  in  most 
tribes  her  rights  are  equally  respected  with  those  of  the 
husband. 

When  there  are  several  wives  each  occupies  a  separate 
lodge,  or  at  least  has  a  separate  fire.  Among  the  Spo- 
kanes  a  man  marrying  out  of  his  own  tribe  joins  that  of 
his  wife,  because  she  can  work  better  in  a  country  to 
which  she  is  accustomed;  and  in  the  same  nation  all 
household  goods  are  considered  as  the  wife's  property. 
The  man  who  marries  the  eldest  daughter  is  entitled  to 
all  the  rest,  and  parents  make  no  objection  to  his  turn 
ing  off  one  in  another's  favor.  Either  party  may  dis 
solve  the  marriage  at  will,  but  property  must  be  equita 
bly  divided,  the  children  going  with  the  mother.  Dis 
carded  wives  are  often  reinstated.  If  a  Kliketat  wife 
die  soon  after  marriage,  the  husband  may  reclaim  her 
price ;  the  Nez  Perce  may  not  marry  for  a  year  after  her 
death,  but  he  is  careful  to  avoid  the  inconvenience  of 
this  regulation  by  marrying  just  before  that  event.  The 
Salish  widow  must  remain  a  widow  for  about  two  years; 


278  COLUMBIANS. 

and  then  must  marry  agreeably  to  her  mother-in-law's 
taste  or  forfeit  her  husband's  property.178  The  women 
make  faithful,  obedient  wives  and  affectionate  mothers. 
Incontinence  in  either  girls  or  married  women  is  ex 
tremely  rare,  and  prostitution  almost  unknown,  being 
severely  punished,  especially  among  the  Nez  Perces.  In 
this  respect  the  inland  tribes  present  a  marked  contrast 
their  coast  neighbors.179  At  the  first  appearance  of 
e  menses  the  woman  must  retire  from  the  sight  of  all, 


\to 

kh 


husband.  Brawls  constantly  occur  when  several  wives  meet.  The  women 
are  chaste,  and  attached  to  husband  and  children.  At  the  age  of  fourteen 
or  fifteen  the  young  man  pays  his  addresses  in  person  to  the  object  of  his 
love,  aged  eleven  or  twelve.  After  the  old  folks  are  in  bed,  he  goes  to  her 
wigwam,  builds  a  fire,  and  if  welcome  the  mother  permits  the  girl  to  come 
and  sit  with  him  for  a  short  time.  These  visits  are  several  times  repeated, 
and  he  finally  goes  in  the  day-time  with  friends  and  his  purchase  money. 
Ross'  Adven.,  pp.  295-302.  The  Spokane  husband  joins  his  wife's  tribe; 
•women  are  held  in  great  respect;  and  much  affection  is  shown  for  chil 
dren.  Among  the  Nez  Perces  both  men  and  women  have  the  power  of 
dissolving  the  marriage  tie  at  pleasure.  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol. 
iv.,  pp.  410,  475-6,  486,  495.  The  Coeurs  d'Alene  'have  abandoned  po 
lygamy.'  Stevens,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  149,  309;  Gibbs,  in  Puc. 
R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  406.  Pend  d'Oreille  women  less  enslaved  than  in 
the  mountains,  but  yet  have  much  heavy  work,  paddle  canoes,  etc.  Gen 
erally  no  marriage  among  savages.  De  Smet,  Voy.,  pp.  198-9,  210.  The  Nez 
Perces  generally  confine  themselves  to  two  wives,  and  rarely  marry  cousins. 
No  wedding  ceremony.  Alvord,  in  Sehoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  655.  Po 
lygamy  not  general  on  the  Eraser;  and  unknown  to  Kootenais.  Cox's  Adven., 
vol.  ii.,  pp.  155,  379,  vol.  i.,  pp.  256-9.  Nez  Perces  have  abandoned  polyg 
amy.  Palmer's  Jour.,  pp.  129,  56.  Flathead  women  do  everything  but  hunt 
and  fight.  2nd.  Life,  p.  41.  Flathead  women  'by  no  means  treated  as  slaves, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  have  much  consideration  and  authority.'  Hole's  Ethnog., 
in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  207.  'Karely  marry  out  of  their  own  nation,' 
and  do  not  like  their  women  to  marry  whites.  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  313-14. 
The  Sokulk  men  '  are  said  to  content  themselves  with  a  single  wife,  with 
whom ....  the  husband  shares  the  labours  of  procuring  subsistence  much  more 
than  is  usual  among  savages.'  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  p.  351;  Dunniway's 
Capt.  Gray's  Comp.,  p.  161;  Gray's  Hist.  Ogn.,  p.  171;  Tolmie  and  Anderson, 
in  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  231-5;  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  p.  208;  De  Smet's 
West.  Miss.,  p.  289. 

179  The  wife  of  a  young  Kootenai  left  him  for  another,  whereupon  he  shot 
himself.  Ross'  Fur  Hunters,  vol.  ii.,  p.  169.  Among  the  Flatheads  '  conjugal 
infidelity  is  scarcely  known.'  Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  311.  The  Sahaptins  'do  not 
exhibit  those  loose  feelings  of  carnal  desire,  nor  appear  addicted  to  the  com 
mon  customs  of  prostitution.'  Gass'  Jour.,  p.  275.  Inland  tribes  have  a 
reputation  for  chastity,  probably  due  to  circumstances  rather  than  to  fixed 
principles.  Mayne's  R.  C.,  p.  300.  Spokanes  'free  from  the  vice  of  incon 
tinence.'  Among  the  Walla  Wallas  prostitution  is  unknown,  'and  I  believe 
no  inducement  would  tempt  them  to  commit  a  breach  of  chastity. '  Prostitu 
tion  common  on  the  Eraser.  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  145,  199-200.  Nez 
Perce  women  remarkable  for  their  chastity.  Alvord,  in  Sehoolcraft's  Arch.. 
vol.  v.,  p.  655. 


WOMEN  AND  CHILDBEN.  279 

especially  men,  for  a  period  varying  from  ten  days  to  a 
month,  and  on  each  subsequent  occasion  for  two  or  three 
days,  and  must  be  purified  by  repeated  ablutions  before 
she  may  resume  her  place  in  the  household.  Also  at  the 
time  of  her  confinement  she  is  deemed  unclean,  and  must 
remain  for  a  few  weeks  in  a  separate  lodge,  attended 
generally  by  an  old  woman.  The  inland  woman  is  not 
prolific,  and  abortions  are  not  uncommon,  which  may 
probably  be  attributed  in  great  measure  to  her  life  of 
labor  and  exposure.  Children  are  not  weaned  till  be 
tween  one  and  two  years  of  age;  sometimes  not  until 
they  abandon  the  breast  of  their  own  accord  or  are  sup 
planted  by  a  new  arrival ;  yet  though  subsisting  on  the 
mother's  milk  alone,  and  exposed  with  slight  clothing  to 
all  extremes  of  weather,  they  are  healthy  and  robust, 
being  carried  about  in  a  rude  cradle  on  the  mother's 
back,  or  mounted  on  colts  and  strapped  to  the  saddle 
that  they  may  not  fall  off  when  asleep.  After  being 
weaned  the  child  is  named  after  some  animal,  but  the 
name  is  changed  frequently  later  in  life180  Although 
children  and  old  people  are  as  a  rule  kindly  cared  for, 
yet  so  great  the  straits  to  which  the  tribes  are  reduced 
by  circumstances,  that  both  are  sometimes  abandoned  if 
not  put  to  death.181 

iso  In  the  Salish  family  on  the  birth  of  a  child  wealthy  relatives  make 
presents  of  food  and  clothing.  The  Nez  Perce  mother  gives  presents  but 
receives  none  on  such  an  occasion.  The  Flatheads  and  Pend  d'Oreilles 
bandage  the  waist  and  legs  of  infants  with  a  view  to  producing  broad-shoul 
dered,  small-waisted  and  straight-limbed  adults.  Tohnie  and  Anderson,  in 
Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  231-2.  Among  the  Walla  Wallas  '  when  traveling 
a  hoop,  bent  over  the  head  of  the  child,  protects  it  from  injury.'  The  con 
finement  after  child-birth  continues  forty  days.  At  the  first  menstruation 
the  Spokane  woman  must  conceal  herself  two  days  in  the  forest;  for  a  man 
to  see  her  would  be  fatal;  she  must  then  be  confined  for  twenty  days  longer 
in  a  separate  lodge.  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  426-8,  485. 
The  Okanagan  mother  is  not  allowed  to  prepare  her  unborn  infant's  swad 
dling  clothes,  which  consist  of  a  piece  of  board,  a  bit  of  skin,  a  bunch  of 
moss,  and  a  string.  Ross'  Adven.,  pp.  324-30.  '  Small  children,  not  more 
than  three  years  old,  are  mounted  alone  and  generally  upon  colts.'  Younger 
ones  are  carried  on  the  mother's  back  '  or  suspended  from  a  high  knob  upon 
the  forepart  of  their  saddles.'  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  p.  98.  Houses  among 
the  Chopunnish  '  appropriated  for  women  who  are  undergoing  the  opera 
tion  of  the  menses.'  'When  anything  is  to  be  conveyed  to  these  deserted 
females,  the  person  throws  it  to  them  forty  or  fifty  paces  off,  and  then  re 
tires.'  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  p.  539;  Townsend's  Nar.,  p.  78;  Alvord,  in 
Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  655. 

!8i  With  the  Pend  d'Oreilles  'it  was  not  uncommon  for  them  to  bury  th- 


280  COLUMBIANS. 

The  annual  summer  gathering  on  the  river  banks  for 
fishing  and  trade,  and,  among  the  mountain  nations,  the 
return  from  a  successful  raid  in  the  enemy's  country,  are 
the  favorite  periods  for  native  diversions.182  To  gamb 
ling  they  are  no  less  passionately  addicted  in  the  interior 
than  on  the  coast,183  but  even  in  this  universal  Indian 
vice,  their  preference  for  horse-racing,  the  noblest  form 
of  gaming,  raises  them  above  their  stick- shuffling  breth 
ren  of  -the  Pacific.  On  the  speed  of  his  horse  the  native 
stakes  all  he  owns,  and  is  discouraged  only  when  his 
animal  is  lost,  and  with  it  the  opportunity  to  make  up 
past  losses  in  another  race.  Foot-racing  and  target- 
shooting,  in  which  men,  women  and  children  participate, 
also  afford  them  indulgence  in  their  gambling  propensi 
ties  and  at  the  same  time  develop  their  bodies  by  exer 
cise,  and  perfect  their  skill  in  the  use  of  their  native 
^weapon.184  The  Colvilles  have  a  game,  alkollock,  played 

very  old  and  the  very  young  alive,  because,  they  said,  "these  cannot  take  care 
of  themselves,  and  we  cannot  take  care  of  them,  and  they  had  better  die." 
Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1854,  p.  211;  Buckley,  in  Pac.  It.  fi.  Kept.,  vol.  i., 
p.  297;  Domemch's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  328;  White's  Ogn.,  p.  96;  Cox's  Adven., 
,vol.  i.,  pp,  148-9. 

182  In  the  Yakima  Valley  '  we  visited  every  street,  alley,  hole  and  corner 
of  the  camp ....  Here  was  gambling,  there  scalp-dancing ;  laughter  in  one 
place,  mourning  in  another.    Crowds  were  passing  to  and  fro,  whooping,  yell 
ing,  dancing,  drumming,  singing.    Men,  women,  and  children  were  huddled 
together;   flags  flying,  horses  neighing,  dogs  howling,   chained  bears,   tied 
wolves,  grunting  and  growling,  all  pell-mell  among  the  tents.'    Ross'  Fur 
[Hunters,  vol.  i.,  p.  28.     At  Kettle  Falls  'whilst  awaiting  the  coming  salmon, 
the  scene  is  one  great  revel:  horse-racing,  gambling,  love-making,  dancing, 
and  diversions  of  all  sorts,  occupy  the  singular  assembly;  for  at  these  an 
nual  gatherings. . .  .feuds  and  dislikes  are  for  the  time  laid  by.'  Lord's  Nat., 
vol.  i.,  pp.  72-3. 

183  The  principal  amusement  of  the  Okanagans  is  gambling,  '  at  which 
they  are  not  so  quarrelsome  as  the  Spokans  and  other  tribes, '  disputes  be 
ing  settled  by  arbitration.  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.   ii.,  p.    88.      A  young  man 
at   Kettle   Falls   committed  suicide,  having  lost  everything  at  gambling. 

j Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  309-10.  '  Les  Indiens  de  la  Colombie  ont  porte  les  jeux 
de  hasard  au  dernier  exces.  Apres  avoir  perdu  tout  ce  qu'ils  ont,  ils  se  met- 
tent  eux-memes  sur  le  tapis,  d'abord  une  main,  ensuite  1'autre;  s'ils  les 
perdent,  les  bras,  et  ainsi  de  suite  tous  les  membres  du  corps;  la  tete  suit, 
et  s'ils  la  perdent,  ils  deviennent  esclaves  pour  la  vie  avec  leurs  femmes  et 
leurs  enfants.'  De  Smet,  Voy.,  pp.  49-50.  Many  Kooteneais  have  abandoned 
gambling.  DeSmet,  West.  M iss.,  p.  300.  '  Whatever  the  poor  Indian  can  call 
his  own,  is  ruthlessly  sacrificed  to  this  Moloch  of  human  weakness.'  Ind. 
Life,  p.  42;  Irving' s  Bonneville's  Adven.,  p.  102-3. 

184  Spokanes;  'one  of  their  great  amusements  is  horse-racing.'   Wilkes' 
\Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  487.     Kliketats  and  Yakimas;  '  the  racing 
season  is  the  grand  annual  occasion  of  these  tribes.    A  horse  of  proved  repu 
tation  is  a  source  of  wealth  or  ruin  to  his  owner.     On  his  speed  he  stakes  his 


GAMES  IN  THE  INTERIOR.  281 

with  spears.  A  wooden  ring  some  three  inches  in  diam 
eter  is  rolled  over  a  level  space  between  two  slight  stick 
barriers  about  forty  feet  apart ;  when  the  ring  strikes  the 
barrier  the  spear  is  hurled  so  that  the  ring  will  fall  over 
its  head ;  and  the  number  scored  by  the  throw  depends 
on  which  of  six  colored  beads,  attached  to  the  hoop's 
inner  circumference,  falls  over  the  spear's  head.185  The 
almost  universal  Columbian  game  of  guessing  which  hand 
contains  a  small  polished  bit  of  bone  or  wood  is  also  a 
favorite  here,  and  indeed  the  only  game  of  the  kind 
mentioned;  it  is  played,  to  the  accompaniment  of  songs 
and  drumming,  by  parties  sitting  in  a  circle  on  mats,  the 
shuffler's  hands  being  often  wrapped  in  fur,  the  better  to 
deceive  the  players.186  All  are  excessively  fond  of  danc 
ing  and  singing;  but  their  songs  and  dances,  practiced 
on  all  possible  occasions,  have  not  been,  if  indeed  they 
can  be,  described.  They  seem  merely  a  succession  of 
sounds  and  motions  without  any  fixed  system.  Found 
ing  on  rude  drums  of  hide  accompanies  the  songs,  which 
are  sung  without  words,  and  in  which  some  listeners  have 
detected  a  certain  savage  melody.  Scalp-dances  are  per 
formed  by  women  hideously  painted,  who  execute  their 
diabolical  antics  in  the  centre  of  a  circle  formed  by  the 
rest  of  the  tribe  who  furnish  music  to  the  dancers.187 

whole  stud,  his  household  goods,  clothes,  and  finally  his  wives;  and  a  single 
heat  doubles  his  fortune,  or  sends  him  forth  an  impoverished  adventurer. 
The  interest,  however  is  not  confined  to  the  individual  directly  concerned; 
the  tribe  share  it  with  him,  and  a  common  pile  of  goods,  of  motley  descrip 
tion,  apportioned  according  to  their  ideas  of  value,  is  put  up  by  either  party, 
to  be  divided  among  the  backers  of  the  winner.'  Stevens,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept., 
vol.  i.,  pp.  401,  412.  '  Running  horses  and  foot-races  by  men,  women  and 
children,  and  they  have  games  of  chance  played  with  sticks  or  bones;'  do 
not  drink  to  excess.  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  pp.  237,  406.  Lewis  and  Clarke's 
Trav,  pp.  557;  Franchere's  Nar.,  p.  269. 
18^  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  310-11. 

186  The  principal  Okanagan  amusement  is  a  game  called  by  the  voyageurs 
'  jeu  de  main,'  like  our  odd  and  even.  Wilkes'  Nor.,  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  p.  463. 
It  sometimes  takes  a  week  to  decide  the  game.     The  loser  never  repines. 
Ross'  Adven.,  pp.  308-11;  Stuart's  Montana,  p.  71. 

187  Among  the  Wahowpums  '  the  spectators  formed  a  circle  round  the 
dancers,  who,  with  their  robes  drawn  tightly  round  the  shoulders,  and  di 
vided  into  parties  of  five  or  six  men,  perform  by  crossing  in  a  line  from  one 
side  of  the  circle  to  the  other.     All  the  parties,  performers  as  well  as  spec 
tators,  stag,  and  after  proceeding  in  this  way  for  some  time,  the  spectators 
join,  and  the  whole  concludes  by  a  promiscuous  dance  and  song.'     The 
Walla  Wallas  '  were  formed  into  a  solid  column,  round  a  kind  of  hollow 


282  COLUMBIANS. 

All  are  habitual  smokers,  always  inhaling  the  smoke  in 
stead  of  puffing  it  out  after  the  manner  of  more  civilized 
devotees  of  the  weed.  To  obtain  tobacco  the  native  will 
part  with  almost  any  other  property,  but  no  mention  is 
made  of  any  substitute  used  in  this  region  before  the 
white  man  came.  Besides  his  constant  use  of  the  pipe 
as  an  amusement  or  habit,  the  inland  native  employs  it 
regularly  to  clear  his  brain  for  the  transaction  of  im 
portant  business.  Without  the  pipe  no  war  is  declared, 
no  peace  officially  ratified;  in  all  promises  and  contracts 
it  serves  as  the  native  pledge  of  honor;  with  ceremonial 
whiffs  to  the  cardinal  points  the  wise  men  open  and 
close  the  deliberations  of  their  councils;  a  commercial 
smoke  clinches  a  bargain,  as  it  also  opens  negotiations  of 
trade.188 

The  use  of  the  horse  has  doubtless  been  a  most 
powerful  agent  in  molding  inland  customs ;  and  yet  the 
introduction  of  the  horse  must  have  been  of  compara 
tively  recent  date.  What  were  the  customs  and  charac 
ter  of  these  people,  even  when  America  was  first  discov 
ered  by  the  Spaniards,  must  ever  be  unknown.  It  is  by 
no  means  certain  that  the  possession  of  the  horse  has  ma 
terially  bettered  their  condition.  Indeed,  by  facilitating 
the  capture  of  buffalo,  previously  taken  perhaps  by  strat 
agem,  by  introducing  a  medium  with  which  at  least  the 
wealthy  may  always  purchase  supplies,  as  well  as  by  ren 
dering  practicable  long  migrations  for  food  and  trade,  the 

square,  stood  on  the  same  place,  and  merely  jumped  up  at  intervals,  to  keep 
time  to  the  music.'  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  526,  531.  Nez  Perces 
dance  round  a  pole  on  Sundays,  and  the  chiefs  exhort  during  the  pauses. 
Irving's  Bonnemlle's  Adven.,  pp.  101-2,  245.  In  singing  'they  use  hi,  ah,  in 
constant  repetition,. . .  .and  instead  of  several  parts  harmonizing,  they  only 
take  eighths  one  above  another,  never  exceeding  three.'  Parker's  Explor. 
Tour,  pp.  242-3.  '  The  song  was  a  simple  expression  of  a  few  sounds,  no 
intelligible  words  being  uttered.  It  resembled  the  words  ho-ha-ho-ha-ho-ha- 
ha-ha,  commencing  in  a  low  tone,  and  gradually  swelling  to  a  full,  round, 
and  beautifully  modulated  chorus.'  Townsend's  Nar.,  p.  106.  Chualpay 
scalp-dance.  Kane's  Wand.,  p.  315.  Religious  songs.  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp. 
338-40;  Palmer's  Jour.,  p.  124. 

188  De  Smet  thinks  inhaling  tobacco  smoke  may  prevent  its  injurious 
effects.  Voy.,  p.  207.  In  all  religious  ceremonies  the  pipe  of  peace  is  smoked. 
Ross'  Adven.,  pp.  288-9.  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  p.  286;  Nines'  Voy.,  p.  184. 
'The  medicine-pipe  is  a  sacred  pledge  of  friendship  among  all  the  north 
western  tribes.'  Stevens,  in  Lid.  Aff.  EepL,  1854,  p.  220. 


TREATMENT  OF  HOUSES.  283 

horse  may  have  contributed  somewhat  to  their  present 
spirit  of  improvidence.    The  horses  feed  in  large  droves, 
each  marked  with  some  sign  of  ownership,  generally  by 
clipping  the  ears,  and  when  required  for  use  are  taken  by 
the  lariat,  in  the  use  of  which  all  the  natives  have  some 
skill,  though  far  inferior  to  the  Mexican  vaqueros.     The 
method  of  breaking  and  training  horses  is  a  quick  and 
an  effectual  one.     It  consists  of  catching  and  tying  the 
animal;  then  buffalo-skins  and  other  objects  are  thrown 
at  and  upon  the  trembling  beast,  until  all  its  fear  is 
frightened   out  of   it.      When  willing  to  be  handled, 
horses  are  treated  with  great  kindness,  but  when  re 
fractory,  the  harshest  measures  are  adopted.     They  are 
well  trained  to  the  saddle,  and  accustomed  to  be  mount 
ed  from  either  side.     They  are  never  shod  and  never 
taught  to  trot.     The  natives  are  skillful  riders,  so  far  as 
the  ability  to  keep  their  seat  at  great  spaed  over  a  rough 
country  is  concerned,  but  they  never  ride  gracefully,  and 
rarely  if  ever  perform  the  wonderful  feats  of  horseman 
ship  so  often  attributed  to  the  western  Indians.    A  loose 
girth  is  used  under  which  to  insert  the  knees  when  rid 
ing  a  wild  horse.     They  are  hard  riders,  and  horses  in 
use  always  have  sore  backs  and  mouths.     Women  ride 
astride,   and  quite  as  well  as  the  men;  children  also 
learn  to  ride  about  as  early  as  to  walk.189     Each  nation 
has  its  superstitions;  by  each  individual  is  recognized 
the  influence  of  unseen  powers,  exercised  usually  through 
the  medium  of  his  medicine  animal  chosen  early  in  life. 
The  peculiar  customs  arising  from  this  belief   in    the 
supernatural  are  not  very  numerous  or  complicated,  and 
belong  rather  to  the  religion  of  these  people  treated  else 
where.     The  Pend  d'Oreille,  on  approaching  manhood, 

189  In  moving,  the  girls  and  small  boys  ride  three  or  four  on  a  horse  with 
their  mothers,  while  the  men  drive  the  herds  of  horses  that  run  loose  ahead. 
Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  71-3,  306.  Horses  left  for  months  without  a  guard, 
and  rarely  stray  far.  They  call  this  'caging'  them.  De  Srnet,  Voy.,  pp.  187, 
47,  56.  '  Babies  of  fifteen  months  old,  packed  in  a  sitting  posture,  rode 
along  without  fear,  grasping  the  reins  with  their  tiny  hands.'  Stevens,  in  Pac. 
R.  R.  Kept.,  vol.  xii.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  130,  with  plate;  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Kept., 
vol.  i.,  pp.  404-5;  Palliser's  Kept.,  p.  73;  Farnham's  Trar.,  pp.  81-2;  Lorn- 
enech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  64;  Irving' s  Astoria,  p.  365;  Franchere's  Nar.,  pp. 
269-71;  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  110-11. 


284  COLUMBIANS. 

was  sent  by  his  father  to  a  high  mountain  and  obliged 
to  remain  until  he  dreamed  of  some  animal,  bird,  or  fish, 
thereafter  to  be  his  medicine,  whose  claw,  tooth,  or  feather 
was  worn  as  a  charm.  The  howling  of  the  medicine-wolf 
and  some  other  beasts  forebodes  calamity,  but  by  the 
Okanagans  the  white- wolf  skin  is  held  as  an  emblem  of 
royalty,  and  its  possession  protects  the  horses  of  the 
tribe  from  evil-minded  wolves.  A  ram's  horns  left  in 
the  trunk  of  a  tree  where  they  were  fixed  by  the  mis 
directed  zeal  of  their  owner  in  attacking  a  native,  were 
much  venerated  by  the  Flatheads,  and  gave  them  power 
over  all  animals  so  long  as  they  made  frequent  offerings 
at  the  foot  of  the  tree.  The  Nez  Perces  had  a  peculiar 
custom  of  overcoming  the  mawish  or  spirit  of  fatigue, 
and  thereby  acquiring  remarkable  powers  of  endurance. 
The  ceremony  is  performed  annually  from  the  age  of 
eighteen  to  forty,  lasts  each  time  from  three  to  seven 
days,  and  consists  of  thrusting  willow  sticks  down  the 
throat  into  the  stomach,  a  succession  of  hot  and  cold 
baths,  and  abstinence  from  food.  Medicine-men  acquire 
or  renew  their  wonderful  powers  by  retiring  to  the 
mountains  to  confer  with  the  wolf.  They  are  then  in 
vulnerable  ;  a  bullet  fired  at  them  flattens  on  their  breast. 
To  allowing  their  portraits  to  be  taken,  or  to  the  opera 
tions  of  strange  apparatus  they  have  the  same  aversion 
that  has  been  noted  on  the  coast.190  Steam  baths  are 
universally  used,  not  for  motives  of  cleanliness,  but  some 
times  for  medical  purposes,  and  chiefly  in  their  supersti 
tious  ceremonies  of  purification.  The  bath-house  is  a 
hole  dug  in  the  ground  from  three  to  eight  feet  deep, 
and  sometimes  fifteen  feet  in  diameter,  in  some  locality 
where  wood  and  water  are  at  hand,  often  in  the  river 
bank.  It  is  also  built  above  ground  of  willow  branches 
covered  with  grass  and  earth.  Only  a  small  hole  is  left 

wo  'L'aigle est  le  grand  oiseati  cle  medecine.'  De  Smet,  Voy.,  pp.  46, 

205;  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  IS.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  494-5;  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff. 

Eept.,  1  ' 

R.  li. 

Ross' 

1,  318. 


MISCELLANEOUS  CUSTOMS.  285 

for  entrance,  and  this  is  closed  up  after  the  bather  en 
ters.  Stones  are  heated  by  a  fire  in  the  bath  itself,  or 
are  thrown  in  after  being  heated  outside.  In  this  oven, 
heated  to  a  suffocating  temperature,  the  naked  native 
revels  for  a  long  time  in  the  steam  and  mud,  mean 
while  singing,  howling,  praying,  and  finally  rushes  out 
dripping  with  perspiration,  to  plunge  into  the  nearest 
stream.191  Every  lodge  is  surrounded  by  a  pack  of  worth 
less  coyote-looking  curs.  These  are  sometimes  made  to 
carry  small  burdens  on  their  backs  when  the  tribe  is 
moving;  otherwise  no  use  is  made  of  them,  as  they  are 
never  eaten,  and,  with  perhaps  the  exception  of  a  breed 
owned  by  the  Okanagans,  are  never  trained  to  hunt.  I 
give  in  a  note  a  few  miscellaneous  customs  noticed  by 
travelers.192 

These  natives  of  the  interior  are  a  healthy  but  not  a 
very  long-lived  race.  Ophthalmia,  of  which  the  sand,^ 
smoke  of  the  lodges,  and  reflection  of  the  sun's  rays  on 
the  lakes  are  suggested  as  the  causes,  is  more  or  less 
prevalent  throughout  the  territory ;  scrofulous  complaints 
and  skin-eruptions  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  especially 
in  the  Sahaptin  family.  Other  diseases  are  compara 
tively  rare,  excepting  of  course  epidemic  disorders  like 

191  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  343-4;  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  pp.  241-2; 
Ross'  Adven.,  pp.  311-12. 

W2  The  Walla  Wallas  receive  bad  news  with  a  howl.  The  Spokanes  '  cache  ' 
their  salmon.  They  are  willing  to  change  names  with  any  one  they  esteem. 
'  Suicide  prevails  more  among  the  Indians  of  the  Columbia  Eiver  than  in  any 
other  portion  of  the  continent  which  I  have  visited.'  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  282-3, 
307-10.  '  Preserve  particular  order  in  their  movements.  The  first  chief  leads 
the  way,  the  next  chiefs  follow,  then  the  common  men,  and  after  these  the 
women  and  children.'  They  arrange  themselves  in  similar  order  in  coming 
forward  to  receive  visitors.  Do  not  usually  know  their  own  age.  Parker's 
Explor.  Tour,  pp.  87,  133-4,  242.  Distance  is  calculated  by  time;  a  day's 
ride  is  seventy  miles  on  horseback,  thirty-five  miles  on  foot.  Ross'  Adven., 
p.  329.  Natives  can  tell  by  examining  arrows  to  what  tribe  they  belong.  Ross' 
Fur  Hunters,  vol.  ii.,  p.  167.  Kliketats  and  Yakimas  often  unwilling  to  tell 
their  name.  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  405.  'D'apres  toutes  les 
observations  que  j'ai  faites,  leur  journee  equivaut  a  peu  pres  a  cinquante  ou 
soixante  milles  anglais  lorsqu'ils  voyagent  seuls,  et  a  quinze  ou  vingt  millesl 
seulement  lorsqu'ils  levent  leur  camps.'  De  Smet,  Voy.,  p.  205.  Among  the1 
Nez  Perces  everything  was  promulgated  by  criers.  '  The  office  of  crier  is 
generally  filled  by  some  old  man,  who  is  good  for  little  else.  A  village  has 
generally  several.'  Irving's  Bonneville's  Adven.,  p.  286.  Habits  of  worship 
of  the  Flatheads  in  the  missions.  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  315-6.  '  A  pack  of  prick- 
eared  curs,  simply  tamed  prairie  wolves,  always  in  attendance.'  Lord's  Nat., 
vol.  i.,  pp.  71-3. 


286  COLUMBIANS. 

small-pox  and  measles  contracted  from  the  whites,  which 
have  caused  great  havoc  in  nearly  all  the  tribes.     Hot 
and  cold  baths  are  the  favorite  native  remedy  for  all 
their  ills,  but  other  simple  specifics,  barks,  herbs,  and 
gums  are  employed  as  well.     Indeed,  so  efficacious  is 
their  treatment,  or  rather,  perhaps,  so  powerful  with 
them  is  nature  in  resisting  disease,  that  when  the  lo 
cality  or  cause  of  irregularity  is  manifest,  as  in  the  case 
of  wounds,  fractures,  or  snake-bites,   remarkable  cures 
are  ascribed  to  these  people.    But  here  as  elsewhere,  the 
sickness  becoming  at  all  serious  or  mysterious,  medical 
treatment  proper  is  altogether  abandoned,  and  the  pa 
tient  committed  to  the  magic  powers  of  the  medicine 
man.     In  his  power  either  to  cause  or  cure  disease  at 
will  implicit  confidence  is  felt,  and  failure  to  heal  indi 
cates  no  lack  of  skill ;  consequently  the  doctor  is  respon 
sible  for  his  patient's  recovery,  and  in  case  of  death  is 
liable  to,  and  often  does,  answer  with  his  life,  so  that  a 
natural  death  among  the  medical  fraternity  is  extremely 
rare.    His  only  chance  of  escape  is  to  persuade  relatives 
of  the  dead  that  his  ill  success  is  attributable  to  the  evil 
influence  of  a  rival  physician,  who  is  the  one  to  die;  or 
in  some  cases  a  heavy  ransom  soothes  the  grief  of  mourn 
ing  friends  and  avengers.     One  motive  of  the  Cayuses 
in  the  massacre  of  the  Whitman  family  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  missionary's  failure  to  cure  the  measles  in 
the  tribe.     He  had  done  his  best  to  relieve  the  sick,  and 
his  power  to  effect  in  all  cases  a  complete  cure  was  un 
questioned  by  the  natives.     The  methods  by  which  the 
medicine-man  practices  his  art  are  very  uniform  in  all 
the  nations.    The  patient  is  stretched  on  his  back  in  the 
centre  of  a  large  lodge,  and  his  friends  few  or  many  sit 
about  him  in  a  circle,  each  provided  with  sticks  where 
with  to  drum.     The  sorcerer,  often  grotesquely  painted, 
enters  the  ring,  chants  a  song,  and  proceeds  to  force  the 
evil  spirit  from  the  sick  man  by  pressing  both  clenched 
fists  with  all  his  might  in  the  pit  of  his  stomach,  knead 
ing  and  pounding  also  other  parts  of  the  bodj^,  blowing 
occasionally  through  his  own  fingers,  and  sucking  blood 


MEDICAL  PKACTICE.  287 

from  the  part  supposed  to  be  affected.  The  spectators 
pound  with  their  sticks,  and  all,  including  doctor,  and 
often  the  patient  in  spite  of  himself,  keep  up  a  continual 
song  or  yell.  There  is,  however,  some  method  in  this 
madness,  and  when  the  routine  is  completed  it  is  again 
begun,  and  thus  repeated  for  several  hours  each  day  un 
til  the  case  is  decided.  In  many  nations  the  doctor 
finally  extracts  the  spirit,  in  the  form  of  a  small  bone  or 
other  object,  from  the  patient's  body  or  mouth  by  some 
trick  of  legerdemain,  and  this  once  secured,  he  assures 
the  surrounding  friends  that  the  tormentor  having  been 
thus  removed,  recovery  must  soon  follow.193 

193  The  Nez  Perces  '  are  generally  healthy,  the  only  disorders  \vhich  we 
have  had  occasion  to  remark  being  of  scrophulous  kind.'     With  the  Sokulks 
'a  bad  soreness  of  the  eyes  is  a  very  common  disorder.'     'Bad  teeth  are 
very  general.'     The  Chilluckittequaws'  diseases  are  sore  eyes,  decayed  teeth, 
and  tumors.     The  Walla  Wallas  have  ulcers  and  eruptions  of  the  skin,  and 
occasionally  rheumatism.     The  Chopunnish  had  'scrofula,  rheumatism,  and 
sore  eyes,'  and  a  few  have  entirely  lost  the  use  of  their  limbs.  Lewis  and 
Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  3il,  332,  382,  531,  519.    The  medicine-man  uses  a  medicine- 
bag  of  relics  in  his  incantations.  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  pp.  240-1.     The  Okan- 
agan  medicine-men  are  called  tlaquilkiughs,  and  '  are  men  generally  past  the 
meridian  of  life;  in  their  habits  grave  and  sedate.'     'They  possess  a  good 
knowledge  of  herbs  and  roots,  and  their  virtues.'     I  have  often  'seen  him 
throw  out  whole  ruouthfuls  of  blood,  and  yet  not  the  least  mark  would  appear 
on  the  skin.'    '  I  once  saw  an  Indian  who  had  been  nearly  devoured  by  a  griz 
zly  bear,  and  had  his  skull  split  open  in  several  places,  and  several  pieces  of 
bone  taken  out  just  above  the  brain,  and  measuring  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
in  length,  cured  so  effectually  by  one  of  these  jugglers,  that  in  less  than  two 
months  after  he  was  riding  on  his  horse  again  at  the  chase.    I  have  also  seen 
them  cut  open  the  belly  with  a  knife,  extract  a  large  quantity  of  fat  from  the 
inside,  sew  up  the  part  again,  and  the  patient  soon  after  perfectly  recovered.' 
The  most  frequent  diseases  are  '  indigestion,  fluxes,  asthmas,  and  consump 
tions. '    Instances  of  longevity  rare.  Ross'  Adven.,  pp.  302-8.    A  desperate  case 
of  consumption  cured  by  killing  a  dog  each  day  for  thirty-two  days,  ripping 
it  open  and  placing  the  patient's  legs  in  the  warm  intestines,  administering 
some  barks  meanwhile.     The  Flatheads  subject  to  few  diseases;  splints  used 
for  fractures,  bleeding  with  sharp  flints  for  contusions,  ice-cold  baths  for  ordi 
nary  rheumatism,  and  vapor  bath  with  cold  plunge  for  chronic  rheumatism. 
Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  90-3,  vol.  i.,  pp.  248-51.     Among  the  Walla  Wallas 
convalescents  are  directed  to  sing  some  hours  each  day.     The  Spokanes  re 
quire  all  garments,  etc.,  about  the  death-bed  to  be  buried  with  the  body, 
hence  few  comforts  for  the  sick.  Willces'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  pp. 
426-7,  485.     The  Flatheads  say  their  wounds  cure  themselves.  De  Smet,  Voy.t 
pp.  198-200.     The  Wascos  cure  rattlesnake  bites  by  salt  applied  to  the  wound 
or  by  whisky  taken  internally.  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  265,  273,  317-18.     A  fe 
male  doctor's  throat  cut  by  the  father  of  a  patient  she  had  failed  to  cure. 
Hines'  Voy.,  p.   190.     The  office  of  medicine-men  among  the  Sahaptins  is 
generally  hereditary.     Men  often  die  from  fear  of   a  medicine-man's  evil 
glance.     Kival  doctors  work  on  the  fears  of  patients  to  get  each  other  killed. 
Murders  of  doctors  somewhat  rare  among  the  Nez  Perces.  Alvord,  in  School- 
craft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  pp.  652-3,  655.     Small-pox  seems  to  have  come  among 
the  Yakimas  and  Kliketats  before  direct  intercourse  with  whites.  Gibbs,  in 


288  COLUMBIANS. 

Grief  at  the  death  of  a  relative  is  manifested  by  cut 
ting  the  hair  and  smearing  the  face  with  black.  The 
women  also  howl  at  intervals  for  a  period  of  weeks  or 
even  months;  but  the  men  on  ordinary  occasions  rarely 
make  open  demonstrations  of  sorrow,  though  they  some 
times  shed  tears  at  the  death  of  a  son.  Several  instances 
of  suicide  in  mourning  are  recorded;  a  Walla  Walla 
chieftain  caused  himself  to  be  buried  alive  in  the  grave 
with  the  last  of  his  five  sons.  The  death  of  a  wife  or 
daughter  is  deemed  of  comparatively  little  consequence. 
In  case  of  a  tribal  disaster,  as  the  death  of  a  prominent 
chief,  or  the  killing  of  a  band  of  warriors  by  a  hostile 
tribe,  all  indulge  in  the  most  frantic  demonstrations, 
tearing  the  hair,  lacerating  the  flesh  with  flints,  often  in 
flicting  serious  injury.  The  sacrifice  of  human  life,  gen 
erally  that  of  a  slave,  was  practiced,  but  apparently  no 
where  as  a  regular  part  of  the  funeral  rites.  Among  the 
Flatheads  the  bravest  of  the  men  and  women  ceremo 
nially  bewail  the  loss  of  a  warrior  by  cutting  out  pieces 
of  their  own  flesh  and  casting  them  with  roots  and  other 
articles  into  the  fire.  A  long  time  passes  before  a  dead 
person's  name  is  willingly  spoken  in  the  tribe.  The 
corpse  is  commonly  disposed  of  by  wrapping  in  or 
dinary  clothing  and  burying  in  the  ground  without  a 
coffin.  The  northern  tribes  sometimes  suspended  the 
body  in  a  canoe  from  a  tree,  while  those  in  the  south 
formerly  piled  their  dead  in  wooden  sheds  or  sepulchres 
above  ground.  The  Okanagans  often  bound  the  body 
upright  to  the  trunk  of  a  tree.  Property  was  in  all 
cases  sacrificed;  horses  usually,  and  slaves  sometimes, 
killed  on  the  grave.  The  more  valuable  articles  of  wealth 
were  deposited  with  the  body;  the  rest  suspended  on 
poles  over  and  about  the  grave  or  left  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground ;  always  previously  damaged  in  such  manner 
as  not  to  tempt  the  sacrilegious  thief,  for  their  places  of 


Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  405,  408.  A  Nez  Perce  doctor  killed  by  a 
brother  of  a  man  who  had  shot  himself  in  mourning  for  his  dead  relative ; 
the  brother  in  turn  killed,  and  several  other  lives  lost.  Ross'  Fur  Hunters, 
vol.  i.,  p.  239. 


CHARACTER  OF  THE  INLAND  TRIBES.  289 

burial  are  held  most  sacred.  Mounds  of  stones  sur 
mounted  with  crosses  indicate  in  later  times  the  conver 
sion  of  the  natives  to  a  foreign  religion.194 

In  character  and  in  morals,195  as  well  as  in  physique,  the 

194  The  Sokulks  wrap  the  dead  in  skins,  bury  them  in  graves,  cover  with 
earth,  and  mark  the  grave  by  little  pickets  of  wood  struck  over  and  about  it. 
On  the  Columbia  below  the  Snake  was  a  shed-tomb  sixty  by  twelve  feet,  open 
at  the  ends,  standing  east  and  west.    Recently  dead  bodies  wrapped  in  leather 
and  arranged  on  boards  at  the  west  end.     About  the  centre  a  promiscuous 
heap  of  partially  decayed  corpses ;  and  at  eastern  end  a  mat  with  twenty-one 
skulls  arranged  in  a  circle.     Articles  of  property  suspended  on  the  inside 
and  skeletons  of  horses  scattered  outside.     About  the  Dalles  eight  vaults  of 
boards  eight  feet  square,  and  six  feet  high,  and  all  the  walls  decorated  with 
pictures  and  carvings.    The  bodies  were  laid  east  and  west.  Lewis  and  Clarke's 
Trav.,  pp.  344-5,  359-60,  379-80,  557-8.     Okanagans  observe  silence  about 
the  death-bed,  but  the  moment  the  person  dies  the  house  is  abandoned,  and 
clamorous  mourning  is  joined  in  by  all  the  camp  for  some  hours;  then  dead 
silence  while  the  body  is  wrapped  in  a  new  garment,  brought  out,  and  the 
lodge  torn  down.     Then  alternate  mourning  and  silence,  and  the  deceased  is 
buried  in  a  sitting  posture  in  a  round  hole.     Widows  must  mourn  two  years, 
incessantly  for  some  months,  then  only  morning  and  evening.  Ross'  Adven., 
pp.  321-2.     Frantic  mourning,  cutting  the  flesh,  etc.,  by  Nez  Perces.  Ross' 
Fur  Hunters,  vol.  i.,  pp.  234-5,  238-9,  vol.  ii.,  p.  139.     Destruction  of  horses 
and  other  property  by  Spokanes.  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  200-1.     A  shush- 
wap  widow  instigates  the  murder  of  a  victim  as  a  sacrifice  to  her  husband. 
The  horses  of  a  Walla  Walla  chief  not  used  after  his  death.  Kane's  Wand., 
pp.  178-9,  264-5,  277,  289.     Hundreds  of  Wasco  bodies  piled  in  a  small 
house  on  an  island,  just  below  the  Dalles.     A  Walla  Walla  chief  caused  him 
self  to  be  buried  alive  in  the  grave  of  his  last  son.  Hines1  Voy.,  pp.  159, 
184-8.     Among  the  Yakimas  and  Kliketats  the  women  do  the  mourning,  liv 
ing  apart  for  a  few  days,  and  then  bathing.     Okanagan  bodies  strapped  to  a 
tree.     Stone  mounds  over  Spokane  graves.  Gibbs  and  Stevens,  in  Pac.  R.  R. 
Rept.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  405,  413,  vol.  xii.,  pt.  i.,  p.  150.     Pend  d'Oreilles  buried  old 
and  young  alive  when  unable  to  take  care  of  them.  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  pp. 
211,   238.      'High  conical  stacks  of  drift-wood'  over  Walla  Walla  graves. 
Townsend's  Nar.,  p.  157.     Shushwaps  often  deposit  dead  in  trees.     If  in  the 
ground,  always  cover  grave  with  stones.  Mayne's  B.  C.,  p.  304.     Killing  a 
slave  by  Wascos.    White's  Oyn.,  pp.  260-3.     Dances  and  prayers  for  three 
days  at  Nez  Perce  chief's  burial.  Irving's  Bonneville's  Adven.,  p.  283.     Bury 
ing  infant  with  parents  by  Flatheads.  De  Smet,  Voy.,  p.  173.     Light  wooden 
palings  about  Shush wap  graves.  Milton  and  Cheadle's  Northw.  Pass.,  p.  242; 
Alvord,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  655;  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  p.  104; 
Palmer,  in  B.  C.  Papers,  pt.  iii.,  p.  85;  Gass'  Jour.,  p.  219;  Ind.  Life,  p.  55; 
Tolmie,  in  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  237-8,  260-J. 

195  Sokulks  'of  a  mild  and  peaceable  disposition,'  respectful  to  old  age.. 
Chilluckittequaws  '  unusually  hospitable  and  good  humoured.'    Chopunnish 
'  the  most  amiable  we  have  seen.     Their  character  is  placid  and  gentle,  rarely 
moved  into  passion.'     '  They  are  indeed  selfish  and  avaricious.'     Will  pilfer 
small  articles.  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  338,  341,  351,  376,  556-8,  564. 
The  Flatheads  'se  distinguent  par  la  civilite,  I'honnetete,  et  la  bonte.'  De 
Smet,  Voy.,  pp.  31-2,  38-40,  47-50,  166-74,  202-4.     Flatheads  'the  best  In 
dians  of  the  mountains  and  the  plains, — honest,  brave,  and  docile.'     Koote- 
nais  '  men  of  great  docility  and  artlessness  of  character.'  Stevens  and  Hoecken, 
in  De  Smet's  West.  Miss.,  pp.  281,  284,  290,  300.     Coeurs  d'Alene  selfish  and 
poor-spirited.  De  Smet,  Miss,  de  I' Oregon,  p.  329.     In  the  Walla  Wallas  '  an 
air  of  open  unsuspecting  confidence, '  '  natural  politeness, '  no  obtrusive  fa 
miliarity.     Flatheads   'frank  and  hospitable.'     Except  cruelty  to  captives 

VOL.  I.    19 


290  COLUMBIANS. 

inland  native  is  almost  unanimously  pronounced  supe 
rior  to  the  dweller  on  the  coast.  The  excitement  of  the 
chase,  of  war,  and  of  athletic  sports  ennobles  the  mind 
as  it  develops  the  body ;  and  although  probably  not  by 
nature  less  indolent  than  their  western  neighbors,  yet 
are  these  natives  of  the  interior  driven  by  circumstances 
to  habits  of  industry,  and  have  much  less  leisure  time 
for  the  cultivation  of, the  lower  forms  of  vice.  As  a 
race,  "and  compared  with  the  average  American  aborigi 
nes,  they  are  honest,  intelligent,  and  pure  in  morals. 
Travelers  are  liable  to  form  their  estimate  of  national 
•character  from  a  view,  perhaps  unfair  and  prejudiced, 
•of  the  actions  of  a  few  individuals  encountered ;  conse 
quently  qualities  the  best  and  the  worst  have  been  given 
•by  some  to  each  of  the  nations  now  under  consideration. 
For  the  best  reputation  the  Nez  Perces,  Flatheads  and 
Kootenais  have  always  been  rivals;  their  good  qualities 
have  been  praised  by  all,  priest,  trader  and  tourist. 
Honest,  just,  and  often  charitable;  ordinarily  cold  and 
reserved,  but  on  occasions  social  and  almost  gay ;  quick 
tempered  and  revengeful  under  what  they  consider  in- 

have  'fewer  failings  than  any  of  the  tribes  I  ever  met.'  Brave,  quiet,  and 
:amenable  to  their  chiefs.  Spokanes  'quiet,  honest,  inoffensive,'  but  rather 
indolent.  'Thoughtless  and  improvident.'  Okanagans  'Indolent  rascals;' 
'  an  honest  and  quiet  tribe. '  Sanspoils  dirty,  slothful,  dishonest,  quarrelsome, 
etc.  Coeurs  d'Alene. '  uniformly  honest;'  'more  savage  than  their  neigh 
bours.'  Kootenais  honest,  brave,  jealous,  truthful.  Kamloops  'thieving and 
quarrelling.'  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  145,  148,  192,  199,  239-40,  262-3,  344, 
vol.  ii.,  pp.  44,  87-8,  109,  145-60.  Okanagans  active  and  industrious,  re 
vengeful,  generous  and  brave.  Ross'  Adven.,  pp.  142,  290-5,  327-9.  Skeen 
'a  hardy,  brave  people.'  Cayuses  far  more  vicious  and  ungovernable  than 
the  Walla  Wallas.  Nez  Perces  treacherous  and  villainous.  Kane's  Wand., 
pp.  263,  280,  290,  307-8,  315.  Nez  Perces  '  a  quiet,  civil,  people,  but  proud 
and  haughty.'  Palmer's  Jour.,  pp.  128,  48,  53,  59,  61,  124-7.  'Kind  to  each 
other.'  '  Cheerful  and  often  gay,  sociable,  kind  and  affectionate,  and  anxious 
to  receive  instruction.'  'Lying  scarcely  known. '  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  pp. 
97,  105,  232,  239,  303-4,  311-12.  Of  the  Nicutemuchs  'the  habitual  vin- 
dictiveness  of  their  character  is  fostered  by  the  ceaseless  feuds.'  'Nearly 
every  family  has  a  minor  vendetta  of  its  own.'  'The  races  that  depend  en 
tirely  or  chiefly  on  fishing,  are  immeasurably  inferior  to  those  tribes  who, 
with  nerves  and  sinews  braced  by  exercise,  and  minds  comparatively  en 
nobled  by  frequent  excitement,  live  constantly  amid  war  and  the  chase.' 
Anderson,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  vii.,  pp.  77-80.  Inland  tribes  of  British  Co 
lumbia  less  industrious  and  less  provident  than  the  more  sedentary  coast 
Indians.  Mayne's  B.  C.,  pp.  301,  297.  Sahaptins  'cold,  taciturn,  high- 
tempered,  warlike,  fond  of  hunting.'  Palouse,  Yakimas,  Kliketats,  etc.,  of 
a  'less  hardy  and  active  temperament'  than  the  Nez  Perces.  Hole's  Ethnog., 
in  U.  ~S>  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  pp.  199,  210-13.  Cayuses  '  dreaded  by  their  neigh- 


INLAND  MOEALITY.  291 

justice,  but  readily  appeased  by  kind  treatment;  cruel 
only  to  captive  enemies,  stoical  in  the  endurance  of  tor 
ture;  devotedly  attached  to  home  and  family;  these 
natives  probably  come  as  near  as  it  is  permitted  to  flesh- 
and-blood  savages  to  the  traditional  noble  red  man  of 
the  forest,  sometimes  met  in  romance.  It  is  the  pride 
and  boast  of  the  Flathead  that  his  tribe  has  never  shed 
the  blood  of  a  white  man.  Yet  none,  whatever  their 
tribe,  could  altogether  resist  the  temptation  to  steal 
horses  from  their  neighbors  of  a  different  tribe,  or  in 
former  times,  to  pilfer  small  articles,  wonderful  to  the 
savage  eye,  introduced  by  Europeans.  Many  have  been 
nominally  converted  by  the  zealous  labors  of  the  Jesuit 
Fathers,  or  Protestant  missionaries ;  and  several  nations 
seem  to  have  actually  improved,  in  material  condition  if 
not  in  character,  under  their  change  of  faith.  As  Mr 
Alexander  Ross  remarks,  "  there  is  less  crime  in  an  In 
dian  camp  of  five  hundred  souls  than  there  is  in  a  civ 
ilized  village  of  but  half  that  number.  Let  the  lawyer 
or  moralist  point  out  the  cause." 

bors  on  account  of  their  courage  and  warlike  spirit. '  Walla  Wallas  '  notori 
ous  as  thieves  since  their  first  intercourse  with  whites.'  'Indolent,  super 
stitious,  drunken  and  debauched.  Character  of  Flatheads,  Pend  d'Oreilles, 
Umatillas.  Ind.  A/.  Rept.,  1854,  pp.  207-9,  211,  218,  223,  282,  1861,  pp.  164-5. 
Yakimas  and  Kliketats  'much  superior  to  the  river  Indians.'  Stevens,  in  Pac. 
R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  405,  298,  403,  416,  vol.  xii.,  pt.  i.,  p.  139.  Wascos  '  ex 
ceedingly  vicious.'  Hines'  Voy.,  pp.159,  169.  The  Nez  Perces  'are,  certainly, 
more  like  a  nation  of  saints  than  a  horde  of  savages. '  Skyuses,  Walla  Wallas. 
Irving's  Bonnevitte's  Adven.,  pp.  101,  287,  289-90,  300.  Tushepaws;  Irving' s 
Astoria,  p.  316.  Thompson  River  Indians  rather  a  superior  and  clever  race. 
Victoria  Colonist,  Oct.,  1860.  '  Indians  from  the  Rocky  mountains  to  the  falls 
of  Columbia,  are  an  honest,  ingenuous,  and  well  disposed  people,'  but  ras 
cals  below  the  falls.  Gass'  Jour.,  p.  304.  Flathead  '  fierceness  and  barbarity  in 
•war  could  not  be  exceeded.'  Nicolay's  Ogn.  Ter.,  p.  153.  Flatheads,  Walla 
Wallas  and  Nez  Perces;  Gray's  Ifist.  Ogn.,'pp.  171,  219.  Kootenais;  Palliser's 


Explor.,  pp.,  44,  73.  Salish,  Walla  Wallas;  fiomenech's  Deserts,  vol.'  i.,  p. 
88,  vol.  ii.,  p.  64.  Walla  Wallas,  Cayuses,  and  Nez  Perces;  White's  Oregon, 
p.  174.  Walla  Wallas,  Kootenais;  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  85,  178.  Flat- 


88,  vol.  ii.,  p.  64.     Walla  Wallas,  Cayuses,  and  Nez  Perces;  Whitens  Oregon, 

alia  Wallas,  Kootenais;  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  pj 
heads,  Nez  Perces;  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  311,  315,  326-8.     Nez  Perces;  Catlin's 


N.  Am.  Ind.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  109;  Franchere's  Nar.,  p.  268.  Kayuses,  Walla 
Wallas;  Townsend's  Nar.,  p.  156.  Sahaptins;  Wilkes'  Hist.  Ogn.,  p.  106. 
Nez  Perces;  Htastings'  Emigrants'  Guide,  p.  59.  Flatheads;  Ind.  Life,  pp.  ix., 
x.,  25.  At  Dalles;'  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  412.  Shush- 
waps;  Grant's  Ocean  to  Ocean,  pp.  288-304,  313.  At  Dalles;  Hunt,  in  Nouvelles 
Annales  des  Voy.,  1821,  torn,  x.,  p.  82;  Stuart,  in  Id.,  1821,  torn,  xii.,  p.  43. 
Pend  d'Oreilles;  Joset,  in  Id.,  1849,  torn,  cxxiii.,  pp.  334-40. 


292  COLUMBIANS. 


TRIBAL     BOUNDARIES. 

The  Columbian  Group  comprises  the  tribes  inhabiting  the  territory  imme 
diately  south  of  that  of  the  Hyperboreans,  extending  from  the  fifty-fifth  to 
the  forty-third  parallel  of  north  latitude. 

IN  THE  HAIDAH  FAMILY,  I  include  all  the  coast  and  island  nations  oi 
British  Columbia,  from  55°  to  52 J,  and  extending  inland  about  one  hundred 
miles  to  the  borders  of  the  Chilcoten  Plain,  the  Haidah  nation  proper  hav 
ing  their  home  on  the  Queen  Charlotte  Islands.  '  The  Haidah  tribes  of  the 
Northern  Family  inhabit  Queen  Charlotte's  Island. '  '  The  Massettes,  Skitte- 
gas,  Cumshawas,  and  other  (Haidah)  tribes  inhabiting  the  eastern  shores  of 
Queen  Charlotte's  Island.'  Scouler,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  219. 
'The  principal  tribes  upon  it  (Q.  Char.  Isl.)  are  the  Sketigets,  Massets,  and 
Comshewars.'  Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  292.  'Tribal  names  of  the  principal  tribes 
inhabiting  the  islands: — Klue,  Skiddan,  Ninstence  or  Cape  St.  James, 

Skidagate,  Skidagatees,    Gold-Harbour,  Cumshewas,  and  four  others 

Hydah  is  the  generic  name  for  the  whole.'  Poole's  Q.  Char.  IsL,  p.  309.  '  The 
Cumshewar,  Massit,  Skittageets,  Keesarn,  and  Kigarnee,  are  mentioned 
as  living  on  the  island.'  Ludewig,  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  157.  The  following  bands, 
viz.:  Lulanna,  (or  Sulanna),  Nightan,  Massetta,  (orMosette),  Necoon,  Ase- 
guang,  (or  Asequang),  Skittdegates,  Cumshawas,  Skeedans,  Queeah,  Cloo, 
Kishawin,  Kowwelth,  (or  Kawwelth),  and  Too,  compose  the  Queen  Char 
lotte  Island  Indians,  '  beginning  at  N.  island,  north  end,  and  passing  round  by 
the  eastward.'  Schoolcraft'sArch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  489;  and  Kane's  Wand.,  end  of  vol. 
'  The  Hydah  nation  which  is  divided  into  numerous  tribes  inhabiting  the 
island  and  the  mainland  opposite.'  Heed's  Nar.  '  Queen  Charlotte's  Island 
and  Prince  of  Wales  Archipelago  are  the  country  of  the  Haidahs; includ 
ing  the  Kygany,  Massett,  Skittegetts,  Hanega,  Cumshewas,  and  other  septs.' 
Anderson,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  vii.,  p.  74.  'Les  Indiens  Koumchaouas,  Ha'i- 
das,  Massettes,  et  Skidegats,  de  1'ile  de  la  Keine  Charlotte.'  Mofras,  Explor., 
torn,  ii.,  p.  337.  My  Haidah  Family  is  called  by  Warre  and  Vavaseur  Qua- 
cott,  who  with  the  Newette  and  twenty-seven  other  tribes  live,  '  from  Lat. 
54°  to  Lat.  50 J,  including  Queen  Charlotte's  Island;  North  end  of  Vancouver's 
Island,  Millbank  Sound  and  Island,  and  the  Main  shore.'  Martin's  Hudson's 
Bay,  p.  80. 

The  Massets  and  thirteen  other  tribes  besides  the  Quacott  tribes  occupy 
Queen  Charlotte  Islands.  Warre  and  Vavaseur,  in  Martin's  Hud.  Bay,  p.  80. 

The  Ninstence  tribe  inhabits  '  the  southernmost  portions  of  Moresby  Isl 
and.'  Poole's  Q.  Char.  IsL,  pp.  122,  314-15. 

The  Crosswer  Indians  live  on  Skiddegate  Channel.  Downie,  in  B.  Col. 
Papers,  vol.  iii.,  p.  72. 

The  Kaiganies  inhabit  the  southern  part  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  Archipela 
go,  and  the  northern  part  of  Queen  Charlotte  Island.  The  Kygargeys  or 
Kygarneys  are  divided  by  Schoolcraft  and  Kane  into  the  Youahnoe,  Clictass 
(or  Clictars),  Quiahanles,  Houaguan,  (orWonagan),  Shouagan,  (or  Show- 


THE  HAIDAH  FAMILY.  293 

gan),  Chatcheenie,  (or  Chalchuni).  Archives,  vol.  v.,  p.  489;.  Wanderings, 
end  of  vol.  The  Kygani  '  have  their  head-quarters  on  Queen  Charlotte's 
Archipelago,  but  there  are  a  few  villages  on  the  extreme  southern  part  of 
Prince  of  Wales  Archipelago.'  Doll's  Alaska,  p.  411.  A  colony  of  the  Hy- 
dahs  '  have  settled  at  the  southern  extremity  of  Prince  of  Wales 's  Archipela 
go,  and  in  the  Northern  Island.'  Scouler,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi., 
p.  219.  '  Die  Kaigani  (Kigarnies,  Kigarnee,  Kyganies  der  Englander)  bewoh- 
nen  den  sudlichen  Theil  der  Inseln  (Archipels)  des  Prinzen  von  Wales.' 
Radloff,  Sprache  der  Kaiganen,  in  Melanges  Russes,  torn,  iii.,  livrais.  v.,  p.  569. 
'  The  Kegarnie  tribe,  also  in  the  Russian  territory,  live  on  an  immense  island, 
called  North  Island.'  Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  287.  The  Hydahs  of  the  south 
eastern  Alexander  Archipelago  include  'the  Kassaaus,  the  Chatcheenees, 
and  the  Kaiganees.'  Bendel's  Alex.  Arch.,  p.  28.  'Called  Kaiganies  and 
Kliavakans;  the  former  being  near  Kaigan  Harbor,  and  the  latter  near  the 
Gulf  of  Kliavakan  scattered  along  the  shore  from  Cordova  to  Tonvel's  Bay.' 
Halleck  and  Scott,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1869,  p.  562-4.  '  A  branch  of  this  tribe, 
the  Kyganies  (Kigarnies)  live  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Archipel  of  the 
Prince  of  Wales.'  Ludewig,  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  80. 

'  To  the  west  and  south  of  Prince  of  Wales  Island  is  an  off-shoot  of  the 
Hydah,'  Indians,  called  Anega  or  Hennegas.  Mahony,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1869, 
p.  575. 

The  Chimsyans  inhabit  the  coast  and  islands  about  Fort  Simpson.  Ten 
tribes  of  Chymsyans  at  '  Chatham  Sound,  Portland  Canal,  Port  Essington, 
and  the  neighbouring  Islands.'  Warre  and  Vavaseur,  in  Martin's  Hudson's 
Bay,  p.  80.  'The  Chimsians  or  Fort  Simpson  Indians.'  Tolmie,  in  Lord's 
Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  231.  'Indians  inhabiting  the  coast  and  river  mouth  known 
by  the  name  of  Chyniseyans.'  Ind.  Life,  p.  93.  The  Tsimsheeans  live  '  in 
the  Fort  Simpson  section  on  the  main  land.'  Poole's  Q.  Char.  Isl.,  p.  257. 
Chimpsains,  'living  on  Chimpsain  Peninsula.'  Scott,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1869, 
p.  563.  The  Chimmesyans  inhabit  '  the  coast  of  the  main  land  from  55° 
30'  N.,  down  to  53°  30'  N.'  Scouler,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  202; 
Ludewig,  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  40.  The  Chimseeans  '  occupy  the  country  from  Doug- 
las'  Canal  to  Nass  River.'  Simpson's  Overland  Journ.,  vol.  i.,  p.  206.  Di 
vided  into  the  following  bands;  Kispachalaidy,  Kitlan  (or  Ketlane)  ,  Kee- 
ches  (orKeechis),  Keenathtoix,  Kitwillcoits,  Kitchaclalth,  Kelutsah  (orKet- 
utsah),  Kenchen  Kieg,  Ketandou,  Ketwilkcipa,  who  inhabit  'Chatham's 
Sound,  from  Portland  Canal  to  Port  Essington  (into  which  Skeena  River 
discharges)  both  main  land  and  the  neighboring  islands.'  Schoolcraft's 
Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  487;  Kane's  Wand.,  end  of  vol.  The  Chymsyan connection 
'  extending  from  Milbank  Sound  to  Observatory  Inlet,  including  the  Sebas- 
sas,  Neecelowes,  Nass,  and  other  offsets.'  Anderson,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  vii. 
p.  74.  Mr.  Duncan  divides  the  natives  speaking  the  Tsimshean  language 
into  four  parts  at  Fort' Simpson,  Nass  River,  Skeena  River,  and  the  islands  of 
Milbank  Sound.  Mayne's  B.  C.,  p.  250. 

The  Keethratlah  live  'near  Fort  Simpson.'  Id.,  p.  279. 

The  Nass  nation  lives  on  the  banks  of  the  Nass  River,  but  the  name  is  often 
applied  to  all  the  mainland  tribes  of  what  I  term  the  Haidah  Family.  The 
nation  consists  of  the  Kithateen,  Kitahon,  Ketoonokshelk,  Kinawalax  (or 


294  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

Kinaroalax),  located  in  that  order  from  the  mouth  upward.  Schoolcraft's 
Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  487;  Kane's  Wand.,  end  of  vol.  Four  tribes,  'Nass  River 
on  the  Main  land,'  Warre  and  Vavaseur,  in  Martin's  Hudson's  Bay,  p.  80. 
'  On  Observatory  Inlet,  lat.  55°.'  Bryant,  in  Am.  Antiq.  Soc.  Transact,  vol.  ii., 
p.  302.  Adjoin  the  Sebassa  tribe.  Cornwall^'  N.  Eldorado,  p.  107.  About 
Fort  Simpson.  Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  279.  The  Hailtsa,  Haeeltzuk,  Billechoola, 
and  Chimmesyans  are  Nass  tribes.  Ludewig,  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  130.  See  Busch- 
mann,  Brit.  Nordamer,  pp.  398-400. 

'  There  is  a  tribe  of  about  200  souls  now  living  on  a  westerly  branch  of 
the  Naas  near  Stikeen  River;  they  are  called  "  Lackweips  "  and  formerly 
lived  on -Portland  Channel.'  Scott,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Sept.,  1869,  p.  563. 

The  Skeenas  are  on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  '  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Skeena  River.'  Warre  and  Vavaseur,  in  Martin's  Hudson's  Bay,  p.  80.  They 
are  the  '  Kitsalas,  Kitswingahs,  Kitsiguchs,  Kitspayuchs,  Hagulgets,  Kitsag- 
as,  and  Kits winscolds.'  Scott,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1869,  p.  563. 

Keechumakarlo  (or  Keechumakailo)  situated  'on  the  lower  part  of  the 
Skeena  River.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  487;  Kane's  Wand.,  end  of 
vol. 

The  Kitswinscolds  live  '  betweer^the  Nass  and  the  Skeena.'  Scott,  in  Ind. 
Aff.  Kept.,  1869,  p.  563.  The  Kitatels  live  ' on  the  islands  in  Ogden's  Chan 
nel,  about  sixty  miles  below  Fort  Simpson. '  Id. 

The  Sebassas  occupy  the  shores  of  Gardner  Channel  and  the  opposite 
islands.  Inhabit  Banks  Island.  Simpson's  Overland  Journ.,  vol.  i.,  p.  206. 
The  Labassas  in  five  tribes  are  situated  on  '  Gardner's  Canal,  Canal  de  Prin 
cipe,  Canal  de  la  Reida.'  Warre  and  Vavaseur,  in  Martin's  Hudson's  Bay,  p.  80. 
Keekheatla  (or  Keetheatla),  on  Canal  de  Principe;  Kilcatah,  at  the  entrance 
of  Gardner  Canal;  Kittamaat  (or  Kittamuat),  on  the  north  arm  of  Gard 
ner  Canal;  Kitlope  on  the  south  arm;  Neeslous  on  Canal  de  la  Reido 
(Reina).  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  487;  Kane's  Wand.,  end  of  vol.  'In 
the  neighbourhood  of  Seal  Harbour  dwell  the  Sebassa  tribe.'  Cornwallis'  N. 
Eldorado,  p.  106.  '  The  Shebasha,  a  powerful  tribe  inhabiting  the  numerous 
islands  of  Pitt's  Archipelago.'  Bryant,  in  Am.  Antiq.  Soc.  Transact.,  vol.  ii., 
p.  302. 

The  Millbank  Sound  tribes  are  the  Onieletoch,  Weitletoch  (or  Weetletoch) , 
and  Kokwaiytoch,  on  Millbank  Sound;  Eesteytoch,  on  Cascade  Canal;  Kui- 
muchquitoch,  on  Dean  Canal;  Bellahoola,  at  entrance  of  Salmon  River  of 
Mackenzie;  Guashilla,  on  River  Canal;  Nalalsemoch,  at  Smith  Inlet,  and 
Weekemoch  on  Calvert  Island.  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  pp.  487-8;  Kane's 
Wand.,  end  of  vol.  '  The  Millbank  Indians  on  Millbank  Sound.'  Bryant,  in 
Am.  Antiq.  Soc.  Transact.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  302. 

The  Bellacoolas  live  about  the  mouth  of  Salmon  River.  ' ' '  Bentick's  Arms  ' ' 
—inhabited  by  a  tribe  of  Indians— the  Bellaghchoolas.  Their  village  is  near 
Salmon  River.'  Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  267.  The  Billechoolas  live  on  Salmon 
River  in  latitude  53°  30'.  Buschmann,  Brit.  Nordamer.,  p.  384.  The  Bella- 
hoolas  'on  the  banks  of  the  Salmon  river.'  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  258. 
'The  Indians  at  Milbank  Sound  called  Belbellahs.'  Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  271. 
'  Spread  along  the  margins  of  the  numerous  canals  or  inlets  with  which  this 
part  of  the  coast  abounds.'  Scouler,  in  Land.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  224. 


THE  NOOTKA  FAMILY.  295 

'  In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Fort  (McLoughlin)  was  a  village  of  about  five 
hundred  Ballabollas.'  Simpson's  Overland  Journ.,  vol.  i.,  p.  202. 

The  Hailtzas,  Hailtzuks,  or  Haeelzuks  '  dwell  to  the  south  of  the  Bille- 
choola,  and  inhabit  both  the  mainland  and  the  northern  entrance  of  Van 
couver's  Island  from  latitude  53°  30'  N.  to  50 J  30'  N.'  Scouler,  in  Lond.  Geog. 
Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  224.  '  The  Hailtsa  commencing  in  about  latitude  51°  N., 
and  extending  through  the  ramifications  of  Fitzhugh  and  Milbank  Sounds.' 
Anderson,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  vii.,  p.  74.  'An  diesem  Sunde  (Milbank)  woh- 
nen  die  Hailtsa-Indianer.'  Buschmann,  Brit,  Nordamer.,  p.  383;  Tolmie,  in 
Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  230. 

THE  NOOTKA  FAMILY  dwells  south  of  the  Haidah,  occupying  the  coast  of 
British  Columbia,  from  Bentinck  Arms  to  the  mouth  of  the  Fraser,  and  the 
whole  of  Vancouver  Island.  By  other  authors  the  name  has  been  employed 
to  designate  a  tribe  at  Nootka  Sound,  or  applied  to  nearly  all  the  Coast  tribes 
of  the  Columbian  Group.  '  The  native  population  of  Vancouver  Island. . . . 
is  chiefly  composed  of  the  following  tribes: — North  and  East  coasts  (in  order 
in  which  they  stand  from  North  to  South) — Quackolls,  Newittees,  Comuxes, 
Yukletas,  Suanaimuchs,  Cowitchins,  Sanetchs,  other  smaller  tribes;— South 
Coast  ( .  .  .from  East  to  West)  — Tsomass,  Tsclallums,  Sokes,  Patcheena,  Sen- 

natuch; — West  Coast (from  South  to  North) — Nitteenats,  Chadukutl, 

Oiatuch,  Toquatux,  Schissatuch,  Upatsesatuch,  Cojuklesatuch,  Uqluxlatuch, 
Clayoquots,  Nootkas,  Nespods,  Koskeemos,  other  small  tribes.'  Grant,  in 
Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xxvii.,  p.  293.  'In  Barclay  Sound:  Pacheenett, 
Nittinat,  Ohiat,  Ouchuchlisit,  Opecluset,  Shechart,  Toquart,  TJcletah,  Tso 
mass; — Clayoquot  Sound:  Clayoquot,  Kilsamat,  Ahouset,  Mamiawousut,  Ish- 
quat; — Nootka  Sound:  Matchclats,  Moachet,  Neuchallet,  Ehateset.'  Mayne's 
B.  C.,  p.  251.  'About  Queen  Charlotte  Sound; — Naweetee,  Quacolth,  Quee- 
havuacolt  (or  Queehaquacoll),  Marmalillacalla,  Clowetsus  (or  Clawetsus), 
Murtilpar  (or  Martilpar),  Nimkish,  Wewarkka,  Wewarkkuni,  Clallueis  (or 
Clalluiis),  Cumquekis,  Laekquelibla,  Clehuse  (or  Clehure),  Soiitinu  (or 
Soiilenu),  Quicksutinut  (or  Quicksulinut),  Aquamish,  Clelikitte,  Narkock- 
tau,  Quainu,  Exenimuth,  (or  Cexeninuth),  Tenuckttau,  Oiclela.'  Schoolcraft'sr 
Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  488;  Kane's  Wand.,  end  of  vol.  On  the  seabord,  south  of 
Nitinaht  Sound,  and  on  the  Nitinaht  Kiver,  the  Pacheenaht  and  Niti- 
naht  tribes;  on  Barclay,  otherwise  Nitinaht  Sound,  the  Ohyaht,  Howchu- 
klisaht,  Opechisaht,  Seshaht,  Youclulaht,  and  Toquaht  tribes;  on  Klahoh- 
quaht  Sound,  the  Klahohquaht,  Killsmaht,  Ahousaht  and  Manohsaht 
tribes;  on  Nootkah  Sound,  the  Hishquayaht,  Muchlaht,  Moouchat  (the 
so-called  Nootkahs),  Ayhuttisaht  and  Noochahlaht;  north  of  Nootkah 
Sound,  the  Kyohquaht,  Chaykisaht,  and  Klahosaht  tribes.  Sproat's  Scenes, 
p.  308.  Alphabetical  list  of  languages  on  Vancouver  Island:  Ahowzarts, 
Aitizzarts,  Aytcharts,  Cayuquets,  Eshquates  (or  Esquiates),  Klahars,  Klaiz- 
zarts,  Klaooquates  (or  Tlaoquatch),  Michlai'ts,  Mowatchits,  Neuchadlits,  Neu- 
witties,  Newchemass,  (Nuchimas),  Savinnars,  Schoomadits,  Suthsetts,  Tlao 
quatch,  Wicananish.  Buschmann,  Brit.  Nordamer.,  p.  349.  'Among  those 
from  the  north  were  the  Aitizzarts.  Schoomadits,  Neuwitties,  Savinnars, 
Ahowzarts,  Mowatchits,  Suthsetts,  Neuchadlits,  Michlaits,  and  Cayuquets; 
the  most  of  whom  were  considered  as  tributary  to  Nootka.  From  the  South 


296  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

the  Aytcharts,  and  Esquiates  also  tributary,  with  the  Klaooquates  and  the 
Wickaiininish,  a  large  and  powerful  tribe,  about  two  hundred  miles  distant.' 
Jewitt's  Nar.,  pp.  36-7.  '  Tribes  situated  between  Nanaimo  and  Fort  Rupert, 
on  the  north  of  Vancouver  Island,  and  the  mainland  Indians  between 
the  same  points ....  are  divided  into  several  tribes,  the  Nanoose,  Comoux, 
Nimpkish,  Quawguult,  &c.,  on  the  Island;  and  the  Squawmisht,  Sechelt, 
Clahoose,  Ucletah,  Mamalilaculla,  &c.,  on  the  coast,  and  among  the  small 
islands  off  it.'  Mayne's  B.  C.,  p.  243.  List  of  tribes  on  Vancouver  Island: 
'  Songes,  Sanetch,  Kawitchin,  Uchulta,  Nimkis,  Quaquiolts,  Neweetg,  Quack- 
toe,  Nootka,  Nitinat,  Klayquoit,  Soke.'  Findlay's  Directory,  pp.  391-2.  The 
proper  name  of  the  Vancouver  Island  Tribes  is  Yucuatl.  Ludewig,  Ab.  Lang., 
p.  135.  The  Nootka  Territory  '  extends  to  the  Northward  as  far  as  Cape  Saint 
James,  in  the  latitude  of  52°  20'  N. .  .and  to  the  Southward  to  the  Islands. . . 
of  the  Wicananish.'  Meares'  Voy.,  p.  228.  '  The  Cawitchans,  Ucaltas,  and  Co- 
quilths,  who  are  I  believe  of  the  same  family,  occupy  the  shores  of  the  Gulf 
of  Georgia  and  Johnston's  Straits.'  Anderson,  in  Hist.  Mac/.,  vol.  vii.,  p.  74. 
'  Twenty-four  tribes  speaking  the  Challam  and  Cowaitzchim  languages,  from 
latitude  50°  along  the  Coast  South  to  Whitby  Island  in  latitude  48°;  part  of 
Vancouver's  Island,  and  the  mouth  of  Franc's  River.'  Also  on  the  Strait  of 
Juan  de  Fuca  and  Vancouver  Islands,  the  Sanetch,  three  tribes;  Hallarns, 
eleven  tribes;  Sinahomish;  Skatcat;  Cowitchici,  seven  tribes;  Soke;  Cowit- 
ciher,  three  tribes.  Warre  and  Vavaseur,  in  Martin's  Hudson's  Bay,  p.  81;  also 
in  HazliWs  B.  C.,  pp.  66-7.  Five  tribes  at  Fort  Rupert;— Quakars,  Qual- 
quilths,  Kumcutes,  Wanlish,  Lockqualillas.  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  165. 
'  The  Chicklezats  and  Ahazats,  inhabiting  districts  in  close  proximity  on  the 
west  coast  of  Vancouver.'  Barret-Lennard 's  Trav.,  p.  41.  'North  of  the  dis 
trict  occupied  by  the  Ucletahs  come  the  Nimkish,  Mamalilacula,  Matelpy 
and  two  or  three  other  smaller  tribes.  The  Mamalilaculas  live  on  the  main 
land.'  Mayne's  B.  C.,  p.  249.  The  population  of  Vancouver  Island  'is  di 
vided  into  twelve  tribes;  of  these  the  Kawitchen,  Quaquidts  and  Nootka  are 
the  largest.'  Cornwallis'  N.  Eldorado,  p.  30.  '  Ouakichs,  Grande  ile  de 
Quadra  et  Van  Couver.'  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  335. 

In  naming  the  following  tribes  and  nations  I  will  begin  at  the  north  and 
follow  the  west  coast  of  the  island  southward,  then  the  east  coast  and  main 
land  northward  to  the  starting-point. 

The  Udenus  inhabit  Scott  Island.  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v".,  p.  488; 
Kane's  Wand.,  end  of  vol. 

The  Quanes  dwell  at  Cape  Scott.  Id. 

The  Quactoe  are  found  in  the  '  woody  part  N.W.  coast  of  the  island.'  Find- 
lay's  Directory,  p.  391. 

The  .Koskiemos  and  Quatsinos  live  on  '  the  two  Sounds  bearing  those 
names.'  Mayne's  B.  C.,  p.  251.  Kuskema,  and  Quatsinu,  'outside  Van 
couver's  Island  south  of  C.  Scott.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  488;  Kane's 
Wand.,  end  of  vol. 

The  Kycucut,  '  north  of  Nootka  Sound,  is  the  largest  tribe  of  the  West 
coast.'  Mayne's  B.  C.,  p.  251. 

The  Aitizzarts  are  '  a  people  living  about  thirty  or  forty  miles  to  the  North 
ward  '  of  Nootka  Sound.  Jewitt's  Nar.,  pp.  63,  77. 


NATIONS  INHABITING  VANCOUVEE  ISLAND.  297 

The  Ahts  live  on  the  west  coast  of  the  island.  '  The  localities  inhabited 
by  the  Aht  tribes  are,  chiefly,  the  three  large  Sounds  on  the  west  coast  of 
Vancouver  Island,  called  Isitinaht  (or  Barclay)  Klahohquaht,  and  Nootkah.' 
Sproat's  Scenes,  p.  10. 

The  ChicklezaMs  and  Ahazats  inhabit  districts  in  close  proximity  on  the 
west  coast  of  Vancouver.  Barrett- Lennard's  Trav.,  p.  41. 

The  Clayoquots,  or  Klahohquahts,  live  at  Clayoquot  Sound,  and  the  Moo- 
uchats  at  Nootka  Sound.  Sproat's  Scenes,  pp.  22,  25.  North  of  the  Wick- 
ininish.  JewitVs  Nar.,  p.  76. 

The  Toquahts  are  a  people  '  whose  village  is  in  a  dreary,  remote  part  of 
Nitinaht  (or  Barclay)  Sound.'  Sproat's  Scenes,  p.  104. 

The  Seshats  live  at  Alberni,  Barclay  Sound.  Sproat's  Scenes,  p.  3. 

The  Pachcenas,  or  '  Pacheenetts,  which  I  have  included  in  Barclay  Sound, 
also  inhabit  Port  San  Juan.'  Mayne's  B.  C.,  p.  251. 

The  Tlaoquatch  occupy  the  south-western  part  of  Vancouver.  '  Den  Siid- 
westen  der  Quadra-und  Vancouver-Insel  nehmen  die  Tlaoquatch  ein,  deren 
Sprache  mit  der  vom  Nutka-Sunde  verw'andt  ist.'  Buschmann,  Brit.  Nordamer., 
p.  372.  Tlaoquatch,  or  Tloquatch,  on  '  the  south-western  coast  of  Vancouver's 
Island.'  Ludewiy,  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  188. 

The  Sokes  dwell  'between  Victoria  and  Barclay  Sound.'  Mayne's  B.  C.,  p. 
251.  'East  point  of  San  Juan  to  the  Songes  territory.'  Findlay's  Directory, 
p.  392. 

•The  Wickinniniith  live  about  two  hundred  miles  south  of  Nootka.  Jewitt's 
Nar.,  p.  76. 

The  Son;ihies  are  '  a  tribe  collected  at  and  around  Victoria.'  Mayne's  B.  C., 
p.  243.  'The  Songhish  tribe,  resident  near  Victoria.'  Macfie's  Vane.  IsL,  p. 
430.  Songes,  'S.E.  part  of  the  island.'  Findlay's  Directory,  p.  391. 

The  Sanetch  dwell  '  sixty  miles  N.W.  of  Mount  Douglas.'  Findlay's  Direct 
ory,  p.  391. 

The  Cowichins  live  '  in  the  harbour  and  valley  of  Cowitchen,  about  40  miles 
north  of  Victoria.'  Mayne's  B.  C.,  p.  243.  '  Cowichin  river,  which  falls  into 
that  (Haro)  canal  about  20  miles  N.  of  Cowichin  Head,  and  derives  its 
name  from  the  tribe  of  Indians  which  inhabits  the  neighbouring  country.' 
Douglas,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xxiv.,  p.  246.  Kawitchin,  'country 
N.W.  of  Sanetch  territory  to  the  entrance  of  Johnson's  Straits.'  Findlay's 
Directory,  p.  391.  'North  of  Eraser's  Kiver,  and  on  the  opposite  shores  of 
Vancouver's  Island.'  Scouler,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  224. 
1  North  of  Eraser's  River,  on  the  north-west  coast.'  Ludewig,  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  91. 

The  Comux,  or  Komux,  '  live  on  the  east  coast  between  the  Kowitchan 
and  the  Quoquoulth  tribes.'  Sproat's  Scenes,  p.  311.  Comoux,  south  of  John 
ston  Straits.  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  488;  Kane's  Wand.,  end  of  vol. 
The  Comoux  '  extend  as  far  as  Cape  Mudge.'  Mayne's  B.  C.,  p.  243. 

The  Kwantlums  dwell  about  the  mouth  of  the  Eraser.  '  At  and  about  the 
entrance  of  the  Eraser  River  is  the  Kuantlun  tribe :  they  live  in  villages  which 
extend  along  the  banks  of  the  river  as  far  as  Langley.'  Mayne's  B.  C.,  pp. 
243,  295. 

The  Teets  live  on  the  lower  Frazer  River.  '  From  the  falls  (of  the  Eraser) 
downward  to  the  seacoast,  the  banks  of  the  river  are  inhabited  by  several 


208  TKIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

branches  of  the  Haitlin  or  Teet  tribe.'  Anderson,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  vii.,  p. 
73.     'Extending  from  Langley  to  Yale,  are  the  Smess,  Chillwayhook,  Pal- 

lalts,  and  Teates The  Smess  Indians  occupy  the  Smess  Eiver  and  lake, 

and  the  Chillwayhooks  the  river  and  lake  of  that  name.'  Mayne's  B.  C.,  p. 
295.     Teate  Indians.  See  Bancroft's  Mop  of  Pac.  States. 

The  Nanaimos  are  'gathered  about  the  mouth  of  the  Fraser.'  Mayne's 
B.  C.,  p.  243. — Chiefly  on  a  river  named  the  Nanaimo,  which  falls  into  Wen- 
tuhuysen  Inlet.  Douglas,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xxiv.,  p.  247. 

The  Squawmishts  'live  in  Howe  Sound.'  Mayne's  B.  C.,  p.  243. 

The  Sechelts  live  on  Jervis  Inlet.  Mayne's  B.  C.,  pp.  243-4. 

The  Clahoose,  or  Klahous,  'live  in  Desolation  Sound.'  Mayne's  B.  C.,  pp. 
243-4. 

The  Nanoose  '  inhabit  the  harbour  and  district  of  that  name,  which  lies  50 
miles  north  of  Nanaimo.'  Mayne's  B.  C.,  p.  243. 

The  Tacultas,  or  Tahcultahs,  live  at  Point  Mudge  on  Valdes  Island.  Lord's 
Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  155. 

The  Ucletas  are  found  'at  and  beyond  Cape  Mudge.'  'They  hold  pos 
session  of  the  country  on  both  sides  of  Johnstone  Straits  until  met  20  or 
30  miles  south  of  Fort  Eupert  by  the  Nimpkish  and  Mamalilacullas.' 
Mayne's  B.  C.,  p.  244.  Yougletats— '  line  partie  campe  sur  File  Vancouver 
elle-meme,  le  reste  habite  sur  le  continent,  au  nord  de  la  Biviere  Fraser.' 
De  Smet,  Miss,  de  V Oregon,  p.  340.  Yongletats,  both  on  Vancouver  Island, 
and  on  the  mainland  above  the  Fraser  Kiver.  Bolduc,  in  Nouvelles  Annales 
des  Voy.,  1845,  torn,  cviii.,  pp.  366-7. 

The  Nimkish  are  '  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nimpkish  river,  about  15  miles  be 
low  Fort  Kupert.'  Mayne's,  B.  C.,  p.  249;  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  158. 

The  Necultas  and  Queehanicultas  dwell  at  the  entrance  of  Johnston  Straits. 
Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  488;  Kane's  Wand.,  end  of  vol. 

The  Quackolls  and  '  two  smaller  tribes,  live  at  Fort  Eupert.'  Mayne's  B.  C., 
pp.  244,  249.  'On  the  north-east  side  of  Vancouver's  Island,  are  to  be 
found  the  Coquilths.'  Cornwallis'  N.  Eldorado,  p.  98.  Coquilths,  a  numer 
ous  tribe  living  at  the  north-east  end.  Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  239.  The  Cogwell 
Indians  live  around  Fort  Eupert.  Barret-Lennard's  Trav.,  p.  68. 

The  Newittees  '  east  of  Cape  Scott ....  meet  the  Quawguults  at  Fort  Eu 
pert.'  Mayne's  B.  C.,  p.  251.  Neweetg,  'at  N.W.  entrance  of  Johnson's 
Straits.'  Findlay's  Directory,  p.  391.  'At  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
island  the  Newette  tribe.'  Cornwallis'  N.  Eldorado,  p.  98.  Newchemass  came 
to  Nootka  '  from  a  great  way  to  the  Northward,  and  from  some  distance  in-* 
land.'  Jewitt's  Nar.,  p.  77. 

The  Saukaulutucks  inhabit  the  interior  of  the  northern  end  of  Vancouver 
Island.  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  158.  'At  the  back  of  Barclay  Sound,.... 
about  two  days'  journey  into  the  interior,  live  the  only  inland  tribe.... 
They  are  called  the  Upatse  Satuch,  and  consist  only  of  four  families.'  Grant, 
in. Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xxvii.,  p.  287. 

THE  SOUND  FAMILY  includes  all  the  tribes  about  Puget  Sound  and  Ad 
miralty  Inlet,  occupying  all  of  Washington  west  of  the  Cascade  Eange,  ex 
cept  a  narrow  strip  along  the  north  bank  of  the  Columbia.  In  locating  the 
nations  of  this  family  I  begin  with  the  extreme  north-east,  follow  the  eastern 


THE  SOUND  FAMILY.  299 

shores  of  the  sound  southward,  the  western  shores  northward,  and  the  coast 
of  the  Pacific  southward  to  Gray  Harbor.  List  of  tribes  between  Olympia 
and  Nawaukum  River.  '  Staktamish,  Squaks'narnish,  Sehehwanrish,  Squal- 
liamish,  Puyallupamish,  S'homaniish,  Suquamish,  Sinahoinish,  Snoqual- 
mook,  Sinaahmish,  Nooklummi.'  Tolmie,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  p.  251; 
Stevens,  in  Pac.  R.  JR.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  434.  A  Canadian  trapper  found  the 
following  tribes  between  Fort  Nisqually  and  Fraser  River;  '  Sukwames,  Su- 
nahiimes,  Tshikatstat,  Puiale,  and  Kawftshin.'  Hole's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex. 
Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  pp.  220-1.  Cheenales,  west;  Cowlitz,  south;  and  Nisqually, 
east  of  Puget  Sound.  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  200,  map. 

The  Shimiahmoos  occupy  the  'coast  towards  Frazer's  river.'  'Between 
Lummi  Point  and  Frazer's  River.'  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  pp.  247, 
250.  'Most  northern  tribe  on  the  American  side  of  the  line.'  Gibbs,  in  Pac. 
R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  433;  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  491. 

The  Lummis  'are  divided  into  three  bands— a  band  for  each  mouth  of 
the  Lummi  River.'  Fitzhugh,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1857,  p.  327.  '  On  the  north 
ern  shore  of  Bellingham  Bay.'  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  p.  244.  '  Lum 
mi  river,  and  peninsula.7  Id.,  p.  250.  '  On  a  river  emptying  into  the  north 
ern  part  of  Bellingham  bay  and  on  the  peninsula.'  Id.,  p.  247,  and  in  Pac. 
R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  433. 

The  Nooksaks  are  '  on  the  south  fork  of  the  Lummi  River.'  Stevens,  in  Ind. 
Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  p.  250.  Nooksahk,  '  on  the  main  fork  of  the  river.'  Id.,  p.  247. 
Nooksahk,  '  above  the  Lummi,  on  the  main  fork  of  the  river.'  Gibbs,  in  Pac. 
R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  433.  'South  fork  Lummi  river.'  Id.,  p.  435.  Noot- 
saks  '  occupy  the  territory  from  the  base  of  Mount  Baker  down  to  within  five 
miles  of  the  mouth  of  the  Lummi.'  Coleman,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xxxix.,  p. 
799.  Neuksacks  'principally  around  the  foot  of  Mount  Baker.'  Fitzhugh,  in 
Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1857,  p.  328.  The  Neukwers  and  Siamanas,  or  Stick  Indians 
'  live  on  lakes  back  of  Whatcom  and  Siamana  lakes  and  their  tributaries.'  Id., 
p.  329.  Three  tribes  at  Bellinghani  Bay,  Neuksack,  Samish,  and  Lummis, 
with  some  Neukwers  and  Siamanas  who  live  in  the  back  country.  Id.,  p.  326. 
Neuksacks,  a  tribe  inhabiting  a  country  drained  by  the  river  of  the  same 

name taking  the  name  Lummi  before  emptying  into  the  Gulf  of  Georgia. 

Simmons,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1860,  p.  188.  Nooklummie,  '  around  Bellingham's 
bay.'  Am.  Quar.  Register,  vol.  iii.,  p.  389;  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  714. 

The  Samish  live  on  Samish  River  and  southern  part  of  Bellingham  Bay. 
Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  pp.  247,  250.  'They  have  several  islands 
which  they  claim  as  their  inheritance,  together  with  a  large  scope  of  the 
main  land.'  Fitzhugh,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1857,  p.  327. 

The  Skagits  '  live  on  the  main  around  the  mouth  of  Skagit  river,  and  own 
the  central  parts  of  Whidby's  island,  their  principal  ground  being  the  neigh 
borhood  of  Penn's  cove.'  Stevens,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  433,  and  in 
Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  p.  246.  Whidby's  Island  '  is  in  the  possession  of  the  Sa 
chet  tribe. '  Thornton's  Ogn.  and  Cal.,  vol.  i.,  p.  300.  The  Sachets  inhabit  Whid 
by's  Island.  Wilkes'  Nar.,in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  510.  Sachets,  ' about 
Possession  Sound.'  Nicolay's  Ogn.  Ter.,  p.  143.  Skadjets,  'on  both  sides  of 
the  Skadjet  river,  and  on  the  north  end  of  Whidby's  Island.'  Schoolcraft's 
Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  701;  Am.  Quar.  Register,  vol.  iii.,  p.  388.  The  Skagit,  'on 


300  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

Skagit  river,  and  Perm's  cove,'  the  N'quachamish,  Srnalehhu,  Miskaiwlm, 
Sakumehu,  on  the  branches  of  the  same  river.  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept., 
1854,  p.  250;  Pac.  R.  R.  Kept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  435.  Sockamuke,  'headwaters  of 
Skagit  Kiver,'  Neutubvig,  'north  end  of  Whidby's  Island,  and  county  be 
tween  Skagit's  river  and  Belliiigham's  bay.'  Cowewachin,  Noothum,  Mie- 
missouks,  north  to  Frazer  Kiver.  SchoolcrafV 's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  598. 

The  Kildallis  occupy  the  banks  of  'Kikiallis  river  and  Whitby's  island.' 
Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  pp.  246,  250. 

The  Skeysehamish  dwell  in  the  '  country  along  the  Skeysehamish  river  and 
the  north  branch  of  the  Sinahemish.'  Schoolcrqft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  701;  Am. 
Quar.  Register,  vol.  iii.,  p.  388. 

The  Snohomish  reside  on  'the  southern  end  of  Whidby's  island,  and 
the  country  on  and  near  the  mouth  of  the  Sinahomish  river*  Stevens, 
in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  432,  435.  'The  Sinahemish  'live  on  the 
Sinahemish  river  (falling  into  Possession  Sound).'  SchoolcrafV  s  Arch.,  vol.  v., 
p.  701;  Am.  Quar.  Register,  vol.  iii.,  p.  388.  '  Sinahoumez  (en  12  tribus)  de  la 
riviere  Fraser  a  la  baie  de  Puget.'  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  335.  '  N'quutl- 
mamish,  Skywhamish,  Sktahlejuin,  upper  branches,  north  side,  Sinahomish 
river.'  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  pp.  245,  250.  Neewamish,  'Nee- 
wamish  river,  bay  and  vicinity ;'  Sahma  mish,  '  on  a  lake  between  Neewamish 
and  Snohomish  river;'  Snohomish,  '  South  end  of  Whitney's  Island,  Sno 
homish  river,  bay  and  vicinity;'  Skeawamish,  'north  fork  of  the  Snohomish 
river,  called  Skeawamish  river;'  Skuckstanajumps,  '  Skuckstanajumps  river, 
a  branch  of  Skeawamish  river;'  Stillaquamish,  '  Stillaquamish  river  and  vi 
cinity;'  Kickuallis,  'mouth  of  Kickuallis  river  and  vicinity.'  Schoolcraft's 
Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  598.  Stoluchwamish,  on  Stoluchwamish  river,  also  called 
Steilaquamish.  Stevens,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  432,  435,  also  in 
Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  pp.  246,  250.  .  Squinamish,  Swodamish,  Sinaahmish, 
'north  end  of  Whitby's  island,  canoe  passage,  and  Sinamish  river.'  Id., 
pp.  247,  250.  'Southern  end  of  Whidby's  island  and  Sinahomish  river.' 
Stevens,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  432-3. 

The  Snoqualmooks  '  reside  on  the  south  fork,  north  side  of  the  Sinahomish 
river.'  Stevens,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  436,  and  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854, 
p.  250.  Snoqualimich,  '  Snoqualimich  river  and  the  south  branch  of  the 
Sinahemish.'  Harley,  in  Schoolcraft' 's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  701;  Am.  Quar.  Reg 
ister,  vol.  iii.,  p.  388. 

The  Dwamish  are  'living  on  and  claiming  the  lands  on  the  D'Wamish 
river.'  Paige,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1857,  p.  329.  Dwamish  Biver  and  Lake, 
White  and  Green  Bivers.  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  491.  On  D'wamish 

lake  etc reside  the  Samamish  and  S'Ketehlmish  tribes.  '  The  D'wamish 

tribe  have  their  home  on  Lake  Fork,  D'Wamish  river.'  Stevens,  in  Pac.  R.  R. 
Rept.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  432,  436.  Dwamish,  'Lake  Fork,  Dwamish  Biver;'  Sama 
mish,  S'Ketehlmish,  'Dwamish  Lake;'  Smelkamiah,  'Head  of  White  Biver;' 
Skopeahmish,  'Head  of  Green  Biver;'  Stkamish,  'main  White  Biver.'  Stev 
ens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  p.  250. 

The  Skopeahmish  have  their  home  at  the  'head  of  Green  river.'  Stevens, 
in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  436.  The  Sekamish  band  '  on  the  main  White 
river;'  the  Smulkamish  tribe  '  at  the  head  of  White  river.'  Ib. 


SOUND  INDIANS.  301 

The  Seattks,  a  tribe  of  the  Snowhomish  nation,  occupied  as  their  principal 
settlement,  '  a  slight  eminence  near  the  head  of  what  is  now  known  as  Port 
Madison  Bay.'  Overland  Monthly,  1870,  vol.  iv.,  p.  297. 

The  Suquamish  '  claim  all  the  land  lying  on  the  west  side  of  the  Sound,  be 
tween  Apple  Tree  cove  on  the  north,  and  Gig  harbor  on  the  south.'  Paige,  in 
Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1857,  p.  329.  Soquamish,  '  country  about  Port  Orchard  and 
neighbourhood,  and  the  west  side  of  Widby's  Island.'  Harley,  in.  Schoolcraft's 
Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  700;  Am.  Quar.  Register,  vol.  iii.,  p.  388.  'Peninsula  be 
tween  Hood's  canal  and  Admiralty  inlet.'  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1854, 
p.  250,  and  in  Pac.  R.  E.  Kept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  435.  Snoquamish,  '  Port.  Orchard, 
Elliott's  Bay,  and  their  vicinity.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  598.  Shoma- 
mish,  'on  Vashon's  Island.'  Ib.  'Vashon's  Island.'  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
Kept.,  1854,  p.  250.  S'slomamish,  '  Vaston's  island.'  Stevens,  in  Pac.  R.  R. 
Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  435.  'The  Indians  frequenting  this  port  (Orchard)  call 
themselves  the  Jeachtac  tribe.'  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  510. 

The  Puyallupamish  live  'at  the  mouth  of  Puyallup  river;'  T'quaquamish, 
'  at  the  heads  of  Puyallup  river.'  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  p.  250,  and 
in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  435.  Squallyamish  and  Pugallipamish,  'in 
the  country  about  Nesqually,  Pugallipi,  and  Sinnomish  rivers.'  Harley,  in 
Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  701;  Am.  Quar.  Register,  vol.  iii.,  p.  388.  Pual- 
lipawmish  or  Pualliss,  'on  Pualliss  river,  bay,  and  vicinity.'  Schoolcraft's 
Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  598.  Puyyallapamish,  'Puyallop  Biver.'  Schoolcraft's 
Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  491. 

The  Nisquallies,  or  Skwall,  'inhabit  the  shores  of  Puget's  Sound.'  Hole's 
Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  211.  'Nesquallis,  de  la  baie  de  Puget 
a  la  pointe  Martinez.'  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  335.  Nasqually  tribes, 
'  Nasqually  Biver  and  Puget's  Sound.'  Warre  and  Vavaseurl  in  Martin's 
Hudson  Say,  p.  81.  Squallyamish,  'at  Puget  Sound.'  Ludewig,  Ab.  Lang., 
p.  177.  The  Squalliahmish  are  composed  of  six  bands,  and  have  their  resi 
dence  on  Nisqually  Biver  and  vicinity.  Stevens,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i., 
p.  435.  Squallyamish  or  Nisqually,  Nisqually  Biver  and  vicinity.  School- 
craft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  598.  Fort  Nisqually  is  frequented  by  the  '  Squallies, 
the  Clallams,  the  Paaylaps,  the  Scatchetts,  the  Checaylis, '  and  other  tribes. 
Simpson's  Overland  Journey,  vol.  i.,  p.  181. 

The  Steilacoomish  dwell  on  '  Stalacom  Creek;'  Loquamish,  '  Hood's  Beef.' 
Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  491.  Stitcheosawmish,  '  Budd's  inlet  and  South 
bay,'  in  the  vicinity  of  Olympia.  Id.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  598.  Steilacoomamish, 
'  Steilacoom  creek  and  vicinity.'  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  p.  250,  and 
in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  435. 

The  Sawamish  have  their  residence  on  'Totten's  inlet.'  Stevens,  in  Pac. 
R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  435.  Sayhaymamish,  '  Totten  inlet.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch., 
vol.  iv.,  p.  598.  '  Srootlemamish,  Quackenamish  at  Case's  inlet.'  Ib.  Quak- 
s'namish,  '  Case'sinlet;'  S'Hotlemamish,  '  Carr's  inlet;'  Sahehwamish,  'Ham- 
inersly's  inlet;'  Sawamish,  'Totten's  inlet;'  Squaiaitl,  'Eld's  inlet;'  Steh- 
chasamish,  'Budd's  inlet;'  Noosehchatl,  'South  bay.'  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
Rept.,  1854,  p.  250. 

The  Skokomish  live  at  the  upper  end  of  Hood  Canal.  Schoolcraft's 
Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  598;  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  pp.  244,  250.  Toan- 


302  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

hooch  and  Shokomish  on  Hood's  Canal.  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p. 
491.  Tuanoh  and  Skokomish  'reside  along  the  shores  of  Hood's  Canal.' 
Am.  Quar.  Register,  vol.  iii.,  p.  388.  Toankooch,  'western  shore  of  Hood's 
canal.  They  are  a  branch  of  the  Nisqually  nation.'  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
Kept.,  1854,  p.  244;  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  431.  Tuanooch, 
'mouth  of  Hood's  Canal.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  598.  'The  region 
at  the  head  of  Puget  Sound  is  inhabited  by  a  tribe  called  the  Toandos.' 
WilkesJ  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  v.,  p.  140.  Homamish,  Hotlimamish, 
Squahsinawmish,  Sayhaywamish,  Stitchassamish,  'reside  in  the  country 
from  the  Narrows  along  the  western  shore  of  Puget's  Sound  to  New  Mark 
et.'  Mitchell  and  Ilarley,  in  Am.  Quar.  Register,  vol.  iii.,  p.  388. 

The  Noosdalums,  or  Nusdalums,  'dwell  on  Hood's  Channel.'  Ludewig, 
Ab.  Lang.,  p.  135.  'Die  Noosdalum,  wohnen  am  Hood's-Canal;'  Buschmann, 
Brit.  Nordamer.,  p.  373.  '  Noostlalums,  consist  of  eleven  tribes  or  septs  liv 
ing  about  the  entrance  of  Hood's  canal,  Dungeness,  Port  Discovery,  and  the 
coast  to  the  westward.'  Am.  Quar.  Register,  vol.  iii.,  p.  388;  Schoolcraft's 
Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  700. 

The  Chimakum,  or  Chinakum,  '  territory  seems  to  have  embraced  the 
shore  from  Port  Townsend  to  Port  Ludlow.'  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854, 
pp.  242-244.  '  On  Port  Townsend  Bay.'  Id.,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  pp. 
431,  435;  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  598. 

The  Clallams,  or  Clalams,  are  '  about  Port  Discovery.'  Nicolay's  Ogn.  Ter.,  p. 
143.  '  Their  country  stretches  along  the  whole  southern  shore  of  the  Straits 
to  between  Port  Discovery  and  Port  Townsend. '  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol. 
i.,  p.  429;  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  pp.  242,  244.  Southern  shore  of  the 
Straits  of  Fuca  east  of  the  Classets.  Hole's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p. 
220.  At  Port  Discovery.  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  319.  Sklal- 
lum,  '  between  Los  Angelos  and  Port  Townsend.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv., 
p.  598.  Sklallams,  '  at  Cape  Flattery.'  Id.,  vol.  v.,  p.  491.  '  Scattered  along 
the  strait  and  around  the  bays  and  bights  of  Admiralty  Inlet,  upon  a  shore 
line  of  more  than  a  hundred  miles.'  Scammon,  in  Overland  Monthly,  1871,  vol. 
vii.,  p.  278.  '  S'Klallams,  Chemakum,  Toanhooch,  Skokomish,  and  bands  of 
the  same,  taking  names  from  their  villages, ....  and  all  residing  011  the  shores 
of  the  straits  of  Fuca  and  Hood's  Canal.'  Webster,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1862, 
p.  407.  Kahtai,  Kaquaith,  and  Stehllum,  at  Port  Townsend,  Port  Discov 
ery,  and  New  Dungeness.  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  491;  Stevens,  in  Ind. 
Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  p.  249.  Stentlums  at  New  Dungeness.  Id.,  in  Pac.  R.  R. 
Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  435. 

The  Makahs,  or  Classets,  dwell  about  Cape  Flattery.  Macaw,  '  Cape  Flat 
tery  to  Neah  Bay.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  598.  Pistchin,  'Neah  Bay 
to  Los  Angelos  Point.'  Ib.  'Country  about  Cape  Flattery,  and  the  coast 
for  some  distance  to  the  southward,  and  eastward  to  the  boundary  of  the 
Halam  or  Noostlalum  lands.'  Id.,  vol.  v.,  p.  700;  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept., 
1854,  pp.  241,  249;  Hale,  in  Id.,  1862,  p.  390;  Stevens,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept., 
vol.  i.,  pp.  429,  435.  'At  Neah  Bay  or  Waadda,  and  its  vicinity.'  Simmons, 
in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1858,  p.  231.  Tatouche,  a  tribe  of  the  Classets.  Wttkes' 
Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  516.  Classets  'reside  on  the  south  side 
of  the  Straits  of  Fuca.'  Hole's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  220; 


INDIANS  OF  THE  COAST  OF  WASHINGTON.  303 

Mitchell  and  Harley,  in  Am.  Quar.  Register,  vol.  iii.,  p.  388.  Tatouche  or 
Classets,  'between  the  Columbia  and  the  strait  of  Fuca.'  Nicolay's  Ogn.  Tier., 
p.  143.  'Clatset  tribe.'  Cornwallis'  N.  Eldorado,  p.  97.  'Classets,  on  the 
Strait  of  Fuca.'  Greenhow's  Hist.  Ogn.,  p.  30;  Stevens'  Address,  p.  10.  Ma- 
kahs,  '  inhabiting  a  wild  broken  peninsula  circumscribed  by  the  river  Wy- 
atch,  the  waters  of  the  Strait  and  the  Pacific.'  Scammon,  in  Overland  Monthly, 
1871,  vol.  vii.,  p.  277.  Klaizzarts,  'living  nearly  three  hundred  miles  to  the 
South  '  of  Nootka  Sound.  Jewitt's  Nar.,  p.  75.  The  Elkwhahts  have  a  village 
on  the  strait.  Sproat's  Scenes,  p.  153. 

List  of  tribes  between  Columbia  River  and  Cape  Flattery  on  the  Coast; 
Calasthocle,  Chillates,  Chiltz,  Clamoctomichs,  Killaxthocles,  Pailsh,  Poto- 
ashs,  Quieetsos,  Quinnechart,  Quiniiilts.  Morse's  Kept.,  p.  371. 

The  Quillehute  and  Queniult,  or  Quenaielt,  '  occupy  the  sea-coast  between 
Ozelt  or  old  Cape  Flattery,  on  the  north,  and  Qninaielt  river  on  the  south.' 
Simmons,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1860,  p.  195.  Quinaielt,  Quillehute,  Queets,  and 
Hoh,  live  on  the  Quinaielt  river  and  ocean.  Smith,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1870, 
p.  21.  The  Queniult  live  'at  Point  Grenville.'  Swan's  N.  W.  Coast,  p.  210. 
'  On  the  banks  of  a  river  of  the  same  name.'  Id.,  p.  78.  The  Wilapahs  'on 
the  Wilapah  River.'  Id.,  p.  211.  The  Copalis  'on  the  Copalis  River, 
eighteen  miles  north  of  Gray's  Harbor.'  Id.,  p.  210.  Quinaitle,  north  of 
Gray's  Harbor.  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1854,  p.  249.  Quinaik,  '  coast  from 
Gray's  harbor  northward.'  Stevens,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  435.  Ehi- 
halis,  Quinailee,  Grey's  Harbor  and  north.  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  490. 
South  of  the  Classets  along  the  coast  come  the  Quinnechants,  Calasthortes, 
Chillates,  Quinults,  Pailsk,  etc.  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  p.  428.  The  Ka- 
liouches  and  Konnichtchates,  spoken  of  as  dwelling  on  Destruction  Island 
and  the  neighboring  main.  Tarakanov,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1823, 
torn,  xx.,  p.  336,  et  seq. 

The  CJiehalis,  or  Chickeeles,  '  inhabit  the  country  around  Gray's  Harbour.' 
Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  v.,  p.  140.  On  the  Chehalis  river. 
Nesmith,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1867,  p.  8.  Frequent  also  Shoalwater  Bay. 
Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  pp.  240,  249.  On  the  Cowelits.  'Among 

the  Tsihailish  are  included  the  Kwaiantl  and  Kwenaiwitl who  live 

near  the  coast,  thirty  or  forty  miles  south  of  Cape  Flattery.'  Hale's 
Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  pp.  211-12.  'In  the  vicinity  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Columbia.'  Catlin's  N.  Am.  Ind.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  113.  « Cheki- 
lis,  et  Quinayat.  Pres  du  havre  de  Gray  et  la  riviere  Chekilis.'  Mofras,  Ex- 
plor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  335;  Swan's  N.  W.  Coast,  p.  210;  Stevens,  in  Pac.  R.  R. 
Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  435;  Starling,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  599.  'A 
quarante  milles  au  nord,  (from  the  Columbia)  le  long  de  la  cote,  habitent  les 
Tcheilichs.'  Stuart,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1821,  torn,  x.,  p.  90.  The 
Whiskkah  and  Wynooche  tribes  on  the  northern  branches  of  the  Chihailis. 
Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff,  Rept.,  1854,  p.  240.  Sachals  'reside  about  the  lake  of 
the  same  name,  and  along  the  river  Chickeeles.'  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.-Ex. 
Ex.,  vol.  v.,  p.  140. 

The  Cowlitz  live  on  the  upper  Cowlitz  River.  Occupy  the  middle  of  the 
peninsula  which  lies  west  of  Puget  Sound  and  north  of  the  Columbia.  Hale's 
Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  211.  On  the  Cowlitz  River.  The 


304  TKIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

Taitinapams  have  their  abode  at  the  base  of  the  mountains  on  the  Cowlitz. 
Stevens,  in  Pac.  E.  E.  EepL,  vol.  i.,  p.  435;  and  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1854,  pp. 
240,  249;  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  599,  vol.  v.,  p.  490.  Cowlitsick,  '  on 
Columbia  river,  62  miles  from  its  mouth.'  Morse's  Rept.,  p.  3G8.  There  are 
three  small  tribes  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Gowlitz  Farm,  '  the  Cowlitz,  the  Che- 
caylis  and  the  Squally.'  Simpson's  Overland  Journ.,  vol.  i.,  p.  179.  The  Stak- 
tomish  live  '  between  Nisqually  and  Cowlitz  and  the  head  waters  of  Chehaylis 
river.'  Am.  Quar.  Register,  vol.  iii.,  p.  389;  Harley,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol. 
v.,  p.  701. 

THE  CHINOOK  FAMILY  includes,  according  to  my  division,  all  the  tribes 
of  Oregon  west  of  the  Cascade  Range,  together  with  those  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  Columbia  river.  The  name  has  usually  been  applied  only  to  the  tribes 
of  the  Columbia  Valley  up  to  the  Dalles,  and  belonged  originally  to  a  small 
tribe  on  the  north  bank  near  the  mouth.  'The  nation,  or  rather  family,  to 
which  the  generic  name  of  Chinook  has  attached,  formerly  inhabited  both 
banks  of  the  Columbia  River,  from  its  mouth  to  the  Grand  Dalles,  a  distance 
of  about  a  hundred  and  seventy  miles.'  '  On  the  north  side  of  the  river,  first 
the  Chinooks  proper  (Tchi-nuk),  whose  territory  extended  from  Cape  Disap 
pointment  up  the  Columbia  to  the  neighborhood  of  Gray's  Bay  (not  Gray's 
Harbor,  which  is  on  the  Pacific),  and  back  to  the  northern  vicinity  of  Shoal- 
water  Bay,  where  they  interlocked  with  the  Chihalisof  the  coast.'  Gibbs'  Chi 
nook  Vocab.,  pp.  iii.,  iv.  The  name  Watlalas  or  Upper  Chinooks  '  properly  be 
longs  to  the  Indians  at  the  Cascades, '  but  is  applied  to  all  '  from  the  Multno- 
ma  Island  to  the  Falls  of  the  Columbia.'  Sale's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol. 
vi.,  pp.  214-5.  '  The  principal  tribes  or  bands  were  the  Wakafkam  (known  as 
the  Wahkyekum),  the  Katlamat  ( Cathlamet) ,  the  Tshinuk  (Chinook),  and  the 
Tlatsap  (Clatsop).'  Ib.  '  The  natives,  who  dwell  about  the  lower  parts  of  the 
Columbia,  may  be  divided  into  four  tribes — the  Clotsops,  who  reside  around 
Point  Adams,  on  the  south  side ; . .  .  the  Chinooks ;  Waakiacums ;  and  the  Cath- 
lamets;  who  live  on  the  north  side  of  the  river,  and  around  Baker's  Bay  and 
other  inlets.'  Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  114.  The  tribes  may  be  classed:  '  Chinooks, 
Clatsops,  Cathlamux,  Wakicums,  Wacalamus,  Cattleputles,  Clatscanias,  Kil- 
limux,  Moltnomas,  Chickelis.'  EossJ  Adven.,  p.  87.  Tribes  on  north  bank  of 
the  Columbia  from  mouth;  Chilts,  Chinnook,  Cathlamah,  Wahkiakume,  Skil- 
lute,  Quathlapotle.  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Map.  'All  the  natives  inhabiting  the 
southern  shore  of  the  Straits  (of  Fuca),  and  the  deeply  indented  territory  as 
far  as  and  including  the  tide-waters  of  the  Columbia,  may  be  comprehended 
under  the  general  term  of  Chinooks.'  Pickering's  Races,  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol. 
ix.,  p.  25.  '  The  Chenook  nation  resides  along  upon  the  Columbia  river,  from 
the  Cascades  to  its  confluence  with  the  ocean.'  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  p.  261. 
'Inhabiting  the  lower  parts  of  the  Columbia.'  Catlin's  N.  Am.  Ind.,  vol.  ii., 
p.  110.  '  Hauts-Tchinouks,  pres  des  cascades  du  Rio  Colombia.  Tchi- 
nouks  d'en-bas,  des  Cascades  jusqu'a  la  mer,  Bas-Tchinouks.'  Mofras,  Ex 
plor.,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  335,  350-1.  '  On  the  right  bank  of  the  Columbia.'  Lude- 
wig,  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  40.  The  Cheenooks  and  Kelussuyas,  4  tribes,  live  at 
'  Pillar  Rock,  Oak  Point,  the  Dallas,  the  Cascades,  Cheate  River,  Takama 
River,  on  the  Columbia. '  '  Cheenooks,  Clatsops  and  several  tribes  near  the 


THE  CHINOOK  FAMILY.  305 

entrance  df  the  Columbia  Kiver.'  Warre  and  Vo.vaseur,  in  Martin's  Hud.  B., 
p.  81.  Upper  and  Lower  Chinooks  on  the  Columbia  Kiver,  Lower  Chinooks 
at  Shoalwater  Bay.  Schooler  aft' s  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  490.  Chinooks,  '  north  of 
the  Columbia.'  Id.,  p.  492.  'Upper  Chinooks,  five  bands,  Columbia  Kiver, 
above  the  Cowlitz.  Lower  Chinooks,  Columbia  Kiver  below  the  Cowlitz, 
and  four  other  bands  on  Shoalwater  Bay.'  Stevens,  in  Id.,  p.  703.  'Mouth 
of  Columbia  river,  north  side,  including  some  50  miles  interior.'  Emmons, 
in  Id.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  201.  The  Chinnooks  'reside  chiefly  along  the  banks  of  a 
river,  to  which  we  gave  the  same  name ;  and  which,  running  parallel  to  the 

sea  coast empties  itself  into  Haley's  Bay.'  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  p. 

425,  and  map;  Irving' s  Astoria,  p.  335.  'To  the  south  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Columbia.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  15.  '  Chenooks  on  the  Columbia.' 
Swan's  N.  W.  Coast,  p.  210.  North  side  of  the  Columbia.  Morse's  Report, 
p.  368;  Greenhow's  Hist.  Ogn.,  p.  286.  Tshinuk  south  of  the  Columbia  at 
mouth.  Watlala  on  both  sides  of  the  river  from  the  Willamette  to  Dalles. 
They  properly  belong  to  the  Indians  at  the  Cascades.  Hale's  Ethnog.,  in  V.  8. 
Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  pp.  2J4-5,  and  map,  p.  197.  Banks  of  the  Columbia  from 
Dalles  to  the  mouth.  Farnham's  Trav.,  p.  85.  The  Upper  Chinooks  were 
the  Shalala  and  Echeloots  of  Lewis  and  Clarke.  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept, 
vol.  i.,  p.  417.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  there  are,  be 
sides  the  Chinooks,  the  Klickatacks,  Cheehaylas,  Naas,  and  many  other 
tribes.  Catlin's  N.  Am.  Ind.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  113. 

'  The  Flathead  Indians  are  met  with  on  the  banks  of  the  Columbia  Kiver, 
from  its  mouth  eastward  to  the  Cascades,  a  distance  of  about  150  miles;  they 
extend  up  the  Walhamette  Kiver's  mouth  about  thirty  or  forty  miles,  and 
through  the  district  between  the  Walhamette  and  Fort  Astoria.'  Kane's 
Wand.,  p.  173.  '  The  Flatheads  are  a  very  numerous  people,  inhabiting  the 
shores  of  the  Columbia  River,  and  a  vast  tract  of  country  lying  to  the  south 
of  it.'  Catlin's  N.  Am.  Ind.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  108.  'The  Cathlascon  tribes,  which 
inhabit  the  Columbia  River.'  Scoider,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p. 
225.  Cathlascos  on  the  Columbia  River,  S.  side  220  miles  from  its  mouth. 
Morse's  Rept.,  p.  368. 

Shoalwater  Bay  Indians:  Whilapah  on  Whilapah  river;  Necomanchee,  or 
Nickornin,  on  Nickomin  river,  flowing  into  the  east  side  of  the  bay;  Quelap- 
tonlilt,  at  the  mouth  of  Whilapah  river;  Wharhoots,  at  the  present  site  of 
Bruceport;  Querqueltin,  at  the  mouth  of  a  creek;  Palux,  on  Copahix  or 
Palux  river;  Marhoo,  Nasal,  on  the  Peninsula.  Swan's  N.  W.  Coast,  p.  211. 
'Karweewee,  or  Artsmilsh,  the  name  of  the  Shoalwater  Bay  tribes.'  Id.,  p. 
210.  Along  the  coast  north  of  the  Columbia  are  the  Chinnooks,  Killax- 
thockle,  Chilts,  Clamoitomish,  Potoashees,  etc.  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  p. 
428.  Quillequeoquas  at  Shoalwater  Bay.  Map  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii., . 
p  200.  Kwalhioqua,  north  of  the  Columbia  near  the  mouth.  Hole's  Ethnog. 
in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  204,  and  map,  p.  197.  Klatskauai,  'on  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Nehalem,  a  stream  running  into  the  Pacific,  on  those  of 
Young's  River,  and  one  bearing  their  own  name,  which  enters  the  Columbia 
at  Oak  Point.'  Gibbs'  Chinook  Vocab.,  p.  iv.  Willopahs,  'on  the  Willopah 
River,  and  the  head  of  the  Chihalis.'  Ib. 

The  Chilts  inhabit  the  '  coast  to  the  northward  of  Cape  Disappointment. 
VOL.  I.    20 


306  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  302.  '  North  of  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  and  Chealis 
rivers.'  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  p.  261,  and  map.  'On  the  sea-coast  near 
Point  Lewis.'  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav  ,  p.  401. 

Miscellaneous  bands  on  the  Columbia;  Aleis,  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Columbia.  Gass'  Jour.,  p.  285.  Cathlacumups  'on  the  main  shore  S.W.  of 
Wappatoo  Isl.'  Morse's  Rept.,  p.  371.  Cathlakamaps,  'at  the  mouth  of  the 
Wallaumut. '  Id.,  p.  368.  Cathlanamenarnens,  '  On  the  island  in  the  mouth 
of  the  Wallaumut.'  Id.,  p.  368.  Cathlanaquiahs,  'On  the  S.W.  side  of 
Wappatoo  Isl.'  Id.,  p.  371.  Cathlapootle,  eighty  miles  from  mouth  of  the 
Columbia  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Willamette.  Id  ,  p.  368.  Cathlathlas, 
'at  the  rapids,  S.  side.'  Id.,  p.  368.  Clahclellah,  'below  the  rapids.'  Morse's 
Rept.,  p.  370.  Clannarminnamuns,  'S.W.  side  of  Wappatoo  Isl.'  Id.,  p.  371. 
•Clanimatas,  'S.W.  side  of  Wappatoo  Isl.'  Ib.  Clockstar,  '  S.E.  side  of 
"Wappattoo  Isl.'  Ib.  Cooniacs,  'of  Oak  Point  (Kahnyak  or  Kukhiiyak,  the 
'Kreluits  of  Franchere  and  Skilloots  of  Lewis  and  Clarke).'  Gibbs'  Chinook 
Vocab.,  p.  iv.  Hellwits,  '  S.  side  39  miles  from  mouth.'  Morse's  Rept.,  p.  368. 
Katlagakya,  '  from  the  Cascades  to  Vancouver.'  Framboise,  in  Land.  Geog.  Soc. 
.Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  255.  Katlaminimim,  on  Multnomah  Island.  Ib.  Katla- 
portl,  river  of  same  name,  and  right  bank  of  Columbia  for  five  miles  above 
its  mouth.  Ib.  Ketlakaniaks,  at  Oak  Point,  formerly  united  with  Kolnit. 
Ib.  Klakalama,  between  Kathlaportle  and  Towalitch  rivers.  Ib.  Mamnit, 
•'Multnomah  Isl.'  Ib.  Nechakoke,  '  S.  side,  near  Quicksand  river,  opposite 
Diamond  Isl.'  Morse's  Rept.,  p.  370.  Neerchokioon,  south  side  above  the 
Wallaumut  river.  Ib.  Shalala  at  the  grand  rapids  down  to  the  Wlllaniet.  Ib. 
Quathlapotle,  between  the  Cowlits  and  Chahwahnahinooks  (Cathlapootle  ?) 
river.  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Map.  Seamysty,  'at  the  mouth  of  the  Towalitch 
River.'  Framboise,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  255.  Shoto,  W.  side 
'back  of  a  pond  and  nearly  opposite  the  entrance  of  the  Willamut.  Morse's 
Rept.,  p.  370.  Skillutes,  '  about  junction  of  Cowlitz.'  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Map. 
Skiloots  on  the  Columbia  on  each  side,  from  the  lower  part  of  the  Columbia 
Valley  as  low  as  Sturgeon  Island,  and  on  both  sides  of  the  Coweliskee  River. 
Morse's  Rept.,  p.  371.  Smockshop.  Id.,  p.  370.  Trile  Kalets,  near  Fort  Van- 
•couver.  Warre  and  Vavaseur,  in  Martin's  Hud.  B.,  p.  81.  Wahclellah,  'below 
.all  the  rapids.'  Morse's  Rept.,  p.  370.  Wakamass,  'Deer's  Isle  to  the  lower 
branch  of  the  Wallamat.'  Framboise,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  255. 
Wyampams,  at  the  narrows.  Ross'  Adven.,  pp.  117-19.  Tchilouits  on  the 
'Columbia,  south  bank,  below  the  Cowlitz.  Stuart,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des 
Voy.,  1821,  torn,  x.,  p.  112.  Cathlakaheckits  and  Cathlathlalas  in  vicinity 
-of  the  Cascades.  Id.,  torn,  xii.,  1821,  p.  23. 

The  Clatsops  live  on  Point  Adams.  Ilines'  Voy.,  88.  '  South  side  of  the 
^(Columbia)  river  at  its  mouth.'  Greenhow's  Hist.  Ogn.,  pp.  30,  286.  '  Southern 
shore  of  the  bay  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  and  along  the  seacoast  on 
both  sides  of  Point  Adams.'  Morton's  Crania,  p.  211;  Lewis  and  Clarke's 
Trav.,  pp.  401,  426,  and  map.  12  miles  from  mouth,  south  side.  Morse's 
Rept.,  p.  368.  'South  side  of  the  river.'  Gass'  Jour.,  p.  244.  'From  near 
Tillamook  Head  to  Point  Adams  and  up  the  river  to  Tongue  Point.'  Gibbs' 
Chinook  Vocab.,  p.  iv.  Klakhelnk,  '  on  Clatsop  Point,  commonly  called  Clat 
sops.'  Framboise,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  255;  Schoolcraft's  Arch., 
vol.  iii.,  p.  201,  vol.  v.,  p.  492. 


COAST  TRIBES  OF  OREGON.  307 

The  Wakiakum,  or  '  Wakaikum,  live  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Columbia; 
on  a  small  stream,  called  Cadet  River.'  Framboise,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour., 
vol.  xi.,  p.  255.  Wakiakums  (Wakaiakum)  'towards  Oak  Point.'  Gibbs'  Chi 
nook  Vocab.,  p.  iv.  Wahkiacums,  adjoining  the  Cathlamahs  on  the  south 
east  and  the  Skilloots  on  the  north-west.  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Map.  Waaki- 
curns,  thirty  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  north  side.  Morse's 
Kept.,  p.  368. 

The  Cathlamets  extend  from  Tongue  Point  to  Puget's  Island.  Gibbs'  Chi 
nook  Vocab.,  p.  iv.  '  Opposite  the  lower  village  of  the  Wahkiacums.'  Irving's 
Astoria,  p.  33 J.  '30  miles  from  the  mouth  of  Columbia.'  Morse's  Kept.,  p. 
368.  '  On  a  river  of  same  name.'  Framboise,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol. 
xi.,  p.  255;  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Map. 

'Along  the  coast  south  of  the  Columbia  river  are  the  Clatsops,  Killa- 
mucks,  Lucktons,  Kahunkle,  Lickawis,  Youkone,  Necketo,  Ulseah,  Youitts, 
Shiastuckle,  Killawats,  Cookoose,  Shalalahs,  Luckasos,  Hannakalals.'  Lewis 
and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  427-8.  'Along  the  coast  S.  of  Columbia  river,  and 
speak  the  Killamucks  language,'  Youicone,  Neekeetoos,  Ulseahs,  Youitts, 
Sheastukles,  Killawats,  Cookkoooose,  Shallalah,  Luckkarso,  Hannakallal. 
Morse's  Kept.,  p.  371.  Naelim,  'on  a  river  on  the  sea-coast,  30  miles  S.  of 
Clatsop  Point,'  and  the  following  tribes  proceeding  southward.  Nikaas, 
Kowai,  Neselitch,Tacoon,  Aleya,  Sayonstla,  Kiliwatsal,  Kaons,  Godamyou  (!), 
Stotonia,  at  the  mouth  of  Coquin  river.  Framboise,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour., 
vol.  xi.,  pp.  255-6. 

The  Killamooks  dwell  along  the  coast  southward  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Columbia.  '  Near  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia.'  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  p.  262. 
Callimix,  '40  miles  S.  of  Columbia.'  Morse's  Eept.,  p.  368.  Killamucks, 
'along  the  S.E.  coast  for  many  miles.'  Id.,  p.  371.  Tillamooks,  'along  the 
coast  from  Umpqua  River  to  the  Neachesna,  a  distance  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty  miles.'  Palmer,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  pp.  256,  259.  Kilamukes, 
'  south  and  east  of  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  extending  to  the  coast.'  Emmons, 
in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  201.  Nsietshawus,  or  Killamuks,  'on  the 
sea-coast  south  of  the  Columbia.'  Hale's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi., 
p.  211,  and  map,  p.  197.  'Between  the  river  Columbia  and  the  Umpqua.' 
Warre  and  Vavaseur,  in  Martin's  Hud.  B.,  p.  81.  'Country  about  Cape 
Lookout.'  Palmer's  Jour.,  p.  105.  '  On  comprend  sous  le  nom  general  de 
Killimous,  les  Indiens  du  sud  du  Rio  Colombia,  tels  que  les  Nahelems,  les 
Nikas,  les  Kaouais,  les  Alsiias,  les  Umquas,  les  Toutounis  et  les  Sastes.  Ces 
deux  dernieres  peuplades  se  sont  jusqu'a  present  montrees  hostiles  aux  car- 
avanes  des  blancs.'  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  335,  357.  Killamucks,  next 
to  the  Clatsops.  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  p.  426.  '  Callemeux  nation.'  Gass' 
Jour.,  p.  260.  Callemax  on  the  coast  forty  leagues  south  of  the  Columbia. 
Stuart,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  torn,  x.,  p.  90. 

The  Lucktons  are  found  '  adjoining  the  Killamucks,  and  in  a  direction  S 
S.E.'  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  p.  427. 

The  Jakon,  or  Yakones,  dwell  south  of  the  Killamooks  on  the  coast.  Hale's 
Ethnog.,  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  218,  and  map,  p.  197. 

The  Tlatskanai  are  farther  inland  than  the  Killamooks.  Id.,  p.  204. 

The  Umpquas  live  '  on  a  river  of  that  name.'  Framboise,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc. 


308  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  256.  'In  a  valley  of  the  same  name.  They  are  divided 
into  six  tribes;  the  Sconta,  Chalula,  Palakahu,  Quattamya,  and  Chasta.' 
Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  p.  262.  Umbaquas.  Id.,  p.  262.  ' Umpquas  (3  tribus) 
sur  la  riviere  de  ce  nom,  et  de  la  riviere  aux  Vaches.'  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn, 
ii.,  p.  335.  'The  Umkwa  inhabit  the  tipper  part  of  the  river  of  that  name, 
having  the  Kalapuya  on  the  north,  the  Lutuami  (Clamets),  on  the  east,  and 
the  Sainstkla  between  them  and  the  sea.'  Hole's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex., 
vol.  vi.,  p.  204,  and  map,  p.  197.  Two  hundred  and  twenty-five  miles  south 
of  the  Columbia.  Hines'  Voy.,  p.  94.  'The  country  of  the  Umpquas  is  bound 
ed  east  by  the  Cascade  mountains,  west  by  the  Umpqua  mountains  and  the 
ocean,  north  by  the  Calipooia  mountains  and  south  by  Grave  Creek  and 
Rogue  River  mountains.'  Palmer,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1854,  p.  255;  Emmons, 
in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  201,  vol.  v.,  p.  492. 

The  Saiustkla  reside  '  upon  a  small  stream  which  falls  into  the  sea  just 
south  of  the  Umqua  River.'  Hole's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  221, 
map,  p.  197.  Sinselaw,  '  on  the  banks  of  the  Sinselaw  river. '  Harvey,  in  Ind. 
Aff.  Eept.,  1863,  p.  80.  Sayousla,  '  near  the  mouth  of  Sayousla  bay.'  Brooks, 
in  Id.,  1862,  p.  299,  Saliutla,  '  at  the  mouth  of  the  Umbaqua  river.'  Parker's 
Explor.  Tour,  p.  262. 

The  Katlawotsetts  include  the  Siuslaw  and  Alsea  bands  on  Siuslaw  River; 
the  Scottsburg,  Lower  Umpqua,  and  Kowes  Bay  bands  on  Umpqua  River. 
Drew,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1857,  p.  359.  Kiliwatshat,  '  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Umpqua.'  Hole's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  221. 

The  Alseas,  or  Alseyas,  live  on  Alsea  Bay.  Brooks,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept., 
1862,  p.  299;  Harvey,  in  Id.,  1863,  p.  80.  Chocreleatan,  'at  the  forks  of  the 
Coquille  river.'  Quahtomahs,  between  Coquille  River  and  Port  Orford. 
Nasomah,  '  near  the  mouth  of  the  Coquille  River.'  Parrish,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept., 
1854,  p.  287. 

Willamette  Valley  Nations :  '  The  nations  who  inhabit  this  fertile  neigh 
bourhood  are  very  numerous.  The  Wappatoo  inlet  extends  three  hund 
red  yards  wide,  for  ten  or  twelve  miles  to  the  south,  as  far  as  the  hills  near 
which  it  receives  the  waters  of  a  small  creek,  whose  sources  are  not  far  from 
those  of  the  Killamuck  river.  On  that  creek  resides  the  Clackstar  nation,  a 
numerous  people  of  twelve  hundred  souls,  who  subsist  on  fish  and  wappatoo, 
and  who  trade  by  means  of  the  Killamuck  river,  with  the  nation  of  that 
name  on  the  sea-coast.  Lower  down  the  inlet,  towards  the  Columbia,  is  the 
tribe  called  Cathlacumup.  On  the  sluice  which  connects  the  inlet  with  the 
Multnomah,  are  the  tribes  Cathlanahquiah  and  Cathlacomatup;  and  on  Wap 
patoo  island,  the  tribes  of  Clannahminamun  and  Clahnaquah.  Immedi 
ately  opposite,  near  the  Towahnahiooks,  are  the  Quathlapotles,  and  higher 
up,  on  the  side  of  the  Columbia,  the  Shotos.  All  these  tribes,  as  well  as 
the  Cathlahaws,  who  live  somewhat  lower  on  the  river,  and  have  an  old  vil 
lage  on  Deer  island,  may  be  considered  as  parts  of  the  great  Multnomah 
nation,  which  has  its  principal  residence  on  Wappatoo  island,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  large  river  to  which  they  give  their  name.  Forty  miles  above  its  junc 
tion  with  the  Columbia,  it  receives  the  waters  of  the  Clackamos,  a  river  which 
may  be  traced  through  a  woody  and  fertile  country  to  its  sources  in  Mount 
Jefferson,  almost  to  the  foot  of  which  it  is  navigable  for  canoes.  A  nation 


NATIVES  OF  THE  WILLAMETTE  VALLEY.  309 

of  the  same  name  resides  in  eleven  villages  along  its  borders :  they  live  chiefly 
on  fish  and  roots,  which  abound  in  the  Clackamos  and  along  its  banks,  though 
they  sometimes  descend  to  the  Columbia  to  gather  wappatoo,  where  they  can 
not  be  distinguished  by  dress  or  manners,  or  language,  from  the  tribes  of 
Multnomahs.  Two  days'  journey  from  the  Columbia,  or  about  twenty  miles 
beyond  the  entrance  of  the  Clackamos,  are  the  falls  of  the  Multnomah.  At 
this  place  are  the  permanent  residences  of  the  Cushooks  and  Chaheowahs, 
two  tribes  who  are  attracted  to  that  place  by  the  fish,  and  by  the  convenience 
of  trading  across  the  mountains  and  down  Killamuck  river,  with  the  nation 
of  Killamucks,  from  whom  they  procure  train  oil.  These  falls  were  occa 
sioned  by  the  passage  of  a  high  range  of  mountains;  beyond  which  the 
country  stretches  into  a  vast  level  plain,  wholly  destitute  of  timber.  As  far 
as  the  Indians,  with  whom  we  conversed,  had  ever  penetrated  that  country, 
it  was  inhabited  by  a  nation  called  Calahpoewah,  a  very  numerous  people, 
whose  villages,  nearly  forty  in  number,  are  scattered  along  each  side  of  the 
Multnomah,  which  furnish  them  with  their  chief  subsistence,  fish,  and  the 
roots  along  its  banks.'  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  507-8.  Calapooyas,  Moo- 
lallels,  and  Clackamas  in  the  Willamette  Valley.  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii., 
p.  200,  map.  Cathlakamaps  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ouallamat;  Cathlapoutles 
opposite;  Cathlanaminimins  on  an  island  a  little  higher  up;  Mathlanobes  on 
the  upper  part  of  the  same  island;  Cathlapouyeas  just  above  the  falls;  the 
Cathlacklas  on  an  eastern  branch  farther  up;  and  still  higher  the  Chochonis. 
Stuart,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1821,  torn,  x.,  pp.  115,  117. 

The  Cathlathlas  live  *  60  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Wallaumut.'  Morse's 
Kept.,  p.  368. 

The  Cloughewallhah  are  '  a  little  below  the  falls.'  Parker's  Explor.  Tour, 
p.  177. 

The  Katlawewalla  live  '  at  the  falls  of  the  Wallamat.'  Framboise,  in  Lond. 
Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  256. 

The  Leeshtelosh  occupy  the  'headwaters  of  the  Multnomah.'  Hunter's 
Captivity,  p.  73. 

The  Multnomahs  (or  Mathlanobs)  dwell  '  at  upper  end  of  the  island  in 
the  mouth  of  the  Wallaumut.'  Morse's  Kept.,  p.  368. 

The  Nemalquinner  lands  are  *N.E.  side  of  the  Wallaumut  river,  3  miles 
above  its  mouth.'  Morse's  Kept.,  p.  370. 

The  Newaskees  extend  eastward  of  the  headwaters  of  the  Multnomah,  on 
a  large  lake.  Hunter's  Captivity,  p.  73. 

The  Yamkallies  dwell  '  towards  the  sources  of  the  Wallamut  Kiver.'  Scou- 
ler,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  225. 

The  Calapooyas  live  in  the  upper  Willamette  Valley.  Callipooya,  '  Wil 
lamette  Valley.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  492,  vol.  iii.,  p.  201.  Kala- 
puya,  'above  the  falls.'  Hale's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  217. 
Callawpohyeaas,  Willamette  tribes  sixteen  in  number.  Ross'  Fur  Hunters, 
vol.  i.,  p.  108.  Calapooah,  seventeen  tribes  on  the  Willamette  and  its  branch 
es.  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  p.  261.  Callappohyeaass  nation  consists  of  Wa- 
comeapp,  Nawmooit,  Chillychandize,  Shookany,  Coupe,  Shehees,  Long- 
tonguebuff,  Lamalle,  and  Pecyou  tribes.  Boss'  Adven.,  pp.  236-6.  Kalapoo- 
yahs,  'on  the  shores  of  the  Oregon.'  Morton's  Crania,  p.  213.  'Willamat 


310  TKIBAL  BOUNDABIES. 

Plains.'  Scouler,  in  Land.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  225.  Kalapuyas, 
'above  the  falls  of  the  Columbia.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  36.  '50 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  "Wallaumut,  W.  side.'  Morse's  Sept.,  p.  368. 
Vule  Puyas,  Valley  of  the  Willamette.  Warre  and  Vavaseur,  in  Martin's 
Hud.  B.,  p.  81. 

The  Clackamas  are  on  the  'Clackama  River.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v., 
p.  492.  'Clakemas  et  Kaoulis,  sur  le  Ouallamet  et  la  riviere  Kaoulis.' 
Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  335.  'Valley  of  the  Clakamus  and  the  Willa- 
muta  Falls.'  Warre  and  Vavaseur,  in  Martin's  Hud.  B.,  p.  81.  Klackamas, 
4  three  miles  below  the  falls.'  /fines'  Voy.,  p.  144.  Clackamis.  Palmer's  Jour., 
p.  84.  Clarkamees.  Morse's  Eept.,  p.  372.  Clackamus.  Lewis  and  Clarke's 
Map. 

The  Mollaks  are  found  in  'Willamettee  Valley.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol. 
v.,  p.  492.  '  At  the  mouth  of  the  Wallamet,  and  the  Wapatoo  Islands.  Tuck 
er's  Oregon,  p.  71.  '  Upon  the  west  side  of  the  Willamette  and  opposite  Ore 
gon  City.'  Palmer's  Jour.,  p.  84. 

THE  SHUSHWAP  FAMILY  comprises  all  the  inland  tribes  of  British  Co 
lumbia,  south  of  lat.  52°  30'. 

The  AtnaJis,  Strangers,  Niccoutamuch,  or  Shushwaps  proper,  inhabit  the 
Fraser  and  Thompson  valleys.  '  At  Spuzzum ....  a  race  very  different  both  in 
habits  and  language  is  found.  These  are  the  Nicoutamuch,  or  Nicouta- 
meens,  a  branch  of  a  widely-extended  tribe.  They,  with  their  cognate  septs, 
the  Atnaks,  or  Shuswapmuch,  occupy  the  Frazer  River  from  Spuzzum  to 
the  frontier  of  that  part  of  the  country  called  by  the  Hudson  Bay  Company 
New  Caledonia,  which  is  within  a  few  miles  of  Fort  Alexandria.'  Mayne's 
B.  C.,  p.  296.  '  Shushwaps  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  inhabit  the  country  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Jasper  House,  and  as  far  as  Tete  Jaune  Cache  on  the 
western  slope.  They  are  a  branch  of  the  great  Shush wap  nation  who  dwell 
near  the  Shushwap  Lake  and  grand  fork  of  the  Thompson  River  in  British 
Columbia.'  Thompson  River  and  Lake  Kamloops.  Milton  and  Cheadle's 
Northw.  Pass.,  pp.  241,  335.  '  On  the  Pacific  side,  but  near  the  Rocky  Mount 
ains,  are  the  Shoushwaps  who,  inhabiting  the  upper  part  of  Frazer 's  River, 
and  the  north  fork  of  the  Columbia.'  Blakiston,  in  Palliser's  Explor.,  p.  44. 
'The  Shooshaps  live  below  the  Sinpauelish  Indians.'  Parker's  Explor.  Tour, 
,p.  313.  'The  Shushwaps  possess  the  country  bordering  on  the  lower  part 
of  Frazer's  River,  and  its  branches.'  Bale's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol. 
-vi.,-  p.  205.  The  Atnahs  or  Soushwap,  'live  in  the  country  on  the  Fraser's 
and  Thompson's  Rivers.'  '  They  were  termed  by  Mackenzie  the  Chin  tribe.' 
.(See  p.  251,  note  141  of  this  vol.)  Prichard's  Researches,  vol.  v.,  p.  427;  Busch- 
•mann,  Brit.  Nordamer.,  p.  320.  Shooshaps,  south  of  the  Sinpavelist.  De  Smet, 
Voy.,  pp.  50-1.  'The  Atnah,  or  Chin  Indian  country  extends  about  one 
hundred  miles,'  from  Fort  Alexander.  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  361.  Shoo- 
shewaps  inhabit  the  region  of  the  north  bend  of  the  Columbia,  in  52°.  At 
nahs,  in  the  region  of  the  Fraser  and  Thompson  rivers.  Macdonald's  Lecture 
.on  B.  C.,  p.  10;  Hector,  in  Palliser's  Explor.,  p.  27.  'The  Shewhapmuch 
.(Atnahs  of  Mackenzie). ..  .occupy  the  banks  of  Thompson's  River;  and 
along  Frazer's  River  from  the  Rapid  village,  twenty  miles  below  Alexandria, 


THE  SHUSHWAP  FAMILY.  311 

to  the  confluence  of  these  two  streams.  Thence  to  near  the  falls  the  tribe 
bears  the  name  of  Nicutemuch.'  Anderson,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  vii.,  p.  76. 

'  The  Stta  Llimuh,  natives  of  Anderson  Lake,  speak  a  dialect  of  the  She- 
swap  language.'  Skowhomish,  in  the  same  vicinity.  McKay,  in  B.  C.  Papers, 
vol.  ii.,  p.  32. 

'  The  Loquilt  Indians  have  their  home  in  the  winter  on  Lake  Anderson, 
and  the  surrounding  district,  whence  they  descend  to  the  coast  in  Jervis 
Inlet  in  the  summer.'  Mayne's  B.  C.,  p.  299. 

The  Kamloops  dwell  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  north-west  of 
Okanagan.  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  156. 

The  Clunsus  are  east  of  Fraser  River,  between  Yale  and  latitude  50°; 
Skowtous,  on  the  fiftieth  parallel  south  of  Lake  Kamloops  and  west  of  Lake 
Okanagan;  Sockatcheenum,  east  of  Fraser  and  north  of  51°.  Bancroft's  Map 
of  Pac.  States. 

The  Kootenais  live  in  the  space  bounded  by  the  Columbia  River,  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  Clarke  River.  The  Kitunaha,  Coutanies,  or  Flatbows,  'wander 
in  the  rugged  and  mountainous  tract  enclosed  between  the  two  northern  forks 
of  the  Columbia.  The  Flat-bow  River  and  Lake  also  belong  to  them.'  Hate's 
Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  pp.  204-5,  map,  p.  297.  '  Inhabit  the  country 
extending  along  the  foot  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  north  of  the  Flatheads,  for 
a  very  considerable  distance,  and  are  about  equally  in  American  and  in  Brit 
ish  territory.'  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Kept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  416.  Kootooiiais,  '  on  Mc- 
Gillivray's  River,  the  Flat  Bow  Lake,  etc."  Warre  and  Vavaseur,  in  Martin's 
If  ml.  B.,  p.  82.  Kootonais,  on  '  or  about  the  fiftieth  parallel  at  Fort  Koo- 
tonie,  east  of  Fort  Colville.'  Simpson's  Overland  Joum.t  vol.  i.,  p.  138.  'Be 
tween  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  Upper  Columbia  and  its  tributary  the  Kil- 
luspehn  or  Pend'oreille,  and  watered  by  an  intermediate  stream  called  the 
Kootanais  River  is  an  angular  piece  of  country  peopled  by  a  small,  isolated 
tribe  bearing  the  same  name  as  the  last-mentioned  river,  on  the  banks  of 
v  hich  they  principally  live.'  Mayne's  B.  C.,  p.  297.  The  lands  of  the  Cot- 
tonois  'lie  immediately  north  of  those  of  the  Flatheads.'  Irving's  Bonneville's 
Adven.,  p.  70.  Kutanke,  Kiitani,  Kitunaha,  Kutneha,  Coutanies,  Flatbows, 
'near  the  sources  of  the  Mary  River,  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.'  Ludewig, 
Ab.  Lang.,  p.  98.  '  Inhabit  a  section  of  country  to  the  north  of  the  Ponderas, 
along  M'Gillivray's  river.'  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  p.  312.  'Koutanies  ou 
Arcs-Plats,  Pres  du  fort  et  du  lac  de  ce  nom.'  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  335. 
'In  the  Kootanie  Valley.'  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  178.  Kootonays,  south  of 
the  Shushwaps.  Palliser's  Explor.,  p.  44.  'Great  longitudinal  valley  '  of  the 
Kootanie  river.  Hector,  in  Id.,  p.  27.  '  The  Tobacco  Plains  form  the  country 
of  the  Kootaiiies.'  Blakiston,  in  Id.,  p.  73.  'About  the  northern  branches 
of  the  Columbia.'  Greenhow's  Hist.  Ogn.,  p.  30.  Kootanais,  'angle  between 
the  Saeliss  lands  and  the  eastern  heads  of  the  Columbia.'  Anderson,  in  Hist. 
Mag.,  vol.  vii.,  p.  79.  About  the  river  of  the  same  name,  between  the  Co 
lumbia  and  Rocky  Mountains.  Nicolay's  Oyn.  Ter.,  p.  143.  A  band  called 
Sinatcheggs  on  the  upper  Arrow  Lake.  Ross'  Fur  Hunters,  vol,  ii.,  p.  190. 
The  Kootenais  were  perhaps  the  Tushepaws  of  Lewis  and  Clarke. 

The  Tushepaws  are  '  a  numerous  people  of  four  hundred  and  fifty  tents, 
residing  on  the  heads  of  the  Missouri  and  Columbia  rivers,  and  some  of 


312  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

them  lower  down  the  latter  river/  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  p.  321,  and 
map;  Bullfinch's  Ogn.,  p.  134.  'On  a  N.  fork  of  Clarke's  River.'  Morse's 
Rept.,  p.  372.  Ootlashoots,  Micksucksealton  (Pend  d'Oreilles?),  Hohilpos 
(Flatheads?),  branches  of  the  Tushepaws.  Id.,  and  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Map. 
The  Tushepaw  nation  might  as  correctly  be  included  in  the  Salish  family  or 
omitted  altogether.  According  to  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.,  i.,  p.  417, 
they  were  the  Kootenais. 

The  Okanagans,  or  Okinakanes,  '  comprise  the  bands  lying  on  the  river 
of  that  name,  as  far  north  as  the  foot  of  the  great  lake.  They  are  six  in 
number,  viz:  the  Tekunratum  at  the  mouth;  Koiiekonep,  on  the  creek  of 
that  name";  Kluckhaitkwee,  at  the  falls;  Kinakanes,  near  the  forks;  and  Mi- 
laketkun,  on  the  west  fork.  With  them  may  be  classed  the  N'Pockle,  or  Sans 
Puelles,  on  the  Columbia  river,  though  these  are  also  claimed  by  the  Spo- 
kanes.  The  two  bands  on  the  forks  are  more  nearly  connected  with  the 
Schwogelpi  than  with  the  ones  first  named.'  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854, 
p.  237,  and  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  412.  Oakinackens,  Priests'  Rapids, 
northward  over  500  miles,  and  100  miles  in  width,  to  the  Shewhaps,  branch 
ing  out  into  12  tribes,  as  follows,  beginning  with  the  south:  '  Skamoynu- 
machs,  Kewaughtchemmaughs,  Pisscows,  Incomecanetook,  Tsillane,  Inti- 
etook,  Battlelemuleemauch,  or  Meatwho,  Inspellum,  Sinpohellechach,  Sin- 
whoyeippetook,  Samilkanuigh  and  Oakinacken,  which  is  nearly  in  the  centre.' 
Ross'  Adven.,  pp.  289-90.  '  On  both  sides  the  Okanagan  River  from  its  mouth 
up  to  British  Columbia,  including  the  Sennelkameen  River.'  Ross,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
Rept.,  1870,  p.  22.  '  Pres  du  fort  de  ce  nom.'  Mofras,  Explor.  torn,  ii.,  p.  335. 
'  On  the  Okanagan  and  Piscour  Rivers.'  Warre  and  Vavaseur,  in  Martin's 
Hud.  B.,  p.  82.  '  Composed  of  several  small  bands  living  along  the  Okina- 
kane  river,  from  its  confluence  with  the  Columbia  to  Lake  Okinakane. . . .  A 
majority  of  the  tribe  live  north  of  the  boundary  line.'  Paige,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept., 
1865,  p.  99.  '  Columbia  Valley.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  490.  North 
east  and  west  of  the  Shoopshaps.  De  Smet,  Voy.,  p.  51.  Junction  of  the  Okan 
agan  and  Columbia.  Parker's  Map.  'Upper  part  of  Eraser's  River  and  its 
tributaries.'  Scouler,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  225.  Principal 
family  called  Conconulps  about  9  miles  up  stream  of  the  same  name.  Ross' 
Adven.,  pp.  289-90.  The  Similkameen  live  on  S.  river,  and  'are  a  portion 
of  the  Okanagau  tribe.'  Palmer,  in  B.  Col.  Papers,  vol.  iii.,  p.  85.  The  Okan 
agans,  called  Catsanim  by  Lewis  and  Clarke.  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol. 
i.,  p.  417.  Cutsahnim,  on  the  Columbia  above  the  Sokulks,  and  on  the  north 
ern  branches  of  the  Taptul.  Morse's  Rept.,  p.  372. 

THE  SALISH  FAMILY  includes  all  the  inland  tribes  between  49°  and  47°. 
The  Salish,  Saalis,  Selish,  or  Flatheads,  '  inhabit  the  country  about  the  up 
per  part  of  the  Columbia  and  its  tributary  streams,  the  Flathead,  Spokan, 
and  Okanagan  Rivers.  The  name  includes  several  independent  tribes  or 
bands,  of  which  the  most  important  are  the  Salish  proper,  the  Kullespelm, 
the  Soayalpi,  the  Tsakaitsitlin,  and  the  Okinakan.'  Kale's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S. 
Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  205.  'The  Saeliss  or  Shewhapmuch  race,  whose  limits 
may  be  defined  by  the  Rocky  Mountains  eastward;  on  the  west  the  line  of 
Frazer's  river  from  below  Alexandria  to  Kequeloose,  near  the  Falls,  in  about 


THE  SALISH  FAMILY.  313 

latitude  49°  50';  northward  by  the  Carrier  offset  of  the  Chippewyans;  and 
south  by  the  Sahaptins  or  Nez  Perces  of  Oregon.'  Anderson,  in  Hist.  Mag., 
vol.  vii.,  p.  73.  'From  Thompson's  River  other  septs  of  this  race — the 
Shuswaps,  Skowtous,  Okanagans,  Spokans,  Skoielpoi  (of  Colville),  Pend'o- 
reilles,  and  Coeurs  d'Aleines— occupy  the  country  as  far  as  the  Flathead 
Passes  of  the  Eocky  Mountains,  where  the  Saelies  or  Flatheads  form  the 
eastern  portion  of  the  race.'  Mayne's  B.  C.,  pp.  296-7.  'About  the  northern 
branches  of  the  Columbia.'  Greenhow's  Hist.  Ogn.,  p.  30;  Domenech's  Deserts, 
vol.  ii.,  p.  55.  Tribes  mentioned  in  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  and  map:  Tushe- 
paw  (Kootenai),  Hopilpo  (Flathead),  Micksucksealtom  (Pend  d'Oreilles), 
Wheelpo,  (Chualpays),  Sarlisto  and  Sketsomish  (Spokanes),  Hehighenimmo 
(Sans  Poils),  according  to  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Kept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  41J.  See 
Morse's  Rept.,  p.  372;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p. "55.  'Between  the  two 
great  branches  of  the  Columbia  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  only  five 
petty  tribes:  the  Kootanais  and  Selish,  or  Flatheads,  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountains,  and  the  Pointed  Hearts,  Pend  d'Oreilles,  and  Spokanes  lower 
down.'  Ross'  Fur  Hunters,  vol.  ii.,  p.  190.  'Divided  into  several  tribes,  the 
most  important  of  which  are  the  Selishes,  the  Kullespelms,  the  Soayalpis, 
the  Tsakai'tsitlius,  and  the  Okinakans.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  55-6. 

The  Flatheads,  or  Salish  proper,  reside  on  the  river,  valley,  and  lake  of 
the  same  name.  '  Inhabit  St.  Mary's  or  the  Flathead  Valley  and  the  neigh 
borhood  of  the  lake  of  the  same  name.'  Stevens,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i., 
p.  415,  and  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  p.  207.  '  Occupying  the  valleys  between 
the  Bitter  Root  and  Rocky  mountains.'  Thompson,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854, 
p.  282.  'South  of  the  Flathead  Valley  on  the  Bitter  Root.'  Sully,  in  Id., 
1870,  p.  192.  St.  Mary's  River.  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  490.  '  East 
and  south-east  (of  the  Coeurs  d'Alene)  and  extends  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.' 
Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  p.  311,  and  map.  De  Smet,  Miss,  de  I'Ore'gon,  p.  31. 
Saalis  ou  faux  Tetes-Plates.  Sur  la  riviere  de  ce  noin  au  pied  des  Mon- 
tagnes  Rocheuses.  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  335.  '  Along  the  foot  of 
the  mountains.'  Ross'  Adven.,  p.  213.  '  In  New  Caledonia,  W.  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.'  Morse's  Rept.,  p.  371.  Bitter  Root  valley.  Hutchins,  in  Ind. 
Aff.  Rept.,  1863,  p.  455,  1865,  p.  246;  Nicolay's  Ogn.  Ter.,  p.  153.  Hopilpo, 
of  Lewis  and  Clarke.  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  417.  '  Us  occupent 
le  pays  compris  entre  le  Lewis-River  et  la  branche  nord-ouest  ou  la  Co 
lumbia,  et  borne  en  arriere  par  les  Monts-Rocailleux.  Stuart,  in  Nouvelles 
Annales  des  Voy.,  1821,  torn,  xii.,  p.  43. 

The  Pend  d'Oreilles  occupy  the  vicinity  of  the  lake  of  the  same  name. 
*  On  the  Flathead  or  Clarke  River.'  Warre  and  Vavaseur,  in  Martin's  Hud.  B.,  p. 
82.  '  At  Clark's  Fork.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  490.  Lower  Pend  d  'O- 
reilles,  '  in  the  vicinity  of  the  St.  Ignatius  Mission.'  Paige,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept., 
1865,  p.  98.  '  The  Kalispelms  or  Pend  d'Oreilles  of  the  Lower  Lake,  inhabit 
the  country  north  of  the  Coeur  d'Alenes  and  around  the  Kalispelm  lake.' 
Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  415.  Calispels,  or  Calispellum,  'on 
Fool's  Prairie  at  the  head  of  Colville  Valley,  and  on  both  sides  of  the  Pend 
d'Oreille  River,  from  its  mouth  to  the  Idaho  line,  but  principally  at  the  Camas 
Prairie.'  Winans,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1870,  pp.  22,  25,  192.  Situated  to  the 
east  of  Fort  Colville,  adjoining  the  Kootonais  on  their  eastern  border.  Simp- 


314  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

son's  Overland  Journ.,  vol.  i.,  p.  146.  '  Pend'oreilles  ou  Kellespem.  Au- 
dessous  du  fort  Colville.'  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  335.  Skatkmlschi,  or 
Pend  d'Oreilles  of  the  upper  lake.  A  tribe  who,  by  the  consent  of  the  Se- 
lish,  occupy  jointly  with  them  the  country  of  the  latter.  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  It. 
Kept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  415.  Kullas-Palus,  'on  the  Flathead  or  Clarke  River.' 
Warre  and  Vavaseur,  in  Martin's  Hud.  B.,  p.  82.  Ponderas,  'north  of 
Clarke's  river  and  on  a  lake  which  takes  its  name  from  the  tribe.'  Parker's 
Explor.  Tour,  p.  312  and  map;  De  Smet,  Voy.,  p.  32.  The  Pend'oreilles  were 
probably  the  Micksucksealtom  of  Lewis  and  Clarke.  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R. 
Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  417. 

Tribes"  baptized  by  De  Smet:  Thlishatkmuche,  Stietshoi,  Zingomenes, 
Shaistche,  Shuyelpi,  Tschilsoloini,  Siur  Poils,  Tinabsoti,  Yinkaceous,  Yej- 
ak-oun,  all  of  same  stock. 

Tribes  mentioned  by  Morse  as  living  in  the  vicinity  of  Clarke  River: 
Coopspellar,  Lahama,  Lartielo,  Hihighenimmo,  Wheelpo,  Skeetsomish.  Sept., 
p.  372. 

The  Coeurs  d'Alene  'live  about  the  lake  which  takes  its  name  from  them.' 
Hate's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  209.  East  of  the  Spokanes,  at 
headwaters  of  the  Spokane  River.  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  p.  310,  and  map. 
*  The  Skitswish  or  Coeur  d'Alenes,  live  upon  the  upper  part  of  the  Coeur 
d'Alene  river,  above  the  Spokanes,  and  around  the  lake  of  the  same  name.' 
Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  415.  Their  mission  is  on  the  river 
ten  miles  above  the  lake  and  thirty  miles  from  the  mountains.  Stevens,  in 
Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  p.  216.  Stietshoi,  or  Coeur  d'Alenes  on  the  river,  and 
about  the  lake.  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  200,  map,  vol.  v.,  p.  490. 
Pointed  Hearts,  '  shores  of  a  lake  about  fifty  miles  to  the  eastward  of  Spo- 
kan  House.'  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  150;  Nicolay's  Ogn.  Ter.,  p.  143;  De 
Smet,  Miss,  de  I' Oregon,  p.  31.  '  St.  Joseph's  river.'  Mullan's  Rept.,  p.  49. 

The  Colvilles  include  the  tribes  about  Kettle  Falls,  and  the  banks  of  the 
Columbia  up  to  the  Arrow  Lakes.  '  Colville  valley  and  that  of  the  Colum 
bia  river  from  Kettle  Falls  to  a  point  thirty  miles  below.'  Paige,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
Rept.,  1865,  p.  98.  'The  Colvilles,  whose  tribal  name  is  Swielpree,  are  lo 
cated  in  the  Colville  Valley,  on  the  Kettle  River,  and  on  both  sides  of  the 
Columbia  River,  from  Kettle  Falls  down  to  the  mouth  of  the  Spokane.' 
Winans,  in  Id.,  1870,  p.  22.  Colvilles  and  Spokanes,  'near  Fort  Colville.' 
Warre  and  Vavaseur,  in  Martin's  Hud.  S.,  p.  82. 

The  Lakes,  '  whose  tribal  name  is  Senijextee,  are  located  on  both  sides  of 
the  Columbia  River,  from  Kettle  Falls  north  to  British  Columbia.'  Winans, 
in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1870,  p.  22.  '  So  named  from  their  place  of  residence, 
which  is  about  the  Arrow  Lakes.'  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  p.  312.  'Les  sau- 
vages  des  Lacs resident  sur  le  Lac-aux-fleches. '  De  Smet,  Voy.,  p.  50. 

The  Chaudieres,  or  Kettle  Falls,  reside  'about  Colville.'  Parker's  Ex 
plor.  Tour,  p.  313.  The  village  of  Les  Chaudieres  '  is  situated  on  the  north 
side  just  below  the  fall.'  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  i.,  p.  358.  Chaudieres  '  live  south 
of  the  Lake  Indians.'  De  Smet,  Voy.,  p.  50.  'Fort  Colville  is  the  principal 
ground  of  the  Schwoyelpi  or  Kettle  Falls  tribe.'  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.t 
vol.  i.,  p.  413.  '  The  tribe  in  the  vicinity  (of  Fort  Colville)  is  known  as  the 
Chaudiere,  whose  territory  reaches  as  far  up  as  the  Columbia  Lakes.'  Simp- 


THE  SPOKANE  NATION.  315 

son's  Overland  Journ.,  vol.  i.,  p.  151.  'Gens  des  Chaudieres.  Pres  du  lac 
Schouchouap  au-dessous  des  Dalles.'  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  335. 
'Called  in  their  own  language,  Chualpays.'  Kane's  Wand.,  pp.  308-9. 
'  Called  Quiarlpi  (Basket  People).'  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv., 
p.  472.  The  Chualpays  called  "Wheelpo  by  Lewis  and  Clarke,  and  by 
Morse.  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  E.  E.  Eept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  417. 

The  Spokanes  live  on  the  Spokane  river  and  plateau,  along  the  banks  of 
the  Columbia  from  below  Kettle  Falls,  nearly  to  the  Okanagan.  '  The  Spo- 
kilmish,  or  Spokanes,  lie  south  of  the  Schrooyelpi,  and  chiefly  upon  or 
near  the  Spokane  river.  The  name  applied  by  the  whites  to  a  number  of 
small  bands,  is  that  given  by  the  Coeur  d'Alene  to  the  one  living  at  the 
forks.  They  are  also  called  Sinkoman,  by  the  Kootonies.  These  bands 
are  eight  in  number:  the  Sinslihhooish,  on  the  great  plain  above  the  cross 
ings  of  the  Coeur  d'Alene  river;  the  Sintootoolish,  on  the  river  above  the 
forks;  the  Smahoomenaish  (Spokehnish),  at  the  forks;  the  Skaischilt'nish, 
at  the  old  Chemakane  mission;  the  Skecheramouse,  above  them  on  the 
Colville  trail;  the  Scheeetstish,  the  Sinpoilschne,  and  Sinspeelish,  on  the 
Columbia  river;  the  last-named  band  is  nearly  extinct.  The  Sinpoilschne 
(N'pochle,  or  San»  Puelles)  have  always  been  included  among  the  Okin- 
akanes,  though,  as  well  as  the  Sinspeelish  below  them,  they  are  claimed  by 
the  Spokanes.  The  three  bands  on  the  Columbia  all  speak  a  different 
language  from  the  rest.'  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1854,  pp.  220,  236;  and 
Gibbs,  in  Pac.  E.  E.  Eept.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  414-15.  'This  tribe  claim  as  their 
territory  the  country  commencing  on  the  large  plain  at  the  head  of  the  Slawn- 
tehus — the  stream  entering  the  Columbia  at  Fort  Colville;  thence  down  the 
Spokane  to  the  Columbia,  down  the  Columbia  half  way  to  Fort  Okina- 
kane,  and  up  the  Spokane  and  Coeur  d'Alene,  to  some  point  between  the 
falls  and  the  lake,  on  the  latter.'  Id.,  p.  414.  'Inhabit  the  country  on  the 
Spokane  river,  from  its  mouth  to  the  boundary  of  Idaho.'  Paige,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
Eept.,  1865,  p.  99.  'At  times  on  the  Spokane,  at  times  on  the  Spokane 
plains.'  Midlaris  Eept.,  pp.  18,  49.  'Principally  on  the  plains.'  Lord's  Nat., 
vol.  ii.,  p.  157.  'North-east  of  the  Palooses  are  the  Spokein  nation.'  Park 
er's  Explor.  Tour,  p.  310,  and  map.  « Au-dessous  du  fort  Okanagam  a  1'Est.' 
Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  335.  '  Au  nord-ouest  des  Palooses  se  trouve  la 
nation  des  Spokanes.'  De  Smet,  Voy.,  p.  31.  'Have  a  small  village  at  the 
entrance  of  their  river,  but  their  chief  and  permanent  place  of  residence 
is  about  forty  miles  higher  up  ....  where  the  Pointed-heart  River  joins 
the  Spokan  from  the  south-east.'  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  147.  'The  Spo 
kanes,  whose  tribal  names  are  Sineequomenach,  or  Upper,  Sintootoo,  or 
Middle  Spokamish,  and  Chekasschee,  or  Lower  Spokanes,  living  on  the 
Spokane  Biver,  from  the  Idaho  line  to  its  mouth.'  Winans,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept., 
1870,  p.  23.  Spokane,  the  Sarlilso  and  Sketsomish  of  Lewis  and  Clarke. 
Gibbs,  in  Pac.  E.  E.  Eept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  417. 

The  Sans  Polls  (Hairless),  or  '  Sanpoils,  which  includes  the  Nespeelum 
Indians,  are  located  on  the  Columbia,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Spokane  down 
to  Grand  Coulee  Con  the  south  of  the  Columbia),  and  from  a  point  opposite 
the  mouth  of  the  Spokane  down  to  the  mouth  of  the  Okanagan  on  the  north 
side  of  the  Columbia,  including  the  country  drained  by  the  Sanpoil,  and 


316  TBIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

Nespeehim  Creeks.'  Winans,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1870,  p.  22.  Sinpoilish, 
west  of  the  Columbia  between  Priest  Rapids  and  Okanagan.  Schoolcrajt' 's 
Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  200,  map.  Sinpauelish,  west  of  the  Kettle  Falls  Indians. 
Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  p.  313.  '  Sinipouals.  Pres  des  grands  rapides  du  Rio 
Colombia.'  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  335.  Sinpavelist,  west  of  the  Chau- 
dieres.  De  Smet,  Voy.,  p.  50.  Sinapoils,  'occupy  a  district  on  the  northern 
banks  of  the  Columbia,  between  the  Spokan  and  Oakinagan  rivers.'  Cox's 
Adven.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  145.  Hehighenimmo  of  Lewis  and  Clarke.  Gibbs,  in  Pac. 
R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  417. 

The  Pisquouse  inhabit  the  west  bank  of  the  Columbia  between  the  Okan 
agan  and  Priest  Rapids.  Piskwaus,  or  Piscous;  'name  properly  belongs 
to  the  tribe  who  live  on  the  small  river  which  falls  into  the  Columbia  on  the 
west  side,  about  forty  miles  below  Fort  Okanagan.  But  it  is  here  extended 
to  all  the  tribes  as  far  down  as  Priest's  Rapids.'  The  map  extends  their  ter 
ritory  across  the  Columbia.  Hole's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  210, 
and  map,  p.  197.  Pisquouse,  'immediately  north  of  that  of  the  Yakamas.' 
'  On  the  Columbia  between  the  Priest's  and  Ross  Rapids.'  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
Rept.,  1854,  p.  236;  and  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  412.  '  Piscaous. 
Sur  la  petite  riviere  de  ce  nom  a  1'Ouest  de  la  Colombia.'  Mofras,  Explor., 
torn,  ii.,  p.  335. 

The  Skamoynumacks  live  on  the  banks  of  the  Columbia,  at  Priest 
Rapids,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Umatilla.  Thirty  miles  distant  up  the  river 
are  the  Kewaughtohenemachs.  Ross'  Adven.,  pp.  134,  137. 

'  The  Mithouies  are  located  on  the  west  side  of  the  Columbia  River,  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Okanagan  down  to  the  Wonatchee,  and  includes  the 
country  drained  by  the  Mithouie,  Lake  Chelan,  and  Enteeatook  Rivers.' 
Winans,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1870,  p.  23. 

'  The  Isle  de  Pierres,  whose  tribal  name  is  Linkinse,  are  located  on  the 
east  and  south  side  of  the  Col.  Riv.  from  Grand  Coulee  down  to  Priests' 
Rapids,  which  includes  the  peninsula  made  by  the  great  bend  of  the  Col.'  Ib. 

THE  SAHAPTIN  FAMILY  is  situated  immediately  south  of  the  Salish.  Only 
six  of  the  eight  nations  mentioned  below  have  been  included  in  the  Family 
by  other  authors.  '  The  country  occupied  by  them  extends  from  the  Dalles 
of  the  Columbia  to  the  Bitter-Root  mountains,  lying  on  both  sides  of  the 
Columbia  and  upon  the  Kooskooskie  and  Salmon  Forks  of  Lewis'  and  Snake 
River,  between  that  of  the  Selish  family  on  the  north,  and  of  the  Snakes  on 
the  south.'  Gibbs,  in  Pandosy's  Gram.,  p.  vii.  '  The  first  and  more  northern 
Indians  of  the  interior  may  be  denominated  the  Shahaptan  Family,  and  com 
prehends  three  tribes;  the  Shahaptan,  or  Nez  Perces  of  the  Canadians;  the 
Kliketat,  a  scion  from  the  Shahaptans  who  now  dwell  near  Mount  Rainier, 
and  have  advanced  toward  the  falls  of  the  Columbia;  and  the  Okanagan, 
who  inhabit  the  upper  part  of  Eraser's  River  and  its  tributaries.'  Scouler,  in 
Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  225.  Hale's  map,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi., 
p.  197,  divides  the  territory  among  the  Nez  Perces,  Walla- Wallas,  Waiilaptu, 
and  Molele.  '  The  Indians  in  this  district  (of  the  Dalles)  are  Dog  River,  Was- 
cos,  Tyicks,  Des  Chutes,  John  Day,  Utilla,  Cayuses,  Walla- Walla,  Nez  Perces, 
Mountain  Snakes  and  Bannacks.'  Dennison,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1859,  p.  435. 


SAHAPTIN  FAMILY.  317 

'  The  different  tribes  attached  to  Fort  Nez  Perces,  and  who  formerly  went  by 
that  cognomen,  are  the  Shamooinaugh,  Skamnaminaugh,  E'yackiinah,  Ispipe- 
whumaugh,  and  Inaspetsum.  These  tribes  inhabit  the  main  north  branch 
above  the  Forks.  On  the  south  branch  are  the  Palletto  Pallas,  Shawhaapten 
or  Nez  Perces  proper,  Pawluch,  and  Cosispa  tribes.  On  the  main  Columbia, 
beginning  at  the  Dallas,  are  the  Necootimeigh,  Wisscopam,  Wisswhams, 
"Wayyampas,  Lowhim,  Sawpaw,  and  Youmatalla  bands.'  Ross'  Fur  Hunters, 
vol.  i.,  p.  185-6.  Cathlakahikits,  at  the  rapids  of  Columbia  river,  N.  side; 
Chippanchickchicks,  '  N.  side  of  Columbia  river,  in  the  long  narrows,  a  lit 
tle  below  the  falls.'  Hellwits,  'at  the  falls  of  Columbia  river;'  Ithkyema- 
mits,  'on  Columbia  river,  N.  side  near  Chippanchickchicks;'  Yehah,  'above 
the  rapids.'  Morse's  Rept.,  pp.  368-70. 

The  Nez  Perces  '  possess  the  country  on  each  side  of  the  Lewis  or  Snake 
River,  from  the  Peloose  to  the  Wapticacoes,  about  a  hundred  miles — together 
with  the  tributary  streams,  extending,  on  the  east,  to  the  foot  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.'  Sale's  Ethnoy.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  212;  Schoolcraft's 
Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  551.  '  On  both  sides  of  the  Kooskooskia  and  north  fork  of 
Snake  river.'  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  416;  and  Stevens,  in  Ind. 
Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  p.  217.  '  A  few  bands  of  the  Nez  Perces  Indians  occupy  the 
Salmon  river  and  the  Clearwater.'  Thompson,  in  Id.,  p.  282.  '  The  Nez  Perces 
country  is  bounded  west  by  the  Palouse  river  and  the  Tucannon;  on  the 
north  by  the  range  of  mountains  between  Clear  Water  and  the  Coeur  d'A- 
lene;  east  by  the  Bitter  Hoot  mountains;  on  the  south  they  are  bounded 
near  the  line  dividing  the  two  Territories.'  Craig,  in  Id.,  1857,  p.  353.  The 
Buffalo,  a  tribe  of  the  Nez  Perces,  winter  in  the  Bitter  Root  Valley.  Owen,  in 
Id.,  1859,  p.  424.  'Upper  waters  and  mountainous  parts  of  the  Columbia.' 
Catlin's  N.  Am.  Ind.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  108.  '  Country  lying  along  Lewis  river  and 
its  tributaries  from  the  eastern  base  of  the  Blue  Mountains  to  the  Columbia.' 
Palmer's  Jour.,  p.  55.  Nez  Perces  or  Sahaptins,  '  on  the  banks  of  the  Lewis 
Fork  or  Serpent  River.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  54.  '  Chohoptins, 

or  Nez-Perces, on  the  banks  of  Lewis  River.'  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  ii.,  p. 

143.  'Rove  through  the  regions  of  the  Lewis  branch.'  Greenhow's  Hist. 
Ogn.,  p.  30.  'The  Lower  Nez  Perces  range  upon  the  Wayleeway,  Immahah, 
Yenghies,  and  other  of  the  streams  west  of  the  mountains.'  Irving' s  Bon- 
neville's  Adven.,  p.  301.  Some  Flatheads  live  along  the  Clearwater  River 
down  to  below  its  junction  with  the  Snake.  Gass'  Jour.,  p.  212.  Country 
'drained  by  the  Kooskooskie,  westward  from  the  Blackfoot  country,  and 
across  the  Rocky  Mountains.'  Brownell's  Ind.  Races,  p.  533.  'Pres  du  fort 
de  ce  nom,  a  la  jonction  des  deux  branches  du  fleuve.'  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn, 
ii.,  p.  335.  Junction  of  Snake  and  Clearwater.  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  Map. 
Chopunnish.  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  p.  331,  and  map.  Copunnish.  Bui- 
finch's  Oregon,  p.  144.  'The  Nez-Perces  are  divided  into  two  classes,  the 
Nez-Perces  proper,  who  inhabit  the  mountains,  and  the  Polonches,  who  in 
habit  the  plain  country  about  the  mouth  of  the  Snake  River.'  Gairdner,  in 
Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  256.  Chopunnish,  '  on  Lewis  river  below 
the  entrance  of  the  Kooskooskee,  on  both  sides.'  'On  the  Kooskooskee 
river  below  the  forks,  and  on  Cotter's  creek.'  Bands  of  the  Chopunnish; 
Pelloatpallah,  Kiinrnooenim,  Yeletpoo,  Willewah,  Soyennom.  Morse's  Rept., 
p.  369. 


318  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

The  Palouse,  or  'the  Pains,  usually  written  Paloose,  live  between  the 
Columbia  and  the  Snake.'  Gibbs,  in  Pandosy's  Gram.,  p.  vi.  'The  Peloose 
tribe  has  a  stream  called  after  it  which  empties  into  Lewis  River.'  Hole's 
Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  213.  Upon  the  Peloose  River.  'En 
trance  of  Great  Snake  River  and  surrounding  country.'  Tolmie,  in  Lord's 
Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  105,  245.  '  Properly  a  part  of  the  Nez  Perces.  Their  resi 
dence  is  along  the  Nez  Perce  river  and  up  the  Pavilion.'  Parker's  Explor. 
Tour,  p.  310.  In  three  bands;  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pelouse  River;  on  the 
north  bank  of  Snake  River,  thirty  miles  below  the  Pelouse;  and  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Snake  River.  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  pp.  222-3,  and  in  Pac. 
E.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  150-1.  Palouse,  or  Pelouse,  '  reside  on  the  banks 
of  the  Palouse  and  Snake  rivers.'  Mullan's  Rept.,  pp.  18,  49.  'Latribu 
Paloose  appartient  a  la  nation  des  Nez-Perces ....  elle  habite  les  bords  des 
deux  rivieres  des  Nez-perces  et  du  Pavilion.'  De  Smet,  Voy.,  p.  31.  Selloat- 
pallah,  north  of  the  Snake,  near  its  confluence  with  the  Columbia.  Lewis 
and  Clarke's  Map.  Same  as  the  Sewatpalla.  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol. 
i.,  p.  417. 

The  Walla- Wallas  f  occupy  the  country  south  of  the  Columbia  and  about 
the  river  of  that  name.'  Gibbs,  in  Pandosy's  Gram.,  p.  vii.  'A  number  of 
bands  living  usually  on  the  south  side  of  the  Columbia,  and  on  the  Snake 
river  to  a  little  east  of  the  Peluse.'  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  402. 
'Are  on  a  small  stream  which  falls  into  the  Columbia  near  Fort  Nez-perces.' 
Hole's  Ethnog.,  in  V.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  213.  '  Inhabit  the  country  about 
the  river  of  the  same  name,  and  range  some  distance  below  along  the  Co 
lumbia.'  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  p.  310.  'Upon  the  banks  of  the  Columbia, 
below  the  mouth  of  the  Lewis  Fork  are  found  the  Walla-wallas.'  BrowndVs 
Ind.  Races,  p.  535.  '  Oualla-Oualla,  au-dessus  du  fort  des  Nez  Perces.'  Mo- 
fras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  335.  '  Under  this  term  are  embraced  a  number  of 
bands  living  usually  on  the  south  side  of  the  Columbia,  and  on  the  Snake 
river,  to  a  little  east  of  the  Pelouse;  as  also  the  Klikatats  and  Yakamas, 
north  of  the  former.'  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  p.  223.  '  On  both 
sides  of  the  Columbia  river  between  Snake  river  and  Hudson  Bay  fort,  Wal 
la-Walla.'  Dennison,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1857,  p.  374.  Walla  Wallapum. 
Tolmie,  in  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  244-7.  '  Les  Walla-walla  habitent,  sur  la 
riviere  du  merne  nom,  1'un  des  tributaires  de  la  Colombie,  et  leur  pays 
s'etend  aussi  le  long  de  ce  fleuve.'  De  Smet,  Voy.,  p.  30.  Wollaw  Wollah. 
South  side  of  the  Snake,  at  junction  with  the  Columbia.  Lewis  and  Clarke's 
Map.  Wollaolla  and  Wollawalla,  '  on  both  sides  of  Col.,  as  low  as  the  Mus- 
cleshell  rapid,  and  in  winter  pass  over  to  the  Taptul  river.'  Morse's  Rept., 
pp.  369-70.  '  Country  south  of  the  Columbia  and  about  the  river  of  that 
name.'  QiJbbs,  in  Pandosy's  Gram.,  p.  vii.  Walawaltz  nation  about  the  junc 
tion  of  the  Snake  and  Columbia.  On  Walla  Walle  River.  Gass'  Jour.,  pp. 
294-8.  '  On  both  banks  of  the  Columbia,  from  the  Blue  Mountains  to  the 
Dalles.'  Farnham's  Trav.,  p.  151.  Wallah  Wallah.  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  ii.,  p. 
142.  'About  the  river  of  that  name.'  Nicolay's  Ogn.  Ter.,  pp.  143,  151. 
Wallawallahs,  '  reside  along  the  lower  part  of  the  Walla  Walla,  the  low  bot 
tom  of  the  Umatilla  and  the  Columbia,  from  the  mouth  of  Lewis  River  for 
one  hundred  miles  south.'  Palmer's  Jour.,  pp.  58,  124.  '  On  the  borders  of 


THE  CAYUSES  AND  WASCOS.  319 

the"  Wallah  wallah""  and  Columbia.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  64;  Stuart, 
in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1821,  torn,  xii.,  p.  35. 

yThe  Sciatogas  and  Toustchipas  live  on  Canoe  Kiver  (Tukanon  ?),  and  the 
Euotalla  (Touchet?),  the  Akaitchis  '  sur  le  Big-river,'  (Columbia).  Hunt,  in 
Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1821,  torn,  x.,  pp.  74-8.  The  Sciatogas  '  possede  le 
pays  borne  au  sud-est  par  la  Grande-Plaine ;  au  nord,  par  le  Lewis-Elver;  a 
1'ouestpar  la  Columbia;  an  sud  par  1'Oualamat.'  Id.,  1821,  torn,  xii.,  p.  42. 

The  Cayuses  extend  from  John  Day  River  eastward  to  Grande  Eonde 
Valley.  The  Cayuse,  Cailloux,  Waiilatpu,  'country  south  of  the  Sahaptin 
and  Walla  walla.  Their  head-quarters  are  on  the  upper  part  of  Wallawalla 
River.'  Hale's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  214,  map,  p.  197.  'The 
country  belonging  to  the  Cayuse  is  to  the  south  of  and  between  the  Nez 
Perces  and  Walla- Wallas,  extending  from  the  Des  Chutes,  or  Wanwanwi,  to 
the  eastern  side  of  the  Blue  mountains.'  Stevens,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1854,  p. 
218;  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Kept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  416.  '  On  the  west  side  of  the  Blue 
mountains  and  south  of  the  Columbia  liver.1  Thompson,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept., 
1854,  p.  282.  '  Occupy  a  portion  of  the  Walla- Walla  valley.'  Dennison,  in  Id., 
1857,  p.  374;  Cain,  in  Id.,  1859,  pp.  413-14.  '  A  1'ouest  des  Nez-perces  sont 
les  Kayuses.'  De  Smet,  Voy.,  p.  30.  The  Kayouse  dwell  upon  the  Utalla 
or  Emnutilly  River.  Townsend's  Nar.,  p.  122.  'West  of  the  Nez  Perces.' 
Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  p.  309,  and  map.  'Rove  through  the  regions  of 
the  Lewis  branch.'  Greenhow's  Hist.  Ogn.,  p.  30.  'Kayouses.  Pres  du  grand 
detour  de  la  Colombie.'  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  335.  Waiilatpu,  Molele, 
called  also  Willetpoos,  Cayuse,  '  western  Oregon,  south  of  the  Columbia 
river.'  Ludewig,  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  199;  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  417. 
Caaguas  '  inhabit  the  country  bordering  on  Wallawalla  river  and  its  tribu 
taries,  the  Blue  mountains  and  Grand  round.'  Palmer's  Jour.,  pp.  54-6. 
Wyeilat  or  Kyoose,  country  to  the  south  of  Walla  Walla.  Tolmie,  in  Lord's 
Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  244-5.  The  Sky  uses  '  dwell  about  the  waters  of  the  Way- 
leeway  and  the  adjacent  country.'  Irving's  Bonneville's  Adven.,  p.  388. 

The  Willewah  '  reside  on  the  Willewah  river,  which  falls  into  the  Lewis 
river  on  the  S.W.  side,  below  the  forks.'  Morse's  Rept.,  p.  369.  In  Grande 
Ronde  Valley.  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Map;  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i., 
p.  417. 

The  Umatillas  'live  near  the  junction  of  the  TJmatilla  and  Columbia 
rivers.'  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  97.  Umatallow  River  and  country  extending 
thence  westward  to  Dalles.  Tolmie,  in  Id.,  p.  245.  'The  Utillas  occupy  the 
country  along  the  river  bearing  that  name.'  Dennison,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept., 
1857,  p.  374. 

The  Wahowpum  live  '  on  the  N.  branch  of  the  Columbia,  in  different 
bands  from  the  Pishquitpahs;  as  low  as  the  river  Lapage;  the  different  bands 
of  this  nation  winter  on  the  waters  of  Taptul  and  Cataract  rivers.'  Morse's 
Rept.,  p.  370;  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Map.  On  John  Day's  River.  Gibbs,  in  Pac. 
R.R.Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  417. 

The  Wascos  include  all  the  tribes  between  the  Cascade  Range  and  John 
Day  River,  south  of  the  Columbia.  'They  are  known  by  the  name  of 
Wasco  Indians,  and  they  call  their  country  around  the  Dallas,  Wascopam. 
They  claim  the  country  extending  from  the  cascades  up  to  the  falls  of  the 


320  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

Columbia,  the  distance  of  about  fifty  miles.'  Hines'  Voy.,  p.  159.  'The 
Wascos  occupy  a  small  tract  of  country  near  to  and  adjoining  the  Dalles.' 
Dennis'on,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1857,  p.  372.  On  both  sides  of  the  Columbia 
about  the  Dalles  are  the  Wascopams.  Map,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p. 
200.  Eneshur,  Echeloots,  Chillukkitequaw  and  Sinacshop  occupy  the  terri 
tory,  on  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Map;  Morse's  Rept.,  p.  370.  The  Tchipantchick- 
tchick,  Cathlassis,  Iltteka'irnamits,  and  Tchelouits  about  the  Dalles.  Stuart, 
in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1821,  torn,  xii.,  p.  26;  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R. 
RepL,  vol.  i.,  p.  417. 

'The  residence  of  the  Molele  is  (or  was)  in  the  broken  and  wooded 
country  aBout  Mounts  Hood  and  Vancouver.'  Hole's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex. 
Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  214.  The  Mollales  have  their  home  in  the  Willamette  Val 
ley.  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  492. 

'  The  Tairtla,  usually  called  Taigh,  belong ....  to  the  environs  of  the  Des- 
Chutes  River.'  Gibbs,  in  Pandosy's  Gram.,  p.  vii. 

'The  Des  Chutes formerly  occupied  that  section  of  country  between 

the  Dalles  and  the  Tyich  river.'  Dennison,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1857,  p.  373. 

'The  Tyichs. . .  .formerly  occupied  the  Tyich  valley  and  the  country  in 
its  vicinity,  which  lies  about  30  miles  south  of  Fort  Dalles.'  Ib. 

'  The  John  Day  Rivers  occupy  the  country  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
the  river  bearing  that  name.'  Ib. 

'  The  Dog  River,  or  Cascade  Indians  reside  on  a  small  stream  called  Dog 
river,  which  empties  into  the  Columbia  river,  about  half  way  between  the 
Cascades  and  Dalles.'  Id.,  p.  371.  The  Cascades  dwell  'on  the  river  of  that 
name.'  Nicolay's  Ogn.  Ter.,  p.  143. 

The  Yakimas  occupy  the  valley  of  the  Yakima  River  and  its  branches. 
'  The  upper  Yakimas  occupy  the  country  upon  the  Wenass  and  main  branch 
of  the  Yakima,  above  the  forks;  the. Lower  upon  the  Yakima  and  its  tribu 
taries,  below  the  forks  and  along  the  Columbia  from  the  mouth  of  the  Yaki 
ma  to  a  point  three  miles  below  the  Dalles.'  Robie,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1857, 
p.  350.  Three  bands,  Wishhams,  Clickahut,  and  Skien,  along  the  Co 
lumbia.  Id.,  p.  352.  'The  Pshwanwappam  bands,  usually  called  Yakamas, 
inhabit  the  Yakama  River.'  Gibbs,  in  Pandosy's  Gram.,  p.  vii.  Lewis  and 
Clarke's  Chanwappan,  Shaltattos,  Squamaross,  Skaddals,  and  Chimnahpum, 
on  the  Yakima  River.  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept..  vol.  i.,  p.  417.  The  Yakimas 
'  are  divided  into  two  principal  bands,  each  made  up  of  a  number  of  villages, 
and  very  closely  connected;  one  owning  the  country  on  the  Nahchess  and  Low 
er  Yakima,  the  other  are  upon  the  Wenass  and  main  branch  above  the  forks .' 
Id.,  p.  407.  Yackamans,  northern  banks  of  the  Columbia  and  on  the  Yack- 
amans  river.  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  143.  On  the  Yakima.  Hale's  Etlmog. , 
U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  213.  '  South  of  the  Long  Rapids,  to  the  conflu 
ence  of  Lewis'  river  with  the  Columbia,  are  the  Yookoomans.'  Parker's  Ex- 
plor.  Tour,  p.  313.  Pishwanwapum  (Yakima),  in  Yakimaw  or  Eyakema  Val 
ley.  Tolmie,  in  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  244-7.  Called  Stobshaddat  by  the 
Sound  Indians.  Id.,  p.  245. 

The  Chimnapums  are  '  on  the  N.W.  side  of  Col.  river,  both  above  and 
below  the  entrance  of  Lewis'  r.  and  the  Taptul  r.'  Morse's  Rept.,  p.  370;  Lewis 
and  Clarke's  Map.  The  'Chunnapuns  and  Chanwappans  are  between  the 


L 


THE  KLIKETATS.  321 

Cascade  Range  and  the  north  branch  of  the  Columbia.'  Nicolay's  Ogn.  Ter.t 
p.  143. 

The  Pisquitpahs,  '  on  the  Muscleshell  rapids,  and  on  the  N.  side  of  the 
Columbia,  to  the  commencement  of  the  high  country;  this  nation  winter  on 
the  waters  of  the  Taptul  and  Cataract  rivers.'  Morse's  Rept.,  p.  370. 

The  Sokulks  dwell  north  of  the  confluence  of  the  Snake  and  Columbia. 
Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  p.  351,  and  map;  Morse's  Eept.,  p.  369.  At  Priest 
Rapids.  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  E.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  i.,  p.  417. 

The  Kliketats  live  in  the  mountainous  country  north  of  the  Cascades,  on 
both  sides  of  the  Cascade  Range,  and  south  of  the  Yakimas.  Klikatats  *  in 
habit,  properly,  the  valleys  lying  between  Mounts  St.  Helens  and  Adams,  but 
they  have  spread  over  districts  belonging  to  other  tribes,  and  a  band  of  them 
is  now  located  as  far  south  as  the  Umpqua.'  Gibbs,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol. 
i.,  p.  403.  '  Roilroilpam  is  the  Klikatat  country,  situated  in  the  Cascade 
mountains  north  of  the  Columbia  and  west  of  the  Yakamas.'  Gibbs,  in  Pan- 
dosy's  Gram.,  p.  vii.  'Wander  in  the  wooded  country  about  Mount  St. 
Helens.'  Hole's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  213.  '  In  the  vicinity  of 
the  mouth  of  the  Columbia.'  Catlin's  N.  Am.  Ind.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  113.  Klikatats. 
'  Au-dessus  du  fort  des  Nez-Perces.'  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  335.  '  The 
Kliketat,  a  scion  from  the  Sahaptans,  who  now  dwell  near  Mount  Rainier 
and  have  advanced  towards  the  falls  of  the  Columbia.'  Scouler,  in  Lond.  Geog. 
Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  225.  On  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Map  the  Kliketat  territory 
is  occupied  by  the  Chanwappan,  Shallatos,  Squamaros,  Skaddals,  Shahalas. 
Also  in  Morse's  Rept.,  p.  372.  Whulwhypum,  or  Kliketat,  '  in  the  wooded 
and  prairie  country  between  Vancouver  and  the  Dalles.'  Tolmie,  in  Lord's 
Nat.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  245. 

The  Weyehhoo  live  on  the  north  side  of  the  Columbia,  near  Chusattea 
River.  (Kliketat.)  Gass'  Jour.,  p.  288. 

VOL.  I.   21 


CHAPTER  IV. 

CALIFORNIANS. 

GBOUPAL  DIVISIONS;  NOETHEBN,  CENTBAL,  AND  SOUTHEEN  CALIFOENIANS,  AND 
SHOSHONES— COUNTEY  OF  THE  CALIFOENIANS— THE  KLAMATHS,  MODOCS, 
SHASTAS,  PITT  RIVEB  INDIANS,  EUEOCS,  CAHROCS,  HOOPAHS,  WEEYOTS, 

TOLEWAS,  AND  ROGUE  RiVEB  INDIANS  AND  THEIE  CUSTOMS THE  TfiHA- 

MAS,  POMOS,  UKIAHS,  GUALALAS,  SONOMAS,  PETALUMAS,  NAPAS,  SUSCOLS, 
SUISUNES,  TAMALES,  KAEQUINES,  OHLONES,  TULOMOS,  THAMIENS,  OL- 
CHONES,  RUMSENS,  EsCELENS,  AND  OTHEES  OF  CENTEAL  CALIFOENIA — THE 
CAHUILLAS,  DIEGUENOS,  ISLANDEES,  AND  MISSION  RANCHEEIAS  OF 
SOUTHEEN  CALIFORNIA — THE  SNAKES  OB  SHOSHONES  PEOPEE,  UTAHS, 
BANNOCKS,  WASHOES  AND  OTHEE  SHOSHONE  NATIONS. 

Of  the  seven  groups  into  which  this  work  separates  the 
nations  of  western  North  America,  the  CALIFORNIANS  con 
stitute  the  third,  and  cover  the  territory  between  latitude 
43°  and  32°30',  extending  back  irregularly  into  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  There  being  few  distinctly  marked 
families  in  this  group,  I  cannot  do  better  in  subdividing 
it  for  the  purpose  of  description  than  make  of  the 
Californians  proper  three  geographical  divisions,  namely, 
the  Northern  Californians,  the  Central  Californians,  and 
the  Southern  Californians.  The  Shoshones,  or  fourth  di 
vision  of  this  group,  who  spread  out  over  south-eastern 
Oregon,  southern  Idaho,  and  the  whole  of  Nevada  and 
Utah,  present  more  distinctly  marked  family  character 
istics,  and  will  therefore  be  treated  as  a  family. 

The  same  chain  of  mountains,  which,  as  the  Cascade 
Range,  divides  the  land  of  the  Columbians,  holds  its 
course  steadily  southward,  and  entering  the  territory  of 

(322) 


HOME  OF  THE  CALIFOKNIANS.  323 

the  Califorman  group  forms,  under  the  name  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  the  partition  between  the  Californians  proper 
and  the  Shoshones  of  Idaho  and  Nevada.  The  influence 
of  this  range  upon  the  climate  is  also  here  manifest,  only 
intenser  in  degree  than  farther  north.  The  lands  of  the 
Northern  Californians  are  well  watered  and  wooded, 
those  of  the  central  division  have  an  abundance  of  water 
for  six  months  in  the  year,  namely,  from  November  to 
May,  and  the  soil  is  fertile,  yielding  abundantly  under 
cultivation.  Sycamore,  oak,  cotton- wood,  willow,  and 
white  alder,  fringe  the  banks  of  the  rivers ;  laurel,  buck 
eye,  manzanita,  and  innumerable  berry-bearing  bushes, 
clothe  the  lesser  hills;  thousands  of  acres  are  annually 
covered  with  wild  oats;  the  moist  bottoms  yield  heavy 
crops  of  grass ;  and  in  summer  the  valleys  are  gorgeous 
with  wild-flowers  of  every  hue.  Before  the  blighting 
touch  of  the  white  man  was  laid  upon  the  land,  the 
rivers  swarmed  with  salmon  and  trout;  deer,  ante 
lope,  and  mountain  sheep  roamed  over  the  foot-hills, 
bear  and  other  carnivora  occupied  the  forests,  and 
numberless  wild  fowl  covered  the  lakes.  Decreasing  in 
moisture  toward  the  tropics,  the  climate  of  the  Southern 
Californians  is  warm  and  dry,  while  the  Shoshones,  a 
large  part  of  whose  territory  falls  in  the  Great  Basin,  are 
cursed  with  a  yet  greater  dryness. 

The  region  known  as  the  Great  Basin,  lying  between 
the  eastern  base  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Wahsatch 
Mountains,  and  stretching  north  and  south  from  latitude 
33°  to  42°,  presents  a  very  different  picture  from  the  land 
of  the  Californians.  This  district  is  triangular  in  shape, 
the  apex  pointing  toward  the  south,  or  southwest;  from 
this  apex,  which,  round  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Califor 
nia,  is  at  tide  level,  the  ground  gradually  rises  until,  in 
central  Nevada,  it  reaches  an  altitude  of  about  five  thou 
sand  feet,  and  this,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  local  de 
pressions,  is  about  the  level  of  the  whole  of  the  broad 
part  of  the  basin.  The  entire  surface  of  this  plateau  is 
alkaline.  Being  in  parts  almost  destitute  of  water,  there 
is  comparatively  little  timber;  sage-brush  and  grease- 


324  CALIFOKNIANS. 

wood  being  the  chief  signs  of  vegetation,  except  at  rare  in 
tervals  where  some  small  stream  struggling  against  almost 
universal  aridity,  supports  on  its  banks  a  little  scanty 
herbage  and  a  few  forlorn-looking  cotton- wood  trees. 
The  northern  part  of  this  region,  as  is  the  case  with  the 
lands  of  the  Californians  proper,  is  somewhat  less  des 
titute  of  vegetable  and  animal  life  than  the  southern 
portion  which  is  indeed  a  desert  occupied  chiefly  by  rab 
bits,  prairie-dogs,  sage-hens,  and  reptiles.  The  desert  of 
the  Colorado,  once  perhaps  a  fertile  bottom,  extending 
northward  from  the  San  Bernardino  Mountains  one 
hundred  and  eighty  miles,  and  spreading  over  an  area  of 
about  nine  thousand  square  miles,  is  a  silent  unbroken 
sea  of  sand,  upon  whose  ashy  surface  glares  the  mid-day 
sun  and  where  at  night  the  stars  draw  near  through  the 
thin  air  and  brilliantly  illumine  the  eternal  solitude. 
Here  the  gigantic  cereus,  emblem  of  barrenness,  rears  its 
contorted  form,  casting  wierd  shadows  upon  the  moon 
lit  level.  In  such  a  country,  where  in  winter  the  keen 
dust-bearing  blast  rushes  over  the  unbroken  desolate 
plains,  and  in  summer  the  very  earth  cracks  open  with 
intense  heat,  what  can  we  expect  of  man  but  that  he 
should  be  distinguished  for  the  depths  of  his  low  attain 
ment. 

But  although  the  poverty  and  barrenness  of  his 
country  account  satisfactorily  for  the  low  type  of  the 
inhabitant  of  the  Great  Basin,  yet  no  such  excuse  is 
offered  for  the  degradation  of  the  native  of  fertile  Cali 
fornia.  On  every  side,  if  we  except  the  Shoshone,  in 
regions  possessing  far  fewer  advantages  than  California, 
we  find  a  higher  type  of  man.  Among  the  Tuscaroras, 
Cherokees,  and  Iroquois  of  the  Atlantic  slope,  barbarism 
assumes  its  grandest  proportions;  proceeding  west  it 
bursts  its  fetters  in  the  incipient  civilization  of  the  Gila ; 
but  if  we  continue  the  line  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific  we 
find  this  intellectual  dawn  checked,  and  man  sunk  almost 
to  the  utter  darkness  of  the  brute.  Coming  southward  from 
the  frozen  land  of  the  Eskimo,  or  northward  from  tropi 
cal  Darien  we  pass  through  nations  possessing  the  neces- 


TKIBAL  DIVERSITY.  325 

saries  and  even  the  comforts,  of  life.  Some  of  them  raise 
and  grind  wheat  and  corn,  many  of  them  make  pottery 
and  other  utensils,  at  the  north  they  venture  out  to  sea 
in  good  boats  and  make  Behemoth  their  spoil.  The 
Californians  on  the  other  hand,  comparatively  speaking, 
wear  no  clothes,  they  build  no  houses,  do  not  cultivate 
the  soil,  they  have  no  boats,  nor  do  they  hunt  to  any  con 
siderable  extent ;  they  have  no  morals  nor  any  religion 
worth  calling  such.  The  missionary  Fathers  found  a 
virgin  field  whereon  neither  god  nor  devil  was  worshiped. 
We  must  look,  then,  to  other  causes  for  a  solution  of  the 
question  why  a  nobler  race  is  not  found  in  California; 
such  for  instance  as  revolutions  and  migrations  of  nations, 
or  upheavals  and  convulsions  of  nature,  causes  arising 
before  the  commencement  of  the  short  period  within 
which  we  are  accustomed  to  reckon  time. 

There  is,  perhaps,  a  greater  diversity  of  tribal  names 
among  the  Californians  than  elsewhere  in  America;  the 
whole  system  of  nomenclature  is  so  complicated  and  con 
tradictory  that  it  is  impossible  to  reduce  it  to  perfect 
order.  There  are  tribes  that  call  themselves  by  one 
name,  but  whose  neighbors  call  them  by  another ;  tribes 
that  are  known  by  three  or  four  names,  and  tribes  that 
have  no  name  except  that  of  their  village  or  chief.1 
Tribal  names  are  frequently  given  by  one  writer  which 
are  never  mentioned  by  any  other;2  nevertheless  there 
are  tribes  on  whose  names  authorities  agree,  and  though 

1  '  Sometimes  there  is  a  tribal  name  for  all  who  speak  the  same  language; 
sometimes  none,  and  only  names  for  separate  villages;  sometimes  a  name  for 
a  whole  tribe  or  family,  to  which  is  prefixed  a  separate  word  for  each  dialect, 
which  is  generally  co-extensive  with  some  valley.     Of  the  first,  an  instance 
is  found  in  the  Cahrocs,  on  the  Klamath,  who  are  a  compact  tribe,  with  no 
dialects;  of  the  second,  in  the  large  tribe  on  the  lower  Klamath,  who  have  also 
no  dialects,  and  yet  have  no  name,  except  for  each  village ;  of  the  third,  in  the 
great  family  of  the  Pomos  on  Russian  river,  who  have  many  dialects,  and  a 

name  for  each,  — as  Ballo  Ki  Pomos,  Cahto  Pomos,  etc Some  remnants 

of  tribes  have  three  or  four  names,  all  in  use  within  a  radius  of  that  number 
of  miles;  some,  again,  are  merged,  or  dovetailed,  into  others;  and  some  never 
had  a  name  taken  from  their  own  language,  but  have  adopted  that  given  them 
by  a  neighbor  tribe,  altogether  different  in  speech.'    Powers,  in  Overland 
Monthly.,  vol.  viii.,  p.  328. 

2  The  natives  '  when  asked  to  what  tribe  they  belong,  give  the  name  of 
their  chief,  which  is  misunderstood  by  the  inquirer' to  be  that  of  the  tribe  it- 

'  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  30. 


326  CALIFORNIANS. 

the  spelling  differs,  the  sound  expressed  in  these  instances 
is  about  the  same.  Less  trouble  is  experienced  in  dis 
tinguishing  the  tribes  of  the  northern  division,  which 
is  composed  of  people  who  resemble  their  neighbors  more 
than  is  the  case  in  central  California,  where  the  mean 
ingless  term  '  Indians,'  is  almost  universally  applied  in 
speaking  of  them.3 

Another  fruitful  source  of  confusion  is  the  indefinite 
nickname  'Digger'  which  is  applied  indiscriminately  to 
all  the  tribes  of  northern  and  middle  California,  and  to 
those  of  Nevada,  Utah,  and  the  southern  part  of  Oregon. 
These  tribes  are  popularly  known  as  the  California!! 
Diggers,  Washoe  Diggers,  Shoshone  Diggers  of  Utah,  etc., 
the  signification  of  the  term  pointing  to  the  digging  of  roots, 
and  in  some  parts,  possibly,  to  burrowing  in  the  ground. 
The  name  is  seemingly  opprobrious,  and  is  certainly  no 
more  applicable  to  this  people  than  to  many  others.  By 
this  territorial  division  I  hope  to  avoid,  as  far  as  possible, 
the  two  causes  of  bewilderment  before  alluded  to ;  neither 
treating  the  inhabitants  of  an  immense  country  as  one 
tribe,  nor  attempting  to  ascribe  distinct  names  and  idio- 
osyncrasies  to  hundreds  of  small,  insignificant  bands, 
roaming  over  a  comparatively  narrow  area  of  country 
and  to  all  of  which  one  description  will  apply. 

THE  NORTHERN  CALIFORNIANS,  the  first  tribal  group, 
or  division,  of  which  I  shall  speak,  might,  not  impro 
perly,  be  called  the  Klamath  family,  extending  as  they 
do  from  Rogue  River  on  the  north,  to  the  Eel  River 
south,  and  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  the  Californian 
boundary  east,  and  including  the  Upper  and  Lower  Kla 
math  and  other  lakes.  The  principal  tribes  occupying 

3  '  Every  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  of  country  seems  to  have  been  occupied 
by  a  number  of  small  lodges  or  septs,  speaking  a  different  language  or  very 
divergent  dialect.'  Taylor,  in  Bancroft's  Hand-book  Almanac,  1864,  p.  29. 
Beechey  counted  eleven  different  dialects  in  the  mission  of  San  Carlos. 
Voyar/e,  vol.  ii.,  p.  73.  'Almost  every  15  or  20  leagues,  you  find  a  distinct 
dialect;  so  different,  that  in  no  way  does  one  resemble  the  other.'  Boscana, 
in  Robinson's  Life  in  Gal.,  p.  240.  '  From  the  San  Joaquin  northward  to  the 
Klamath  there  are  some  hundreds  of  small  tribes.'  Henley,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept., 
1854,  p.  304. 


NATIONS  OF  NOKTHEKN  CALIFORNIA.  327 

this  region  are  the  Kfamaihsf  who  live  on  the  head 
waters  of  the  river  and  on  the  shores  of  the  lake  of  that 
name ;  the  Modocs?  on  Lower  Klamath  Lake  and  along 
Lost  River ;  the  Shastas,  to  the  south-west  of  the  lakes, 
near  the  Shasta  Mountains ;  the  Pitt  River  Indians;  the 
Eurocs  on  the  Klamath  River  between  Weitspek  and  the 
coast ;  the  Cahrocs 6  on  the  Klamath  River  from  a  short 
distance  above  the  junction  of  the  Trinity  to  the  Kla 
math  Mountains;  the  Hoopahs  in  Hoopah  Valley  on  the 
Trinity  near  its  junction  with  the  Klamath;  numer 
ous  tribes  on  the  coast  from  Eel  River  and  Humboldt  Bay 
north,  such  as  the  Weeyots?  Watties,  Tolewclhs,  etc.,  and 
the  Rogue  River  Indians?  on  and  about  the  river  of  that 
name.9 

The  Northern  Californians  are  in  every  way  superior 
to  the  central  and  southern  tribes.10     Their  physique  and 

4  Hale  calls  them  the  Lutuami,  or  Tlamatl,  and  adds,  '  the  first  of  these 
names  is  the  proper  designation  of  the  people  in  their  own  language.     The 
second  is  that  by  which  they  are  known  to  the  Chinooks,  and  through  them, 
to  the  whites.'  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  218. 

5  '  There  true  name  is  Moadoc — a  word  which  originated  with  the  Shas- 
teecas,  who  applied  it  indefinitely  to  all  wild  Indians  or  enemies. '  Powers,  in 
Overland  Monthly,  1873,  vol.  x.,  p.  535.     'Also  called  Moahtockna.'  Taylor, 
in  Gal.  Farmer,  June  22,  1860.     '  The  word  Modoc  is  a  Shasta  Indian  word; 
and  means  all  distant,  stranger,  or  hostile  Indians,  and  became  applied  to 
these  Indians  by  white  men  in  early  days,  by  hearing  the  Shastas  speak  of 
them.'  Stede,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1861,  p.  121. 

6  Speaking  of  Indians  at  the  junction  of  the  Salmon  and  Klamath  rivers : 
'  They  do  not  seem  to  have  any  generic  appellation  for  themselves,  but  apply 
the  terms  "Kahruk,"  up,  and  "  Youruk,"  down,  to  all  who  live  above  or 
below  themselves,  without  discrimination,  in  the  same  manner  that  the  others 
(at  the  junction  of  the  Trinity)  do  "Peh-tsik,"  and  "Poh-lik."'  Gibbs,  iii 
Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  151. 

7  'The  Bay  (Humboldt)  Indians  call  themselves,  as  we  were  informed, 
Wish-osk;  and  those  of  the  hills  Te-ok-a-wilk;  but  the  tribes  to  the  north*- 
ward  denominate  both  those  of  the  Bay  and  Eel  river,  We-yot,  or  Walla-wal- 
loo.'  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  133. 

8  They  are  also  called  Lototen  or  Tututamy,  Totutime,  Toutouni,  Tootoo- 
ton,  Tutoten,  Tototin,  Tototutna,  etc. 

9  For  further  particulars  as  to  location  of  tribes,  see  notes  on  TKIBAI» 
BOUNDARIES,  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 

10  Mr.  Gibbs,  speaking  of  the  tribes  seen  on  the  Klamath  and  Trinity 
rivers,  says :   '  In  person  these  people  are  far  superior  to  any  we  had  met 
below;  the  men  being  larger,  more  muscular,  and  with  countenances  denot 
ing  greater  force  and  energy  of  character,  as  well  as  intelligence.     Indeed, 
they  approach  rather  to  the  races  of  the  plains,  than  to  the  wretched  ' '  diggers" 
of  the  greater  part  of  California.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  140.     'The 
Indians  in  the  northern  portion  of  California  and  in  Oregon,  are  vastly  supe 
rior  in  stature  and  intellect  to  those  found  in  the  southern  part  cf  California.' 
Hubbard,  in  Golden  Era,  1856.     The  Indians  on  the  Trinity  '  are  of  another 
tribe  and  nature  from  those  along  the  Sacramento.'  Kelly's  Excursion,  vol. 


323  CALIFOKNIANS. 

character,  in  fact,  approach  nearer  to  the  Oregon  nations 
than  to  the  people  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin 
(valleys.  This  applies  more  particularly  to  the  inland 
tribes.  The  race  gradually  deteriorates  as  it  approaches 
the  coast,  growing  less  in  stature,  darker  in  color,  more 
and  more  degraded  in  character,  habits,  and  religion. 
The  Rogue  River  Indians  must,  however,  be  made  an 
exception  to  this  rule.  The  tendency  to  improve  toward 
the  north,  which  is  so  marked  among  the  Californians, 
holds  good  in  this  case ;  so  that  the  natives  on  the  ex 
treme  north-west  coast  of  the  region  under  consideration, 
are  in  many  respects  superior  to  the  interior  but  more 
.southerly  tribes. 

The  Northern  Californians  round  the  Klamath  lakes, 
and  the  Klamath,  Trinity,  and  Rogue  rivers,  are  tall, 
muscular,  and  well  made,31  with  a  complexion  varying 
from  nearly  black  to  light  brown,  in  proportion  to  their 
proximity  to,  or  distance,  from  the  ocean  or  other  large 
bodies  of  water;  their  face  is  large,  oval,  and  heavily 
made,  with  slightly  prominent  cheek-bones;  nose  well 
(set  on  the  face  and  frequently  straight,  and  eyes 
(Which,  when  not  blurred  by  ophthalmia,  are  keen  and 
bright.  The  women  are  short  and  some  of  them  quite 
handsome,  even  in  the  Caucasian  sense  of  the  word;12 

ii.,  p.  166.,  Speaking  of  the  Wallies,  they,  '  in  many  respects  differ  from  their 
brethren  in  the  middle  and  lower  counties  of  the  State.  They  are  lighter 
colored  and  more  intelligent.'  Johnson,  in  Overland  Monthly,  1869,  vol.  ii., 
p.  536. 

11  '  The  males  are  tall,  averaging  in  height  abcut  five  feet  eight  inches,  are 
well  proportioned,  athletic,  and  possess  the  power  of  endurance  to  a  great 
degree.'  flubbard,  in  Golden  Era,  March  1856.  '  The  people  here  (Rogue 
Biver)  were  larger  and  stronger  than  those  in  South  California,  but  not 
handsomer.'  P/eijfer's  Second  Journ.,  p.  317.  Speaking  of  Indians  on  the 
Klamath  River,  '  their  stature  is  a  trifle  under  the  American;  they  have  well- 
sized  bodies,  erect  and  strong-knit.'  Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  viii., 
p.  328.  On  the  upper  Trinity  they  are  '  large  and  powerful  men,  of  a 
swarthier  complexion,  fierce  and  intractable.'  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch., 
vol.  iii.,  p.  129.  Near  Mount  Shasta,  '  a  fine-looking  race,  being  much 
better  proportioned  than  those  more  to  the  northward,  and  their  features 
more  regular.'  WUJces'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  v.,  254.  At  Klamath 
Lake,  'well-grown  and  muscular.'  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  277.  On  the 
Trinity,  'majestic  in  person,  chivalrous  in  bearing.'  Kelly's  Excursion,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  166. 

!2  In  the  vicinity  of  Klamath  lake  '  the  squaws  are  short  in  comparison 
with  the  men,  and,  for  Indians  have  tolerably  regular  features.'  Lord's 
Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  277.  In  the  Rogue  River  region  'some  of  them  are  quite 


PHYSICAL  PECULIARITIES.  329 

and  although  their  beauty  rapidly  fades,  yet  they  do 
not  in  old  age  present  that  unnaturally  wrinkled  and 
shriveled  appearance,  characteristic  of  the  Central  Cali- 
fornians.  This  description  scarcely  applies  to  the  people 
inhabiting  the  coast  about  Redwood  Creek,  Humboldt 
Bay,  and  Eel  River,  who  are  squat  and  fat  in  figure, 
rather  stoutly  built,  with  large  heads  covered  with  coarse 
thick  hair,  and  repulsive  countenances,  who  are  of  a 
much  darker  color,  and  altogether  of  a  lower  type  than 
the  tribes  to  the  east  and  north  of  them.13 

Dress   depends   more    on   the    state    of   the   climate 

pretty,  usually  well-formed,  handsomely  developed,  small  features,  and  very 
delicate  and  well-turned  bands  and  feet They  are  graceful  in  their  move 
ments  and  gestures, . . .  .always  timid  and  modest.'  Hubbard,  in  Golden  Era, 
March,  1850.  On  the  Klamath  River,  '  with  their  smooth,  hazel  skins,  oval 
faces,  plump  and  brilliant  eyes,  some  of  the  young  maidens, — barring  the  tat 
tooed  chins, — have  a  piquant  and  splendid  beanty.'  Powers,  in  Overland 
Monihly,  vol.  viii.,  329.  On  the  Klamath  and  Trinity  Rivers,  many  of  the 
women  'were  exceedingly  pretty;  having  large  almond-shaped  eyes,  some 
times  of  a  hazel  color,  and  with  the  red  showing  through  the  cheeks.  Their 
figures  were  full,  their  chests  ample ;  and  the  younger  ones  had  well-shaped 
busts,  and  rouiidedlimbs.'  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft'sArch,  vol.  iii.,  p.  140.  But  as 
to  the  beauty  of  women  tastes  never  agree ;  Mr  Kelly  in  his  Excursion  to  CaL,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  167,  speaking  of  a  band  of  '  noble-looking  Indians '  which  he  met  near 
Trinity  River,  says  that  they  were  '  accompanied  by  a  few  squaws,  who, 
strange  to  say,  in  this  latitude  are  ugly,  ill-favoured,  stunted  in  stature,  lumpy 
in  figure,  and  awkward  in  gait, '  and  concerning  the  Rogue  River  Indians  a 

lady  states  that  '  among  the  women there  were  some  extremely  clumsy 

figures.'  Pfdffer's  Second  Journ.,  p.  317.  The  Pit-River  Indian  girls  '  have  the 
smallest  and  prettiest  feet  and  hands  I  have  ever  seen.'  Miller's  Life  amongst 
the  Modocs,  p.  374. 

13  At  Crescent  City,  Mr  Powers  saw  some  '  broad-faced  squaws  of  an 
almost  African  blackness;'  the  Patawats  in  the  vicinity  of  Mad  River  and 
Humboldt  Bay  are  '  blackskinned,  pudgy  in  stature;  well  cushioned  with 
adipose  tissue;'  at  Redwood  Creek  'like  most  of  the  coast  tribes  they  are 
very  dark  colored,  squat  in  stature,  rather  fuller-faced  than  the  interior  Ind 
ians.'  Porno,  MS.^At  Trinidad  Bay  'their  persons  were  in  general  indiffer 
ently,  but  stoutly  made,  of  a  lower  stature  than  any  tribe  of  Indians  we  had 
before  seen.'  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  246.  -  At  the  mouth  of  Eel  River  the 
Weeyots  '  are  generally  repulsive  in  countenance  as  well  as  filthy  in  person. 
....Their  heads  are  disproportionately  large;  their  figures,  though  short, 
strong  and  well  developed.'  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft'sArch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  ]27.  Carl 
Meyer  names  the  Indians  he  saw  at  Trinidad  Bay,'  Allequas,  or  "Wood-Indians 
(Holzindianer).  I  do  not  find  the  name  anywhere  else,  and  judging  by  his 
description,  they  appear  to  differ  considerably  from  the  natives  seen  in  the 
same  vicinity  by  Vancouver  or  Mr  Powers;  he,  Meyer,  says;  'Sie  sind  von 
unserm  Wuchse,  stark  und  beleibt,  kraftige  Gestalten.  Hire  Hant  ist  wenig 
zimmet  oder  lohfarbig,  eher  weisslich,  wie  die  der  antisischen  Inkas  gewesen 
sein  soil;  bei  der  jugend  und  besonders  beim  weiblichen  Geschlechte  schim- 
mert  oft  ein  sanftes  Roth  auf  den  Wangen  hervor.  Ihr  Kopf  ist  wenig 
gedriickt,  die  Stirn  hoch,  der  Gesichtswinkel  gegen  80  Grad,  die  Nase  romisch 
gekriimmt,  das  Auge  gross  in  wenig  quadratisch  erweiterteu  AugenhohJen 
und  intelligent,  die  Lippen  nicht  aufgetrieben,  das  Kinn  oval,  und  Han4-» 
und  Fusse  klein.'  Nach  dem  Sacramento,  p.  215, 


330  CALIFORNIANS. 

than  on  their  own  sense  of  decency.  The  men  wear 
a  belt,  sometimes  a  breech-clout,  and  the  women  an 
apron  or  skirt  of  deer-skin  or  braided  grass;  then 
they  sometimes  throw  over  the  shoulders  a  sort  of 
cloak,  or  robe,  of  marten  or  rabbit  skins  sewn  together, 
deer-skin,  or,  among  the  coast  tribes,  seal  or  sea-otter  skin. 
When  they  indulge  in  this  luxury,  however,,  the  men 
usually  dispense  with  all  other  covering.14  Occasionally 
we  find  them  taking  great  pride  in  their  gala  dresses  and 
sparing  no  pains  to  render  them  beautiful.  /  The  Modocs, 
for  instance,  took  large-sized  skins,  and  inlaid  them  with 
brilliant-colored  duck-scalps,  sewed  on  in  various  figures ; 
others,  again,  embroidered  their  aprons  with  colored 
grasses,  and  attached  beads  and  shells  to  a  deep  fringe 
falling  from  the  lower  part.15  A  bowl-shaped  hat,  or 

14  At  Pitt  River  they  '  have  no  dress  except  a  buckskin  thrown  around 
them.'      The  Shastas  and  their  Neighbors,  MS.      Near  Mount  Shasta  'they 
can  scarcely  be  said  to  wear  any  dress,  except  a  mantle  of  deer  or  wolf 
skin.      A  few  of  them  had  deer-skins  belted  around  their  waists,  with 
a  highly  ornamented  girdle.'   Wilkes'  Nar.,  in   U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  v.,  p. 
255.     Near  Pitt  Eiver,  the  Indians  were  nearly  naked.  Abbott,  in  Pac.  E. 
E.  Eept.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  61.  y'At  Trinidad  Bay  '  their  clothing  was  chiefly  made 
of  the  skins  of  land  animals,  with  a  few  indifferent  small  skins  of  the 
sea-otter.'    Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  247.     'The  men,  however,  do  not 
wear  any  covering,  except  the  cold  is  intense,  when  indeed  they  put  upon 
their  shoulders  the  skins  of  sea-wolves,    otters,    deer,  or  other  animals.' 
Maur elk's  Jour.,  p.  16.     'They  were  clothed,  for  the  most  part,  in  skins.' 
Greenhoio's  Hist.  Ogn.,  p.  118.     On  Smith  River  they  were  'in  a  complete 
state  of  nature,  excepting  only  a  kind  of  apology  for  an  apron,  worn  by  the 
women,  sometimes  made  of  elk's  skin,  and  sometimes  of  grass.'  Pfeiffer's 
Second  Journ.,  p.  313.     Among  the  Weeyots  at  Eel  River  the  men    '  wore 
a  deer-skin  robe  over  the  shoulder,  and  the  women  a  short  petticoat  of  fringe.' 
Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  in.,  127.      On  Klamath  River   their  only 
dress  was  the  fringed  petticoat,  or  at  most,  a  deerskin  robe  thrown  back  over 

the  shoulders,  in  addition.  Id.,  p.  141.  'The  primitive  dress  of  the  men  is 
simply  a  buckskin  girdle  about  the  loins;  of  the  "women,  a  chemise  of  the 
same  material,  or  of  braided  grass,  reaching  from  the  breast  to  the  knees. ' 
Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  viii.,  329.  '  Were  quite  naked  excepting 
the  maro.'  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  V.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  v.,  p.  253.  The  Klamath 
Lake  Indians  'wear  little  more  than  the  breech-cloth.'  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p. 
277.  '  They  were  all  well  dressed  in  blankets  and  buckskin.'  Abbott,  in  Pac. 
E.  E.  Eept.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  70.v  Carl  Meyer,  speaking  of  a  tribe  he  names  Alle- 
quas,  at  Trinidad  Bay,  says:  'der  Mann  geht  im  Sommer  ganz  nackt,  in 
Winter  tragt  er  eine  selbst  gegerbte  Hirsch-  oder  Rehdecke  iiber  die  Schul- 
tern.'  '  Die  Allequas-Weiber  tragen  im  Sommer  von  Bast-schniiren  oder 
von  Rehfellstreifen,  im  Winter  von  Pelzwerk  oder  Ganseflaum  verfertigte 
Schiirzen,  die  bis  auf  die  Knie  reichen.'  Nach  dem  Sacramento,  p.  217,  219. 
'  The  Klamaths,  during  the  summer  go  naked,  in  winter  they  use  the  skins 
of  rabbits  and  wild  fowl  for  a  covering.'  Thompson,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1854, 
p.  283. 

15  '  An  Indian  will  trap  and  slaughter  seventy-five  rabbits  for  one  of  these 
robes,  making  it  double,  with  fur  inside  and  out.'  Powers1  Porno,  MS, 


DRESS  IN  NOKTHEKN  CALIFOKNIA.  331 

cap,  of  basket-work,  is  usually  worn  by  the  women,  in 
making  which  some  of  them  are  very  skillful.  This  hat 
is  sometimes  painted  with  various  figures,  and  sometimes 
interwoven  with  gay  feathers  of  the  woodpecker  or  blue 
quail.16  The  men  generally  go  bare-headed,  their  thick 
hair  being  sufficient  protection  from  sun  and  weather. 
In  the  vicinity  of  the  lakes,  where,  from  living  constantly 
among  the  long  grass  and  reeds,  the  greatest  skill  is 
acquired  in  weaving  and  braiding,  mocassins  of  straw  or 
grass  are  worn.17  At  the  junction  of  the  Klamath  and 
Trinity  rivers  their  mocassins  have  soles  of  several  thick 
nesses  of  leather.18  The  natives  seen  by  Maurelle  at  Trini 
dad  Bay,  bound  their  loins  and  legs  down  to  the  ankle 
with  strips  of  hide  or  thread,  both  men  and  women. 

The  manner  of  dressing  the  hair  varies;  the  most 
common  way  being  to  club  it  together  behind  in  a  queue, 
sometimes  in  two,  worn  down  the  back,  or  occasionally 
in  the  latter  case  drawn  forward  over  the  shoulders. 
The  queue  is  frequently  twisted  up  in  a  knot  on  the  back 
of  the  head — en  castanna — as  Maurelle  calls  it.  Occa 
sionally  the  hair  is  worn  loose  and  flowing,  and  some  of 
the  women  cut  it  short  on  the  forehead.  It  is  not  un 
common  to  see  wreaths  of  oak  or  laurel  leaves,  feathers, 
or  the  tails  of  gray  squirrels  twisted  in  the  hair;  indeed, 
from  the  trouble  which  they  frequently  take  to  adorn 
their  coiffure,  one  would  imagine  that  these  people  were 
of  a  somewhat  aesthetic  turn  of  mind,  but  a  closer  ac 
quaintance  quickly  dispels  the  illusion.  On  Eel  River 
some  cut  all  the  hair  short,  a  custom  practiced  to  some 
extent  by  the  Central  Californians.19 

16  Fremont's  Explor.  Ex.,  p.  204;  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch,  vol.  iii.,  pp. 
107,  127;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  282. 

"  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  282;  Fremont's  Explor.  Ex.,  p.  204. 

18  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  142. 

19  Maurelle' s  Jour.,  p.  17;    Gibbs,   in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,   vol.   iii.,   pp. 
127,  142;  Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  viii.,  p.  329;   Pfei/er's  Second 
Journ.,  p.  317.     'Die  Allequas  (Trinidad  Bay)  haben  starkes,  ziemlich  ge- 
schmeidiges  Haar,  das  der  Manner  and  der  Kinder  wird  bis  auf  einen  Zoll 
Lange  regelmassig  abgebrannt,  so  dass  sie  das  Aussehen  von  Tituskopfen 
erhalten.     Zuweilen  sieht  man  die  Manner  auch-  mit  einem  ziemlich  langen, 
durch  eine  harzige  Fliissigkeit  gesteiften,  auf gerichteten  Zopf ,  der  als.Schmuck 
betrachtet,  bei  festlichen  Anlassen,  oder  iin  Kriege  mit  rothen  oder  weissen 
Federn  geziert  wird,  und  alsdann  dem  Schopf  eines  Wiedehopfs  gleicht.' 


332  CALIFORNIANS. 

As  usual  these  savages  are  beardless,  or  nearly  so.20 
Tattooing,  though  not  carried  to  any  great  extent,  is 
universal  among  the  women,  and  much  practiced  by  the 
men,  the  latter  confining  this  ornamentation  to  the  breast 
and  arms.  The  women  tattoo  in  three  blue  lines,  ex 
tending  perpendicularly  from  the  centre  and  corners  of 
the  lower  lip  to  the  chin.  In  some  tribes  they  tattoo 
the  arms,  and  occasionally  the  back  of  the  hands.  As 
they  grow  older  the  lines  on  the  chin,  which  at  first  are 
very  faint,  are  increased  in  width  and  color,  thus  gradu 
ally  narrowing  the  intervening  spaces.  Now,  as  the 
social  importance  of  the  female  is  gauged  by  the  width 
and  depth  of  color  of  these  lines,  one  might  imagine 
that  before  long  the  whole  chin  would  be  what  Southey 
calls  "blue,  darkly,  deeply,  beautifully  blue ;"  but  fashion 
ordains,  as  in  the  lip-ornament  of  the  Thlinkeets,  that 
the  lines  should  be  materially  enlarged  only  as  the 
charms  of  youth  fade,  thus  therewith  gauging  both  age 
and  respectability.21  In  some  few  tribes,  more  especially 

Meyer,  Nach  dem  Sacramento,  p.  215.  '  Both  men  and  women  part  their  hair 
in  the  middle,  the  men  cut  it  square  on  the  neck  and  wear  it  rather  long, 
the  women  wear  theirs  long,  plaited  in  two  braids,  hanging  down  the  back. ' 
The  Shastas  and  their  Neighbors,  MS. 

20  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  127.     'Barthaare  haben  sie, 
wie  alle  Indianer  Nord-Amerikas,  nur  wenig;  sie  werden  ausgerupft,  und 
nur  in  der  Trauer  stehen  gelassen.'  Meyer,  Nach  dem  Sacramento,  pp.  215-16. 

21  The  men  tattoo  so  that  they  may  'be  recognized  if  stolen  by  Modocs.' 
'With  the  women  it  is  entirely  for  ornament.'  The  Shastas  and  their  Neigh 
bors,  MS.    At  Rogue  River  the  women  '  were  tattooed  on  the  hands  and  arms 
as  well  as  the  chin.'   Pfeiffer's  Second  Journ.,  p.  3J7.      At  Trinidad  Bay 
'  they  ornamented  their  lower  lip  with  three  perpendicular  columns  of  punctu 
ation,  one  from  each  corner  of  the  mouth  and  one  in  the  middle,  occupying 
three  fifths  of  the  chin.'    Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  247.     Maurelle  says 
the  same,  and  adds  that  a  space  is  left  between  each  line,  '  which  is  much 
larger  in  the  young  than  in  the  older  women,  whose  faces  are  generally  cov 
ered  with  punctures.'  Jour.  p.  17.     At  Mad  River  and  Hnmboldt  Bay,  the 
same,  'and  also  lines  of  small  dots  on  the  backs  of  their  hands.'  Powers' 
Porno,  MS.     At  mouth  of  Eel  River  'both  sexes  tattoo:  the  men  on  their 
arms  and  breasts;  the  women  from  inside  the  under  lip  down  to  and  be 
neath  the  chin.     The  extent  of  this  disfigurement  indicates  to  a  certain 
extent,  the  age  and  condition  of  the  person.'     'In  the  married  women  the 
lines  are  extended  up  above  the  corners  of  the  mouth.'  Gibbs,  in  SchoolcrafVs 
Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  127,  142.     '  I  have  never  observed  any  particular  figures  or 
designs  upon  their  persons;  but  the  tattooing  is  generally  on  the  chin,  though 
sometimes  on  the  wrist  and  arm.     Tattooing  has  mostly  been  on  the  persons 
of  females,  and  seems  to  be  esteemed  as  an  ornament,  not  apparently  indi 
cating  rank  or  condition.'  Johnston,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  223. 
The  squaws  among  the  Cahrocs  on  the  Klamath  '  tattoo,  in  blue,  three  narrow 
fern-leaves,  perpendicularly  on  the  chin.'     '  For  this  purpose  they  are  said  to 


FACIAL  OBNAMENTATION.  333 

in  the  vicinity  of  the  lakes,  the  men  paint  themselves 
in  various  colors  and  grotesque  patterns.  Among  the 
Modocs  the  women  also  paint.  Miller  says  that  when  a 
Modoc  warrior  paints  his  face  black  before  going  into 
battle  it  means  victory  or  death,  and  he  will  not  survive 
a  defeat.22  Both  men  and  women  pierce  the  dividing 
'cartilage  of  the  nose,  and  wear  various  kinds  of  orna 
ments  in  the  aperture.  Sometimes  it  is  a  goose-quill, 
three  or  four  inches  long,  at  others,  a  string  of  beads  or 
shells.  Some  of  the  more  northerly  tribes  wear  large 
round  pieces  of  wood  or  metal  in  the  ears.23  Maurelle, 
in  his  bucolic  description  of  the  natives  at  Trinidad  bay, 
says  that  aon  their  necks  they  wear  various  fruits,  in 
stead  of  beads."24  Vancouver,  who  visited  the  same 
place  nearly  twenty  years  later,  states  that  "all  the  teeth 

employ  soot,  gathered  from  a  stove,  mingled  with  the  juice  of  a  certain  plant.' 
Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  viii.,  p.  329.  Among  the  Shastys  the  women 
'are  tattooed  in  lines  from  the  mouth  to  the  chin.'  Hale's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  8. 
Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  218.  Among  the  Allequas  at  Trinidad  bay:  '  Die  Madchen 
werdeii  im  fiinften  Jahre  mit  einem  schwarzen  Streifen  von  beiden  Mund- 
winkeln  bis  unter  das  Kinn  tattowirt,  welchem  Striche  dann  all  fiinf  Jahre 
ein  parallellaufeuder  beigefiigt  wird,  so  das  man  an  diesen  Zeichnungen 
leicht  das  Alter  jeder  Indianerin  uberseheu  kann ....  Die  Manner  bemalen 
sich  bei  besondern  Anlassen  mit  einem  Tannenfirniss,  den  sie  selbst  bereiten, 
das  Gesicht,  und  zeichnen  allerlei  geheimnissvolle  Figuren  und  Verzierungen 
auf  Wange,  Nase  und  Stirn,  indem  sie  mit  einem  holzernen  Stabchen  den 
noch  weichen  Firniss  auf  den  einzelnen  Stellen  von  der  Haut  wegheben. 
Meyer,  Nach  dem  Sacramento,  p.  216. 

22  'I  never  saw  two  alike.'    The  Shastas  and  their  Neighbors,  MS.    At 
Klamath  lake  they  are  '  painted  from  their  heads  to  their  waists  all  colours 
and  patterns.'  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  277.     The  Modocs  'paint  themselves 
with  various  pigments  formed  from  rotten  wood,  different  kinds  of  earth, 
&c.'  Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  x.,  p.  536.     Kane  'took  a  sketch  of  a 
Chastay  (Shasta)  female  slave  (among  the  Chinooks)  the  lower  part  of  whose 
face,  from  the  corners  of  the  mouth  to  the  ears  and  downwards,  was  tattooed 
of  a  bluish  colour.     The  men  of  this  tribe  do  not  tattoo,  but  paint  their  faces 
like  other  Indians.'  Wand.,  p.  182.    Ida  Pfeiffer,  Second  Journ.,  p.  315,  saw 
Indians  on  Smith  river,  who  painted  their  faces  '  in  a  most  detestable  man 
ner.     They  first  smeared  them  with  fish  fat  and  then  they  rubbed  in  the 
paint,  sometimes  passing  a  finger  over  it  in  certain  lines,  so  as  to  produce 
a  pattern.'  Miller's  Life  Amongst  the  Modocs,  p.  361. 

23  'No  taste  in  bead  work.'    The  Shastas  and  their  Neighbors,  MS.     'In 
den  Ohren  tragen  die  Allequas  (at  Trinidad  bay)  Schmucksachen,  welche 
sie   theils  von  den  Weissen  erhalten,  theils  aus  Holz  nachahmen;  auch 
sind  diese  Gegenstande  zuweilen  durch  Steinchen  ersetzt,  die  talismanische 
Krafte  besitzen  sollen.     Nur  die  in  den  fernen  Bergen  wohnenden  tragen 
holzerne  oder  auch  eiserne  Kinge  in  den  Nasenwandungen.'  Meyer,  Nach  dem 
Sacramento,  p.  216;  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  142;  Pfeiffer'a 
Second  Journ.,  p.  317;  Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  x.,  p.  537;  School* 
craft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  plate  xiv. 

*24  Maurelle' s  Jour.,  p.  18. 


334  CALIFORNIANS. 

of  both  sexes  were  by  some  process  ground  uniformly 
down  horizontally  to  the  gums,  the  women  especially, 
carrying  the  fashion  to  an  extreme,  had  their  teeth  re 
duced  even  below  this  level."25 

Here  also  we  see  in  their  habitations  the  usual  sum 
mer  and  winter  residences  common  to  nomadic  tribes. 
The  winter  dwellings,  varying  with  locality,  are  princi 
pally  of  two  forms — conical  and  square.  Those  of  the 
former  shape,  which  is  the  most  widely  prevailing,  and 
obtains  chiefly  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Klamath  lakes  and 
on  the  Klamath  and  Trinity  rivers,  are  built  in  the  man 
ner  following:  A  circular  hole,  from  two  to  five  feet  in 
depth,  and  varying  in  diameter,  is  dug  in  the  ground. 
Round  this  pit,  or  cellar,  stout  poles  are  sunk,  which 
are  drawn  together  at  the  top  until  they  nearly  meet; 
the  whole  is  then  covered  with  earth  to  the  depth  of 
several  inches.  A  hole  is  left  in  the  top,  which  serves 
as  chimney  arid  door,  a  rude  ladder  or  notched  pole  com 
municating  with  the  cellar  below,  and  a  similar  one  with 
the  ground  outside.  This,  however,  is  only  the  com 
moner  and  lighter  kind  of  conical  house.  Many  of 
them  are  built  of  much  heavier  timbers,  which,  instead 
of  being  bent  over  at  the  top,  and  so  forming  a  bee-hive- 
shaped  structure,  are  leaned  one  against  the  other. 

The  dwellings  built  by  the  Hoopahs  are  somewhat  bet 
ter.  The  inside  of  the  cellar  is  walled  up  with  stone; 
round  this,  and  at  a  distance  of  a  few  feet  from  it,  an 
other  stone  wall  is  built  on  the  surface  level,  against 
which  heavy  beams  or  split  logs  are  leaned  up,  meeting 
at  the  top,  or  sometimes  the  lower  ends  of  the  poles  rest 
against  the  inside  of  the  wall,  thus  insuring  the  inmates 
against  a  sudden  collapse  of  the  hut.26 

25  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  247. 

26  '  The  lodges  are  dome-shaped;  like  beaver-houses,  an  arched  roof  covers 
a  deep  pit  sunk  in  the  ground,  the  entrance  to  which  is  a  round  hole.'  Lord's 
Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  278.     'Large  round  huts,  perhaps  20  feet  in  diameter,  with 
rounded  tops,  on  which  was  the  door  by  which  they  descended  into  the  in 
terior.'  Fremont's  Explor.  Ex,,  p.  204.     '  The  Modoc  excavates  a  circular  space 
from  two  to  four  feet  deep,  then  makes  over  it  a  conical  structure  of  pun 
cheons,  which  is  strongly  braced  up  with  timbers,  frequently  hewn  and  a 
foot  square.'  Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  x.,  p.  536;  Id.,  vol.  ix.,  p. 
156.     '  The  style  was  very  substantial,  the  large  poles  requiring  five  or  six 


CALIFORNIAN  HABITATIONS.  335 

The  square  style  of  dwelling  is  affected  more  by  the 
coast  tribes,  although  occasionally  seen  in  the  interior. 
A  cellar,  either  square  or  round,  is  dug  in  the  same 
manner  as  with  the  conical  houses.  The  sides  of  the 
hole  are  walled  with  upright  slabs,  which  project  some 
feet  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  whole  struct 
ure  is  covered  with  a  roof  of  sticks  or  planks,  sloping 
gently  outward,  and  resting  upon  a  ridge-pole.  The 
position  of  the  door  varies,  being  sometimes  in  the  roof, 
sometimes  on  a  level  with  the  ground,  and  occasionally 
high  up  in  the  gable.  Its  shape  and  dimensions,  how 
ever,  never  alter;  it  is  always  circular,  barely  large 
enough  to  admit  a  full-grown  man  on  hands  and  knees. 
When  on  the  roof  or  in  the  gable,  a  notched  pole  or 
mud  steps  lead  up  to  the  entrance;  when  on  the  ground, 
a  sliding  panel  closes  the  entrance.  In  some  cases,  the 
excavation  is  planked  up  only  to  a  level  with  the  ground. 
The  upper  part  is  then  raised  several  feet  from  the  sides, 
leaving  a  bank,  or  rim,  on  which  the  inmates  sleep ;  occa 
sionally  there  is  no  excavation,  the  house  being  erected 
on  the  level  ground,  with  merely  a  small  fire-hole  in  the 
centre.  The  floors  are  kept  smooth  and  clean,  and  a 
small  space  in  front  of  the  door,  paved  with  stones  and 
swept  clean,  serves  as  gossiping  and  working  ground  for 
the  women.27 

men  to  lift.'  Gibbs,  in  SchoolcrafV  s  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  175.  '  Have  only  an 
opening  at  the  summit.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  261.  On  the  inside 
of  the  door  they  frequently  place  a  sliding  panel.  'The  Kailtas  build  wig 
wams  in  a  conical  shape — as  all  tribes  on  the  Trinity  do — but  they  excavate 
no  cellars.'  Powers'  Porno,  MS.  See  full  description  of  dwellings,  by  John 
ston,  in  SchoolcrafVs  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  223.  The  entrance  is  a  'round  hole 
just  large  enough  to  crawl  into,  which  is  on  a  level  with  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  or  is  cut  through  the  roof.'  Johnson,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  ii..  p. 
536;  Miller's  Life  Amonyst  the  Modocs,  p.  377. 

27  '  Built  of  plank,  rudely  wrought. '  The  roofs  are  not  '  horizontal  like 
those  at  Nootka,  but  rise  with  a  small  degree  of  elevation  to  a  ridge  in  the  mid 
dle.'  Vancouver' sVoy.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  241-2.  Well  built,  of  boards;  often  twenty 
feet  square ;  roof  pitched  over  a  ridge-pole ;  ground  usually  excavated  3  or  4 
feet;  some  cellars  floored  and  walled  with  stone.  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch., 
vol.  iii.,  p.  140.  'The  dwellings  of  the  Hoopas  were  built  of  large  planks, 
about  1%  inches  thick,  from  two  to  four  feet  wide,  and  from  six  to  twelve 
feet  in  length.'  Trinity  Journal,  April,  1857.  'The  floors  of  these  huts  are 
perfectly  smooth  and  clean,  with  a  square  hole  two  feet  deep  in  the  centre, 
in  which  they  make  their  fire.'  Maurelle's  Jour.,  p.  17.  'The  huts  have 
never  but  one  apartment.  The  fire  is  kindled  in  the  centre,  the  smoke  es 
caping  through  the  crevices  in  the  roof.'  Hubbard,  in  Golden  Era,  March,  1856. 


336  CALIFOKNIANS. 

The  temporary  summer  houses  of  the  Northern  Cali- 
fornians  are  square,  conical,  and  inverted-bowl-shaped 
huts;  built,  when  square,  by  driving  light  poles  into  the 
ground  and  laying  others  horizontally  across  them ;  when 
conical,  the  poles  are  drawn  together  at  the  top  into  a 
point;  when  bowl-shaped,  both  ends  of  the  poles  are 
driven  into  the  ground,  making  a  semi-circular  hut. 
These  frames,  however  shaped,  are  covered  with  neatly 
woven  tule  matting,28  or  with  bushes  or  ferns.29 

The  Californians  are  but  poor  hunters;  they  prefer 
the  snare  to  the  bow  and  arrow.  Yet  some  of  the  moun 
tain  tribes  display  considerable  dexterity  in  the  chase. 
To  hunt  the  prong-buck,  the  Klamath  fastens  to  each 
heel  a  strip  of  ermine-skin,  and  keeping  the  herd  to  the 
windward,  he  approaches  craftily  through  the  tall  grass 
as  near  as  possible,  then  throwing  himself  on  his  back, 
or  standing  on  his  head,  he  executes  a  pantomime  in  the 
air  with  his  legs.  Naturally  the  antelope  wonder,  and 
being  cursed  with  curiosity,  the  simple  animals  gradually 
approach.  As  soon  as  they  arrive  within  easy  shooting- 
distance,  down  go  the  hunter's  legs  and  up  comes  the 
body.  Too  late  the  antelope  learn  their  mistake ;  swift 
as  they  are,  the  arrow  is  swifter;  and  the  fattest  buck 
pays  the  penalty  of  his  inquisitiveness  with  his  life. 
The  Yeeards,  at  Humboldt  Bay,  construct  a  slight  fence 
from  tree  to  tree,  into  which  inclosure  elk  are  driven, 
the  only  exit  being  by  a  narrow  opening  at  one  end, 
where  a  pole  is  placed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  force  the 

The  houses  of  the  Eurocs  and  Cahrocs  '  are  sometimes  constructed  on  the 
level  earth,  but  oftener  they  excavate  a  round  cellar,  four  or  five  feet  deep, 
and  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  in  diameter.'  Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  viii., 
p.  530;  Meyer,  Nach  dem  Sacramento,  p.  220;  The  Shastas  and  their  neigh 
bors,  MS. 

28  Kit  Carson  says  of  lodges  seen  near  Klamath  lake :  '  They  were  made 
of  the  broad  leaves  of  the  swamp  flag,  which  were  beautifully  and  intricately 
woven  together.'  Peters'  Life  of  Carson,  p.  263.     '  The  wilcl  sage  furnishes 
them  shelter  in  the  heat  of  summer,  and,  like  the  Cayote,  they  burrow  in 
the  earth  for  protection  from  the  inclemencies  of  winter.'   Thompson,  in  Ind. 
Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  p.  283.     '  Their  lodges  are  generally  mere  temporary  struct 
ures,  scarcely  sheltering  them  from  the  pelting  storm.'  Palmer,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
Kept.,  1854,  p.  262. 

29  'Slightly  constructed,   generally  of  poles.'  Emmons,   in  Schoolcraft's 
Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  218.     'The  earth  in  the  centre  scooped  out,  and  thrown 
up  in  a  low,  circular  embankment.'  Turner,  in  Overland  Monthly,  p.  xi.,  p.  21. 


HUNTING  AND  FTSHING.  337 

animal  to  stoop  in  passing  under  it,  when  its  head  is 
caught  in  a  noose  suspended  from  the  pole.  This  pole  is 
dragged  down  by  the  entangled  elk,  but  soon  he  is  caught 
fast  in  the  thick  undergrowth,  and  firmly  held  until  the 
hunter  comes  up.30  Pitfalls  are  also  extensively  used  in 
trapping  game.  A  narrow  pass,  through  which  an  elk 
or  deer  trail  leads,  is  selected  for  the  pit,  which  is  ten  or 
twelve  feet  deep.  The  animals  are  then  suddenly  stam 
peded  from  their  feeding-grounds,  and,  in  their  wild 
terror,  rush  blindly  along  the  trail  to  destruction.31  The 
bear  they  seldom  hunt,  and  if  one  is  taken,  it  is  usually 
by  accident,  in  one  of  their  strong  elk-traps.  Many  of 
the  tribes  refuse  to  eat  bear-meat,  alleging  that  the  flesh 
of  a  man-eating  animal  is  unclean ;  but  no  doubt  Bruin 
owes  his  immunity  as  much  to  his  teeth  and  claws  as  to 
his  uncleanness. 

Fishing  is  more  congenial  to  the  lazy  taste  of  these 
people  than  the  nobler  but  more  arduous  craft  of  hunting; 
consequently  fish,  being  abundant,  are  generally  more 
plentiful  in  the  aboriginal  larder  than  venison.  Several 
methods  are  adopted  in  taking  them.  Sometimes  a  dam 
of  interwoven  willows  is  constructed  across  a  rapid  at 
the  time  when  salmon  are  ascending  the  river;  niches 
four  or  five  feet  square  are  made  at  intervals  across  the 
dam,  in  which  the  fish,  pressed  on  by  those  behind, 
collect  in  great  numbers  and  are  there  speared  or  netted 
without  mercy.  Much  ingenuity  and  labor  are  required 
to  build  some  of  the  larger  of  these  dams.  Mr  Gibbs 
describes  one  thrown  across  the  Klamath,  where  the 

so  Powers'  Porno,  MS. 

31  'The  rocks  supply  edible  shell-fish.'  Schumacher's  Oregon  Antiquities, 
MS.  '  The  deer  and  elk  are  mostly  captured  by  driving  them  into  traps  and 
pits.'  'Small  game  is  killed  with  arrows,  and  sometimes  elk  and  deer  are 
dispatched  in  the  same  way.'  Hubbard,  in  Golden  Era,  April,  1856.  'The 
elk  they  usually  take  in  snares.'  Pfeiffer's  Second  Journ.,  p.  317.  '  The 
mountain  Indians  subsisted  largely  on  game,  which  of  every  variety  was 
very  abundant,  and  was  killed  with  their  bows  and  arrows,  in  the  use  of 
which  they  were  very  expert.'  Wiley,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Ecpt.,  1867,  p.  497.  'Die 
Indianer  am  Pittflusse  rnachen  Graben  oder  Locher  von  circa  5  Kubikfuss, 
bedecken  diese  mit  Zweigen  und  Grass  ganz  leicht,  sodass  die  Thiere,  wenn 
sie  dariiber  gejagt  werden,  hinein  fallen  und  nicht  wieder  herauskonnen. 
Wilde  Ganse  f angen  sie  mit  Netzen ....  Nur  selten  mogen  Indianer  den  grau- 
en  Bar  jagen.'  Wimmel,  Calif 'ornien,  p.  181;  The  Shastas  and  their  Neigh* 
bors,  MS. 


338  CALIFORNIANS. 

river  was  about  seventy-five  yards  wide,  elbowing  up 
the  stream  in  its  deepest  part.  It  was  built  by  first 
driving  stout  posts  into  the  bed  of  the  river,  at  a  dis 
tance  of  some  two  feet  apart,  having  a  moderate  slope, 
and  supported  from  below,  at  intervals  of  ten  or  twelve 
feet,  by  two  braces ;  the  one  coming  to  the  surface  of  the 
water,  the  other  reaching  to  the  string- pieces.  These 
last  were  heavy  spars,  about  thirty  feet  in  length,  and 
secured  to  each  post  by  withes.  The  whole  dam  was 
faced  with  twigs,  carefully  peeled,  and  placed  so  close 
together  as  to  prevent  the  fish  from  passing  up.  The 
top,  at  this  stage  of  the  water,  was  two  or  three  feet 
above  the  surface.  The  labor  of  constructing  this  wrork 
must,  with  the  few  and  insufficient  tools  of  the  natives, 
liave  been  immense.  Slight  scaffolds  were  built  out  be 
low  it,  from  which  the  fish  were  taken  in  scoop-nets; 
.they  also  employ  drag-nets  and  spears,  the  latter  having 
a  movable  barb,  which  is  fastened  to  the  shaft  with  a 
.string  in  order  to  afford  the  salmon  play.32  On  Rogue 
River,  spearing  by  torch-light — a  most  picturesque  sight 
—is  resorted  to.  Twenty  canoes  sometimes  start  out 
together,  each  carrying  three  persons — two  women,  one 
to  row  and  the  other  to  hold  the  torch,  and  a  spearman. 
.Sometimes  the  canoes  move  in  concert,  sometimes  inde 
pendently  of  each  other;  one  moment  the  lights  are 
seen  in  line,  like  an  army  of  fire-flies,  then  they  are 
scattered  over  the  dark  surface  of  the  water  like  ignes 
fatui.  The  fish,  attracted  by  the  glare,  rise  to  the  sur 
face,  where  they  are  transfixed  by  the  unerring  aim  of 
the  spearmen.  Torchlight  spearing  is  also  done  by  driv 
ing  the  fish  down  stream  in  the  day-time  by  dint  of 
much  wading,  yelling,  and  howling,  and  many  splashes, 
.until  they  are  stopped  by  a  dam  previously  erected  lower 

32  Schumacher,  Oregon  Antiquities,  MS.,  classifies  their  ancient  arrow 
-.and  spear  points  thus:  Long  barbs  with  projections,  short  barbs  with  pro 
jections,  and  long  and  short  barbs  without  projections.  '  The  point  of  the 
spear  is  composed  of  a  small  bone  needle,  which  sits  in  a  socket,  and  pulls 
out  as  soon  as  the  fish  starts.  A  string  connecting  the  spear  handle  and  the 
center  of  the  bone  serves,  when  pulled,  to  turn  the  needle  cross  wise  in  the 
wound.'  Taylor,  in  Cal.  Farmer,  March  8,  1861;  Schookraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii., 
p.  146. 


FISHING  BY  NIGHT  ON  THE  KLAMATH.  339 

down ;  another  dam  is  then  built  above,  so  that  the  fish 
cannot  escape.  At  night  fires  are  built  round  the  edge 
of  the  enclosed  space,  and  the  finny  game  speared  from 
the  bank.33  Some  tribes  on  the  Klamath  erect  platforms 
over  the  stream  on  upright  poles,  on  which  they  sleep 
and  fish  at  the  same  time.  A  string  leads  from  the  net 
either  to  the  fisherman  himself  or  to  some  kind  of  alarm ; 
and  as  soon  as  a  salmon  is  caught,  its  floundering  im 
mediately  awakens  the  slumberer.  On  the  sea-shore 
smelts  are  taken  in  a  triangular  net  stretched  on  two 
slender  poles;  the  fisherman  wades  into  the  water  up  to 
his  waist,  turns  his  face  to  the  shore,  and  his  back  to  the 
incoming  waves,  against  whose  force  he  braces  himself 
with  a  stout  stick,  then  as  the  smelts  are  washed  back 
from  the  beach  by  the  returning  waves,  he  receives  them 
in  his  net.  The  net  is  deep,  and  a  narrow  neck  con 
nects  it  with  a  long  network  bag  behind ;  into  this  bag 
the  fish  drop  when  the  net  is  raised,  but  they  cannot 
return.  In  this  manner  the  fisherman  can  remain  for 
some  time  at  his  post,  without  unloading. 

Eels  are  caught  in  traps  having  a  funnel-shaped  en 
trance,  into  which  the  eels  can  easily  go,  but  which  closes 
on  them  as  soon  as  they  are  in.  These  traps  are  fastened 
to  stakes  and  kept  down  by  weights.  Similar  traps  are 
used  to  take  salmon. 

When  preserved  for  winter  use,  the  fish  are  split  open 
at  the  back,  the  bone  taken  out,  then  dried  or  smoked. 
Both  fish  and  meat,  when  eaten  fresh,  are  either  broiled 
on  hot  stones  or  boiled  in  water-tight  baskets,  hot  stones 
being  thrown  in  to  make  the  water  boil.  Bread  is  made 
of  acorns  ground  to  flour  in  a  rough  stone  mortar  with 
a  heavy  stone  pestle,  and  baked  in  the  ashes.  Acorn- 
flour  is  the  principal  ingredient,  but  berries  of  various 
kinds  are  usually  mixed  in,  and  frequently  it  is  seasoned 

33  The  Shastas  and  their  Neighbors,  MS.;  Hublard,  in  Golden  Era,  April, 
1856;  Wiley,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1867,  p.  497.  'In  spawning-time  the  fish 
school  up  from  Clear  Lake  in  extraordinary  numbers,  so  that  the  Indians 
have  only  to  put  a  slight  obstruction  in  the  river,  when  they  can  literally 
shovel  them  out.'  Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  x.,  p.  537;  Schumacher's 
Oregon  Antiquities,  MS. 


340  CALIFOENIANS. 

with  some  high-flavored  herb.  A  sort  oT  pudding  is 
also  made  in  the  same  manner,  but  is  boiled  instead  of 
baked. 

They  gather  a  great  variety  of  roots,  berries,  and  seeds. 
The  principal  root  is  the  camas,34  great  quantities  of 
which  are  dried  every  summer,  and  stored  away  for  winter 
provision.  Another  root,  called  kice,  or  Jcace?5  is  much 
sought-after.  Of  seeds  they  have  the  wocus™  and  sev 
eral  varieties  of  grass-seeds.  Among  berries  the  huckle 
berry  and  the  manzanita  berry  are  the  most  plentiful.37 
The  women  do  the  cooking,  root  and  berry  gathering, 
and  all  the  drudgery. 

The  winter  stock  of  smoked  fish  hangs  in  the  family 
room,  sending  forth  an  ancient  and  fish-like  smell. 
Roots  and  seeds  are,  among  some  of  the  more  northerly 
tribes,  stored  in  large  wicker  boxes,  built  in  the  lower 
branches  of  strong,  wide-spreading  trees.  The  trunk  of 
the  tree  below  the  granary  is  smeared  with  pitch  to  keep 
away  vermin.37  The  Modocs  are  sometimes  obliged  to 
cache  their  winter  hoard  under  rocks  and  bushes ;  the 
great  number  of  their  enemies  and  bad  character  of 
their  ostensibly  friendly  neighbors,  rendering  it  unsafe 
for  them  to  store  it  in  their  villages.  So  cunningly  do 
they  conceal  their  treasure  that  one  winter,  after  an  un 
usually  heavy  fall  of  snow,  they  themselves  could  not 
find  it,  and  numbers  starved  in  consequence.38 

Although  the  Northern  Californians  seldom  fail  to 


34  'The   camas  is  a  bulbus  root,  shaped  much  like  an  onion.'   Miller's 
Life  Amongst  the  Modocs,  p.  22. 

35  '  A  root  about  an  inch  long,  and  as  large  as  one's  little  finger,  of  a  bit 
ter-sweetish  and  pungent  taste,  something  like  ginseng. '  Powers,  in  Overland 
Monthly,  vol.  x.,  p.  537. 

36  '  An  aquatic  plant,  with  a  floating  leaf,  very  much  like  that  of  a  pond- 
lily,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  a  pod  resembling  a  poppy-head,  full  of  farina 
ceous  seeds.'  Ib.     See  also  Meyer,  Nach  dem  Sacramento,  p.  222.     'Their 
principal  food  is  the  kainas  root,  and  the  seed  obtained  from  a  plant  growing 
in  the  marshes  of  the  lake,  resembling,  before  hulled,  a  broom-corn  seed.' 
Palmer,  in  Ind.  A/.  Kept.,  1854,  p.  263. 

37  The  Klamaths  '  subsist  upon  roots  and  almost  every  living  thing  with 
in  their  reach,  not  excepting  reptiles,  crickets,  ants,  etc.'  Thompson,  in  Ind. 
Aff.  Kept.,  1854,  p.  283;  Heintzelman,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1857,  p.  391;  Rose- 
borough's  letter  to  the  author,  MS. 

38 'Turner,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  xi.,  p.  24. 


WAR  AND  WEAPONS.  341 

take  a  cold  bath  in  the  morning,  and  frequently  bathe 
at  intervals  during  the  day,  yet  they  are  never  clean.39 
The  Northern  Calfornians  are  not  of  a  very  war 
like  disposition,  hence  their  weapons  are  few,  being 
confine-el  chiefly  to  the  bow  and  arrow.40  The  bow 
is  about  three  feet  in  length,  made  of  yew,  cedar,  or 
some  other  tough  or  elastic  wood,  and  generally  painted. 
The  back  is  flat,  from  an  inch  and  a  half  to  two  inches 
wide,  and  covered  with  elk-sinews,  which  greatly  add 
both  to  its  strength  and  elasticity;  the  string  is  also  of 
sinew.  The  bow  is  held  horizontally  when  discharged, 
instead  of  perpendicularly  as  in  most  countries.  The 
arrows  are  from  two  to  three  feet  long,  and  are  made 
sometimes  of  reed,  sometimes  of  light  wood.  The  points, 
which  are  of  flint,  obsidian,  bone,  iron,  or  copper,  are 
ground  to  a  very  fine  point,  fastened  firmly  into  a  short 
piece  of  wood,  and  fitted  into  a  socket  in  the  main  shaft, 
so  that  on  withdrawing  the  arrow  the  head  will  be  left 
in  the  wound.  The  feathered  part,  which  is  from  five 
to  eight  inches  long,  is  also  sometimes  a  separate  piece 
bound  on  with  sinews.  The  quiver  is  made  of  the  skin 
of  a  fox,  wild-cat,  or  some  other  small  animal,  in  the 
same  shape  as  when  the  animal  wore  it,  except  at  the 
tail  end,  where  room  is  left  for  the  feathered  ends  of 
arrows  to  project.  It  is  usually  carried  on  the  arm.*1 

39  At  Rogue  River,  '  the  men  go  in  the  morning  into  the  river,  but,  like 
the  Malays,  bring  all  the  dirt  out  on.  their  skins  that  they  took  in.'  Pfeiffer's 
Second  Journ.,  p.  317.     At  Pitt  River  they  are  'disgusting  in  their  habits.' 
Abbott,  in  Pac.  R.  E.  Kept.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  61;  The  Shastas  and  their  Neighbors, 
MS.     '  Of  the  many  hundreds  I  have  seen,  there  was  not  one  who  still  ob 
served  the  aboriginal  mode  of  life,  that  had  not  a  sweet  breath.     This  is 
doubtless  due  to  the  fact  that,  before  they  became  civilized,  they  ate  their 
food  cold.'  Powers'  Porno,  MS.     'They  always  rise  at  the  first  dawn  of  day, 
and  plunge  into  the  river.'  Hubbard,  in  Golden  Era,  March,  1856.     'Their 
persons  are  unusually  clean,  as  they  use  both  the  sweat-house  and  the  cold- 
bath  constantly.'  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  142X  'Mit  Tages- 
anbruch  begibt  sich  der  Allequa  (Trinidad  Bay)  in  jeder  Jahrenseit  zur 
nahen  Quelle,  wo  er  sich  am  ganzen  Leibe  wa'scht  und  in  den  Strahlen  der 
aufsteigenden  Sonne  trocknen  lasst.'    Meyer,  Nach  dem  Sacramento,  p.  221; 
fioseborough' s  letter  to  the  author,  MS. 

40  Carl  Meyer,  after  describing  the  bow,  adds:  'Fernere  Waffen  der  Alle- 
quas  sind:  das  Obsidian-Beil  oder  Tomahawk,  die  Keule,  die  Lanze  und  der 
Wurfspiess.'  Nach  dem  Sacramento,  p.  218.     This  statement,  I  think,  may 
be  taken  with  some  allowance,  as  nowhere  else  do  I  find  mention  of  a  toma 
hawk  being  used  by  the  Calif ornians. 

41  Schumacher,    Oregon  Antiquities,  MS.,  speaking  of  an  ancient  spear- 


342  CALIFORNIANS. 

Mr  Powers  says:  " doubtless  many  persons  who  have 
seen  the  flint  arrow-heads  made  by  the  Indians,  have 
wondered  how  they  succeeded  with  their  rude  imple 
ments,  in  trimming  them  down  to  such  sharp,  thin  points, 
without  breaking  them  to  pieces.  The  Veeards — and 
probably  other  tribes  do  likewise — employ  for  this  pur 
pose  a  pair  of  buck-horn  pincers,  tied  together  at  the 
point  with  a  thong.  They  first  hammer  out  the  arrow 
head  in  the  rough,  and  then  with  these  pincers  carefully 
nip  off  one  tiny  fragment  after  another,  using  that  in 
finite  patience  which  is  characteristic  of  the  Indian, 
spending  days,  perhaps  weeks,  on  one  piece.  There  are 
Indians  who  make  arrows  as  a  specialty,  just  as  there 
are  others  who  concoct  herbs  and  roots  for  the  healing 
of  men."42  The  Shastas  especially  excelled  in  making  ob 
sidian  arrow-heads ;  Mr  Wilkes  of  the  Exploring  Expe 
dition  notices  them  as  being  u  beautifully  wrought,"  and 
Lyon,  in  a  letter  to  the  American  Ethnological  Society, 
communicated  through  Dr  E.  H.  Davis,  describes  the 
very  remarkable  ingenuity  and  skill  which  they  display 

point,  says,  '  the  pointed  teeth  show  it  to  have  been  a  very  dangerous 
weapon.'  Poseborough's  letter  to  the  author,  MS.  On  the  Klamath  River, 
'  among  the  skins  used  for  quivers,  I  noticed  the  otter,  wild-cat,  fisher, 
fawn,  grey  fox  and  others.'  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  141. 
Near  Mt  Shasta,  '  bows  and  arrows  are  very  beautifully  made :  the  former 
are  of  yew,  and  about  three  feet  long ....  backed  very  neatly  with  sinew, 
and  painted ....  The  arrows  are  upwards  of  thirty  inches  long.'  Wilkes' 
Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  v.,  p.  255.  At  Port  Trinidad,  'arrows  are 
carried  in  quivers  of  wood  or  bone,  and  hang  from  their  wrist  or  neck.' 
Maurelle's  Jour.,  p.  20.  On  Pigeon  River  'their  arrows  were  in  general 
tipped  with  copper  or  iron.'  Greenhow's  Hist.  Ogn.,  p.  110.  The  Pit  River 
'arrows  are  made  in  three  parts.'  Abbott,  in  Pac.  E.  E.  Kept.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  61. 
The  Allequas  at  Trinidad  Bay,  described  by  Carl  Meyer,  carried  their  arrows 
either  '  schussfertig  in  der  Hand  oder  in  einem  iiber  die  Schultern  geworfe- 
nen  Kocher  aus  Fuchs-oder  Biberpelz.  Der  Bogen  ist  aus  einer  starken, 
elastischen  Rothtannenwurzel  verfertigt,  etwa  3%  Fuss  lang  und  auf  der 
Biickseite  mit  einer  Barensehne  uberklebt.  Nachdem  Sacramento,  p.  217.  See 
Mofras,  Explor.,  Atlas,  plate  xxv.  Speaking  of  the  quiver,  Mr  Powers  says: 
'  in  the  animal's  head  they  stuff  a  quantity  of  grass  or  moss,  as  a  cushion  for 
the  arrow-heads  to  rest  in,  which  prevents  them  from  being  broken.'  Over 
land  Monthly,  vol.  viii.,  p.  532.  '  Their  arrows  can  only  be  extracted  from 
the  flesh  with  the  knife.'  Cutts'  Conquest  of  CaL,  p.  170.  'Am  oberen  Theile 
(California)  ist  der  Bogen  von  einer  Lage  von  Hirsh-sehnen  verstarkt  und 
elastisch  gemacht.  Die  Pfeile  bestehen  aus  einem  rohrartigen  Gewachse 

von  massiger  Lange,  an  der  Spitze  mit  Obsidian versehen,  ihre  La'nge  ist 

2  Zoll,  ihre  Breite  1  Zoll  und  die  Dicke  %  Zoll,  scharfkantig  und  spitz  zu- 
laufend.'  Wimmel,  Calif ornien,  p.  180. 

42  Powers'  Porno,  MS. ;  Schumacher's  Oregon  Antiquities,  MS,;  The  Shastas 
und  their  Neighbors,  MS. 


WAR  AND  ITS  MOTIVES.  343 

in  this  particular.  The  arrow-point  maker,  who  is  one 
of  a  regular  guild,  places  the  obsidian  pebble  upon  an 
anvil  of  talcose  slate  and  splits  it  with  an  agate  chisel 
to  the  required  size;  then  holding  the  piece  with  his 
finger  and  thumb  against  the  anvil,  he  finishes  it  off 
with  repeated  slight  blows,  administered  with  marvelous 
adroitness  and  judgment.  One  of  these  artists  made 
an  arrow-point  for  Mr  Lyon  out  of  a  piece  of  a  broken 
porter- bottle.  Owing  to  his  not  being  acquainted  with 
the  grain  of  the  glass,  he  failed  twice,  but  the  third  time 
produced  a  perfect  specimen.43  The  Wallies  poison  their 
arrows  with  rattlesnake-virus,  but  poisoned  weapons  seem 
to  be  the  exception.44  The  bow  is  skilfully  used ;  war- 
clubs  are  not  common.45 

Wars,  though  of  frequent  occurrence,  were  not  par 
ticularly  bloody.  The  casus  belli  was  usually  that  which 
brought  the  Spartan  King  before  the  walls  of  Ilion,  and 
Titus  Tatius  to  incipient  Rome — woman.  It  is  true,  the 
Northern  Californians  are  less  classic  abductors  than  the 
spoilers  of  the  Sabine  women,  but  their  wars  ended  in 
the  same  manner — the  ravished  fair  cleaving  to  her 
warrior-lover.  Religion  also,  that  ever-fruitful  source 

«  Hist.  Mac).,  vol.  iii.,  p.  214. 

44  Johnson,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  ii.,  p.  536.     At  Trinidad  Bay  'zu- 
weilen  werden  die  Pfeile  mit  dem  Safte  des  Sumachbaumes  vergifted,  und 
alsdann  nur  zum  Erlegen  wilder  Raubthiere  gebraucht.'  Meyer,  Nach  dem 
Sacramento,  p.  218.     '  Einige  Stamme  vergiften  die  Spitzen  ihrer  Pfeile  auf 
f olgende  Weise :  Sie  reizen  namlieh  eine  Klapperschlange  mit  einer  vorge- 
haltenen  Hirschleber,  worin  sie  beisst,  und  nachdem  nun  die  Leber  mit  dem 
Gifte  vollstandig  impragnirt  ist,  wird  sie  vergraben  und  muss  verf aulen ;  hierin 
wird  nun  die  Spitze  eingetaucht  und  dann  getrocknet.'    Wimmd,  Calif ornien, 
p.  180.     The  Pitt  River  Indians  '  use  the  poison  of  the  rattle-snake,  by  grind 
ing  the  head  of  that  reptile  into  an  impalpable  powder,  which  is  then  applied 
by  means  of  the  putrid  blood  and  flesh  of  the  dog  to  the  point  of  the  weapon.' 
Gross1  System  of  Surgery,  vol.  i.,  p.  321.     'The  Pitt  River  Indians  poisoned 
their  arrows  in  a  putrid  deer's  liver.     This  is  a  slow  poison,  however,  and 
sometimes  will  not  poison  at  all.'  The  Shastas  and  their  Neighbors,  MS.;  Schu 
macher's  Oregon  Antiquities,  MS. 

45  Among  other  things  seen  by  Meyer  were,  '  noch  grossere  Bogen,  die 
ihnen  als  bedeutende  Ferngeschosse  dienen.     Ein  salcher  ist  6  Fuss  lang, 
und  der  Indianer  legt  sich  auf  die  Erde,  um  deuselben  zu  spannen,  indem 
er  das  rechte  Knie  in  den  Bogen  einstemmt  und  mit  beiden  Armen  nachhilft.' 
The  bow  and  arrow,  knife,  and  war-club,  constitute  their  weapons.     In  one 
of  their  lodges  I  noticed  an  elk-skin  shield,  so  constructed  as  to  be  impervi 
ous  to  the  sharpest  arrows.   Palmer,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  p.  262.     Miller 
mentions  a  Modoc  who  was  '  painted  red,  half-naked,  and  held  a  tomahawk 
in  his  hand.LZi/e  Amongst  the  Modocs,  p.  20. 


3M  CALIFORNIANS. 

of  war,  is  not  without  its  conflicts  in  savagedom ;  thus 
more  than  once  the  Shastas  and  the  Umpquas  have  taken 
up  arms  because  of  wicked  sorceries,  which  caused  the 
death  of  the  people.46  So  when  one  people  obstructed 
the  river  with  their  weir,  thereby  preventing  the  ascent 
of  salmon,  there  was  nothing  left  for  those  above  but  to 
fight  or  starve. 

Along  Pitt  River,  pits  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet  deep 
were  formerly  dug,  in  which  the  natives  caught  man  and 
beast.  These  man-traps,  for  such  was  their  primary 
use,  were  small  at  the  mouth,  widening  toward  the  bot 
tom,  so  that  exit  was  impossible,  even  were  the  victim 
to  escape  impalement  upon  sharpened  elk  and  deer  horns, 
which  were  favorably  placed  for  his  reception.  The 
opening  was  craftily  concealed  by  means  of  light  sticks, 
over  which  earth  was  scattered,  arid  the  better  to  deceive 
the  unwary  traveler,  footprints  were  frequently  stamped 
with  a  moccasin  in  the  loose  soil.  Certain  landmarks 
and  stones  or  branches,  placed  in  a  peculiar  manner, 
warned  the  initiated,  but  otherwise  there  was  no  sign  of 
impending  danger.47 

Some  few  nations  maintain  the  predominancy  and 
force  the  weaker  to  pay  tribute.48  When  two  of  these 
dominant  nations  war  with  each  other,  the  conflict  is 
more  sanguinary.  No  scalps  are  taken,  but  in  some 
cases  the  head,  hands,  or  feet  of  the  conquered  slain  are 
severed  as  trophies.  The  Cahrocs  sometimes  fight  hand 
to  hand  with  ragged  stones,  which  they  use  with  deadly 
effect.  The  Rogue  River  Indians  kill  all  their  male 
prisoners,  but  spare  the  women  and  children.49  The 


«  Salem  Statesman,  April,  1857. 

47  Hence,  if  we  may  credit  Miller,  Life  Amongst  the  Modocs,  p.  373,  the 
name  Pitt  River. 

48  The  Hoopas  exacted  tribute  from  all  the  surrounding  tribes.     At  the 
time  the  whites  arrived  the  Chimalaquays  were  paying  them  tribute  in  deer 
skins  at  the  rate  of  twenty-five  cents  per  head.  Powers'  Porno,   MS.     The 
Hoopahs  have  a  law  requiring  those  situated  on  the  Trinity,  above  them  to 
pay  tribute.  Humboldt  Times,  Nov.  1857;  8.  F.  Evening  Bulletin,  Nov.  23, 1857. 

49  The  Sassics,  Cahrocs,  Hoopahs,  Klamaths  and  Rogue  River  Indians, 
take  no  scalps,  but  decapitate  the  slain,  or  cut  off  their  hands  and  feet. 
Pfeiffer's  Second  Journ.,  p.  317. 


MANUFACTURES  AND  BOATS.  345 

elk-horn  knives  and  hatchets  are  the  result  of  much 
labor  and  patience.50 

The  women  are  very  ingenious  in  plaiting  grass,  or 
fine  willow-roots,  into  mats,  baskets,  hats,  and  strips  of 
parti-colored  braid  for  binding  up  the  hair.  On  these, 
angular  patterns  are  worked  by  using  different  shades  of 
material,  or  by  means  of  dyes  of  vegetable  extraction. 
The  baskets  are  of  various  sizes,  from  the  flat,  basin- 
shaped,  water-tight,  rush  bowl  for  boiling  food,  to  the 
large  pointed  cone  which  the  women  carry  on  their 
backs  when  root-digging  or  berry-picking.51  They  are 
also  expert  tanners,  and,  by  a  comparatively  simple  pro 
cess,  will  render  skins  as  soft  and  pliable  as  cloth.  The 
hide  is  first  soaked  in  water  till  the  hair  loosens,  then 
stretched  between  trees  or  upright  posts  till  half  dry, 
when  it  is  scraped  thoroughly  on  both  sides,  well  beaten 
with  sticks,  and  the  brains  of  some  animal,  heated  at  a 
fire,  are  rubbed  on  the  inner  side  to  soften  it.  Finally  it 
is  buried  in  moist  ground  for  some  weeks. 

The  interior  tribes  manifest  no  great  skill  in  boat- 
making,  but  along  the  coast  and  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Klamath  and  Rogue  rivers,  very  good  canoes  are  found. 
They  are  still,  however,  inferior  to  those  used  on  the 
Columbia  and  its  tributaries.  The  lashed-up-hammock- 
shaped  bundle  of  rushes,  which  is  so  frequently  met  in 
the  more  southern  parts  of  California,  has  been  seen  on 
the  Klamath,52  but  I  have  reason  to  think  that  it  is  only 
used  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  and  not  because  no 
better  boat  is  known.  It  is  certain  that  dug-out  canoes 

50  The  Veeards  on  Lower  Humboldt  Bay  '  took  elk-horns  and  rubbed 
them  on  stones  for  days  together,  to  sharpen  them  into  axes  and  wedges.' 
Powers'  Porno,  MS.     On  the  Klamath  river  they  had  '  spoons  neatly  made  of 
bone  and  horn.'  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  14G. 

51  '  For  basket  making,  they  use  the  roots  of  pine-trees,  the  stem  of  the 
spice-bush,  and  ornament  with  a  kind  of  grass  which  looks  like  a  palm  leaf, 
and  will  bleach  white.     They  also  stain  it  purple  with  elder  berries,  and 
green  with  soapstone.' . . . . '  The  Pitt  River  Indians  excel  all  others  in  basket- 
making,  but  are  not  particularly  good  at  bead  work.'   The  Shastas  and  their 
Neighbors,  MS.     Fremont's  Explor.  Ex.,  p.  204;  Johnson,  in  Overland  Monthly, 
vol.   ii.,  p.    536;     Gibbs,   in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.   iii.,  p.    134;    Powers' 
Porno,  MS. 

52  Wilkes'  Nar.  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  v.,  p.  253;  Emmons,  in  Schoolcraft's 
Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  218. 


346  CALIFOBNIANS. 

were  in  use  on  the  same  river,  and  within  a  few  miles  of 
the  spot  where  tule  buoys  obtain.  The  fact  is,  this  bun 
dle  of  rushes  is  the  best  craft  that  could  be  invented  for 
salmon-spearing.  Seated  astride,  the  weight  of  the  fish 
erman  sinks  it  below  the  surface ;  he  can  move  it  noise 
lessly  with  his  feet  so  that  there  is  no  splashing  of  pad 
dles  in  the  sun  to  frighten  the  fish ;  it  cannot  capsize, 
and  striking  a  rock  does  it  no  injury.  Canoes  are  hol 
lowed  from  the  trunk  of  a  single  redwood,  pine,  fir,  syca 
more,  or  cotton  wood  tree.  They  are  blunt  at  both  ends 
and  on  Rogue  River  many  of  them  are  flat-bottomed. 
It  is  a  curious  fact  that  some  of  these  canoes  are  made 
from  first  to  last  without  being  touched  with  a  sharp- 
edged  tool  of  any  sort.  The  native  finds  the  tree 
ready  felled  by  the  wind,  burns  it  off  to  the  required 
length,  and  hollows  it  out  by  fire.  Pitch  is  spread  on 
the  parts  to  be  burned  away,  and  a  piece  of  fresh  bark 
prevents  the  flames  from  extending  too  far  in  the  wrong 
direction.  A  small  shelf,  projecting  inward  from 
the  stern,  serves  as  a  seat.  Much  trouble  is  some 
times  taken  with  the  finishing  up  of  these  canoes,  in  the 
way  of  scraping  and  polishing,  but  in  shape  they  lack 
symmetry.  On  the  coast  they  are  frequently  large ;  Mr 
Powers  mentions  having  seen  one  at  Smith  River  forty- 
two  feet  long,  eight  feet  four  inches  wide,  and  capable 
of  carrying  twenty-four  men  and  five  tons  of  merchan 
dise.  The  natives  take  great  care  of  their  canoes,  and 
always  cover  them  when  out  of  the  water  to  protect  them 
from  the  sun.  Should  a  crack  appear  they  do  not  caulk 
it,  but  stitch  the  sides  of  the  split  tightly  together  with 
withes.  They  are  propelled  with  a  piece  of  wood,  half 
pole,  half  paddle.53 

53  The  boats  formerly  used  by  the  Modocs  were  '  quite  rude  and  unshape 
ly  concerns,  compared  with  those  of  the  lower  Klamath,  but  substantial  and 
sometimes  large  enough  to  carry  1800  pounds  of  merchandise.'  Powers,  in 
Overland  Monthly,  vol.  viii.,  p.  532,  vol.  x.,  p. 536.  '  Blunt  at  both  ends,  with 
a  small  projection  in  the  stern  for  a  seat.'  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft' s  Arch.,  vol. 
iii.,  p.  142.  '  Those  on  Kogue  river  were  roughly  built— some  of  them  scow 
fashion,  with  flat  bottom.'  Emmons,  in  SchoolcrafVs  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  218. 
The  Pitt  River  Indians  '  used  boats  made  from  pine ;  they  burn  them  out 

about  twenty  feet  long,  some  very  good  ones.'  The  Shastas  and  their 

Neighbors,  MS. 


WEALTH  IN  NOKTHEKN  CALIFORNIA.  347 

Wealth,  which  is  quite  as  important  here  as  in  any 
civilized  communities,  and  of  much  more  importance  than 
is  customary  among  savage  nations,  consists  in  shell- 
money,  called  atticochick,  white  deer-skins,  canoes,  and, 
indirectly,  in  women.  The  shell  which  is  the  regular 
circulating  medium  is  white,  hollow,  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  through,  and  from  one  to  two  inches  in  length.  On 
its  length  depends  its  value.  A  gentleman,  who  writes 
from  personal  observation,  says:  u  all  of  the  older  In 
dians  have  tattooed  on  their  arms  their  standard  of 
value.  A  piece  of  shell  corresponding  in  length  to  one 
of  the  marks  being  worth  five  dollars,  l  Boston  money/ 
the  scale  gradually  increases  until  the  highest  mark  is 
reached.  For  five  perfect  shells  corresponding  in  length 
to  this  mark  they  will  readily  give  one  hundred  dollars 
in  gold  or  silver."54  White  deer-skins  are  rare  and  con 
sidered  very  valuable,  one  constituting  quite  an  estate  in 
itself.55  A  scalp  of  the  red-headed  woodpecker  is  equiv 
alent  to  about  five  dollars,  and  is  extensively  used  as 
currency  on  the  Klamath.  Canoes  are  valued  according 
to  their  size  and  finish.  Wives,  as  they  must  be  bought, 
are  a  sign  of  wealth,  and  the  owner  of  many  is  respected 
accordingly.56 

Among  the  Northern  Californians,  hereditary  chief 
tainship  is  almost  unknown.  If  the  son  succeed  the 
father  it  is  because  the  son  has  inherited  the  father's 

54  Chase,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  ii.,  p.  433.     '  A  kind  of  bead  made  from 
a  shell  procured  on  the  coast.     These  they  string  and  wear  about  the  neck. 
. . .  .Another  kind  is  a  shell  about  an  inch  long,  which  looks  like  a  porcupine 
quill.     They  are  more  valuable  than  the  other.     They  also  use  them  as  nose- 
ornaments.'  The  Shastas  and  their  Neighbors,  MS.     'The  unit  of  currency  is 
a  string  of  the  length  of  a  man's  arm,  with  a  certain  number  of  the  longer 
shells  below  the  elbow,  and  a  certain  number  of  the  shorter  ones  above.' 
Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  viii.,  p.  329.      'A  rare  shell,    spiral  in 
shape,  varying  from  one  to  two  inches  in  length,  and  about  the  size  of  a 
crowquill,  called  by  the  natives,  Siwash,  is  used  as  money.'    Plubbard,  in 
Golden  Era,  March,  1856. 

55  'The  ownership  of  a  (white)  deer-skin,  constitutes  a  claim  to  chieftain 
ship,  readily  acknowledged  by  all  the  dusky  race  on  this  coast.'  Humboldt 
Times,  Dec.,  1860. 

56  '  Property  consists  in  women,  ornaments  made  of  rare  feathers  and 
shells,   also  furs  and  skins.'    Hubbard,  in  Golden  Era,  March,  1856.     Their 
wealth  '  consisted  chiefly  of  white  deerskins,  canoes,  the  scalp  of  the  red 
headed  woodpecker,  and  aliquachiek.'     Wiley,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.  Joint.  Spec. 
Com.,  1867,  p.  497. 


348  CALIFOKNIANS. 

wealth,  and  if  a  richer  than  he  arise  the  ancient  ruler  is 
deposed  and  the  new  chief  reigns  in  his  stead.  But  to 
be  chief  means  to  have  position,  not  power.  He  can 
advise,  but  not  command ;  at  least,  if  his  subjects  do  not 
choose  to  obey  him,  he  cannot  compel  obedience. 

There  is  most  frequently  a  head  man  to  each  village, 
and  sometimes  a  chief  of  the  whole  tribe,  but  in  reality 
each  head  of  a  family  governs  his  own  domestic  circle 
as  he  thinks  best.  As  in  certain  republics,  when  power 
ful  applicants  become  multiplied — new  offices  are  created, 
as  salmon-chief,  elk-chief,  and  the  like.  In  one  or  two 
coast  tribes  the  office  is  hereditary,  as  with  the  Patawats 
on  Mad  River,  and  that  mysterious  tribe  at  Trinidad 
Bay,  mentioned  by  Mr  Meyer,  the  Allequas.57 

Their  penal  code  is  far  from  Draconian.  A  fine  of  a 
few  strings  of  allicochick  appeases  the  wrrath  of  a  mur 
dered  man's  relatives  and  satisfies  the  requirements  of 
custom.  A  woman  may  be  slaughtered  for  half  the  sum 
it  costs  to  kill  a  man.  Occasionally  banishment  from 
the  tribe  is  the  penalty  for  murder,  but  capital  punish 
ment  is  never  resorted  to.  The  fine,  whatever  it  is, 
must  be  promptly  paid,  or  neither  city  of  refuge  nor 
sacred  altar-horns  will  shield  the  murderer  from  the 
vengeance  of  his  victim's  friends.58 

57  'Have  no  tribal  organization,  no  such  thing  as  public  offence.'  Hose- 
borough's  letter  to  the  author,  MS.  A  Pitt  River  chief  tried  the  white  man's 
code,  but  so  unpopular  was  it,  that  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  it.  The  Shastas 
and  their  Neighbors,  MS.  Among  the  Klamath  and  Trinity  tribes  the  power 
of  the  chief  '  is  insufficient  to  control  the  relations  of  the  several  villages, 
or  keep  down  the  turbulence  of  individuals.'  Gibbs,  in  Schooler  aft' s  Arch., 
vol.  iii.,  pp.  139-140.  The  Cahrocs,  Eurocs,  Hoopas,  and  Kailtas,  have  a 
nominal  chief  for  each  village,  but  his  power  is  extremely  limited  and  each 
individual  does  as  he  likes.  Among  the  Tolewas  in  Del  Norte  County, 
money  makes  the  chief.  The  Modocs  and  Patawats  have  an  hereditary 
chieftainship.  Powers'  Porno,  MS.  At  Trinidad  Bay  they  were  '  governed 
by  a  ruler,  who  directs  where  they  shall  go  both  to  hunt  and  fish.'  Mau- 
rdle's  Jour.,  p.  18 /  '  Der  Hauptling  ist  sehr  geachtet;  erhat  iiber  Handel  uncl 
Wandel,  Leben  und  Tod  seiner  Unterthanen  zu  verfugen,  und  seine  Macht 
vererbt  sich  auf  seinen  Erstgebornen.'  Meyer,  Nach  dem  Sacramento,  p. 
223.  ^The  chief  '  obtains  his  position  from  his  wealth,  and  usually  man 
ages  to  transmit  his  effects  and  with  them  his  honors,  to  his  posterity. '  Hub- 
bard,  in  Golden  Era,  March,  1856 .  Formerly  'the  different  rancherias  had 
chiefs,  or  heads,  known  as  Mow-wee-mas,  their  influence  being  principally 
derived  from  their  age,  number  of  relatives,  and  wealth.'  Wiley,  in  Ind.  Ajf. 
Kept.  Joint.  Spec.  Com.,  p.  497. 

58  The  Cahrocs  compound  for  murder  by  payment  of  one  string.  Among 
the  Patawais  the  average  fine  for  murdering  a  man  is  ten  strings,  for  killing 


WOMEN  AND  DOMESTIC  AFFAIKS.  349 

In  vain  do  we  look  for  traces  of  that  Arcadian  simpli 
city  and  disregard  for  worldly  advantages  generally  ac 
corded  to  children  of  nature.  Although  I  find  no  descrip 
tion  of  an  actual  system  of  slavery  existing  among  them, 
yet  there  is  no  doubt  that  they  have  slaves.  We  shall 
see  that  illegitimate  children  are  considered  and  treated 
as  such,  and  that  women,  entitled  by  courtesy  wives,  are 
bought  and  sold.  Mr  Drew  asserts  that  the  Klamath 
children  of  slave  parents,  who,  it  may  be,  prevent  the 
profitable  prostitution  or  sale  of  the  mother,  are  killed 
without  compunction.59 

Marriage,  with  the  Northern  Californians,  is  essenti 
ally  a  matter  of  business.  The  young  brave  must  not 
hope  to  win  his  bride  by  feats  of  arms  or  softer  wooing, 
but  must  buy  her  of  her  father,  like  any  other  chattel, 
and  pay  the  price  at  once,  or  resign  in  favor  of  a  richer 
man.  The  inclinations  of  the  girl  are  in  nowise  con 
sulted;  no  matter  where  her  affections  are  placed,  she 
goes  to  the  highest  bidder,  and  "  Mammon  wins  his  way 
where  seraphs  might  despair."  Neither  is  it  a  trifling 
matter  to  be  bought  as  a  wife ;  the  social  position  of  the 
bride  herself,  as  well  as  that  of  her  father's  family  there 
after,  depends  greatly  upon  the  price  she  brings;  her 
value  is  voted  by  society  at  the  price  her  husband  pays 
for  her,  and  the  father  whose  daughter  commands  the 
greatest  number  of  strings  of  allicochick,  is  greatly  to  be 
honored.  The  purchase  effected,  the  successful  suitor 
leads  his  blushing  property  to  his  hut  and  she  becomes 
his  wife  without  further  ceremony.  Wherever  this  sys 
tem  of  wife-purchase  obtains,  the  rich  old  men  almost 
absorb  the  female  youth  and  beauty  of  the  tribe,  while 
the  younger  and  poorer  men  must  content  themselves 

a  woman  five  strings,  worth  about  $100  and  $50  respectively.  '  An  average 
Patawat's  life  is  considered  worth  about  six  ordinary  canoes,  each  of  which 
occupies  two  Indians  probably  three  months  in  making,  or,  in  all,  tanta 
mount  to  the  labor  of  one  man  for  a  period  of  three  years. '  '  The  Hoopas  and 
Kailtas  also  paid  for  murder,  or  their  life  was  taken  by  the  relatives  of  the 
deceased.'  Powers'  Porno,  MS.  'They  seem  to  do  as  they  please,  and  to  be 
only  governed  by  private  revenge.  If  one  man  kills  another  the  tribe  or 
family  of  the  latter  kill  the  murderer,  unless  he  buy  himself  off.'  The  Shastas 
and  their  Neighbors,  MS. 

59  Drew's  Owyhee  Reconnaissance,  p.  17. 


350  CALIFOKNIANS. 

with  old  and  ugly  wives.  Hence  their  eagerness  for  that 
wealth  which  will  enable  them  to  throw  away  their  old 
wives  and  buy  new  ones.  When  a  marriage  takes  place 
among  the  Modocs,  a  feast  is  given  at  the  house  of  the 
bride's  father,  in  which,  however,  neither  she  nor  the 
bridegroom  partake.  The  girl  is  escorted  by  the  women 
to  a  lodge,  previously  furnished  by  public  contributions, 
where  she  is  subsequently  joined  by  the  man,  who  is 
conducted  by  his  male  friends.  All  the  company  bear 
torches,  which  are  piled  up  as  a  fire  in  the  lodge  of  the 
wedded  pair,  who  are  then  left  alone.  In  some  tribes 
this  wife-traffic  is  done  on  credit,  or  at  least  partially 
so;  but  the  credit  system  is  never  so  advantageous 
to  the  buyer  as  the  ready-money  system,  for  until 
the  full  price  is  paid,  the  man  is  only  '  half-married,' 
and  besides  he  must  live  with  his  wife's  family  and  be 
their  slave  until  he  shall  have  paid  in  full.60  The  chil 
dren  of  a  wife  who  has  cost  her  husband  nothing  are 
considered  no  better  than  bastards,  and  are  treated  by 
society  with  contumely;  nobody  associates  with  them, 
and  they  become  essentially  ostracized.  In  all  this  there 
is  one  redeeming  feature  for  the  wife-buyer;  should  he 
happen  to  make  a  bad  bargain  he  can,  in  most  instances, 
send  his  wife  home  and  get  his  money  back.  Mr  Gibbs 
asserts  that  they  shoot  their  wives  when  tired  of  them, 
but  this  appears  inconsistent  with  custom. 

Polygamy  is  almost  universal,  the  number  of  wives 
depending  only  on  the  limit  of  a  man's  wealth.  The 
loss  of  one  eye,  or  expulsion  from  the  tribe,  are  common 
punishments  for  adultery  committed  by  a  man.  A  string 
of  beads,  however,  makes  amends.  Should  the  wife  ven- 

60  The  Cahrocs,  Eurocs,  Hoopahs,  and  Fatawats,  all  acquire  their  wives 
by  purchase.  The  Shastas  and  their  Neigbors,  MS.;  Powers'  Porno,  MS. 
1  Wenn  ein  Allequa  seine  kiinftige  Lebensgefahrtin  miter  den  Schoiien 
seines  Stammes  erwahlt  hat  und  sich  verheirathen  will,  muss  er  dem  Mau- 
hemi  (chief)  cine  armslange  Muschelschnur  vorzeigen.'  Meyer,  Nacli  dem 
Sacramento,  p.  223.  The  mountain  Indians  seldom,  if  ever,  intermarry  with 
those  on  the  coast.  Wiley,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.  Joint.  Spec.  Com.,  1867,  p.  497; 
Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  127.  Buy  wives  with  shell-money. 
Pfeiffer's  Second  Journ.  Among  the  Modocs  4  the  women  are  offered  for 
sale  to  the  highest  buyer.'  Meacham's  Lecture,  in  S.  F.  Alia  California,  Oct. 
6,  1861;  Miller's  Life  Amongst  the  Modocs. 


ADULTERY  AND  CHASTITY.  351 

ture  on  any  irregularity  without  just  compensation,  the 
outraged  honor  of  her  lord  is  never  satisfied  until  he 
has  seen  her  publicly  disemboweled.  Among  the  Hoo- 
pahs  the  women  are  held  irresponsible  and  the  men  alone 
suffer  for  the  crime.61  Illegitimate  children  are  life- 
slaves  to  some  male  relative  of  the  mother,  and  upon  them 
the  drudgery  falls ;  they  are  only  allowed  to  marry  one 
in  their  own  station,  and  their  sole  hope  of  emancipa 
tion  lies  in  a  slow  accumulation  of  allicochick,  with  which 
they  can  buy  their  freedom.  We  are  told  by  Mr  Pow 
ers  that  a  Modoc  may  kill  his  mother-in-law  with  im 
punity.  Adultery,  being  attended  with  so  much  danger, 
is  comparatively  rare,  but  among  the  unmarried,  who 
have  nothing  to  fear,  a  gross  licentiousness  prevails.62 

Among  the  Muckalucs  a  dance  is  instituted  in  honor 
of  the  arrival  of  the  girls  at  the  age  of  puberty.  On 
the  Klamath,  during  the  period  of  menstruation  the 
women  are  banished  from  the  village,  and  no  man  may 
approach  them.  Although  the  principal  labor  falls  to 
the  lot  of  the  women,  the  men  sometimes  assist  in  build 
ing  the  wigwam,  or  even  in  gathering  acorns  and  roots.63 
Kane  mentions  that  the  Shastas,  or,  as  he  calls  them, 
the  Chastays,  frequently  sell  their  children  as  slaves  to 
the  Chinooks.6*  Dances  and  festivities,  of  a  religio- 

61  Polygamy  is  common  among  the  Modocs.  Meacham's  Lecture,  in  S.  F. 
Alia  California,  Oct.  6,  1873.     On  Pitt  River  a  chief  sometimes  has  five  wives. 
'The  most  jealous  people  in  the  world.'    The  Shastas  and  their  Neighbors, 
MS.;  Poseborough's  letter  to  the  author,  MS.     'Among  the  tribes  in  the  north 
of  the  State  adultery  is  punished  by  the  the  death  of  the  child.'  Taylor, 
in  California  Farmer,  March  8,  1861.     'The  males  have  as  many  wives  as 
they  are  able  to  purchase;'  adultery  committed  by  a  woman  is  punished  with 
death.  Hubbard,  in  Golden  Era,  March,  1856.     Among  the  Cahrocs  polygamy 
is  not  tolerated;  among  the  Modocs  polygamy  prevails,  and  the  women  have 
considerable  privilege.     The  Hoopa  adulterer  loses  one  eye,  the  adulteress 
is  exempt  from  punishment.    Powers1  Porno,  MS.     The  Weeyots  at  Eel  river 
'have  as  many  wives  as  they  please.'  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.iii.,  p. 
127.    At  Trinidad  Bay  'we  foimd  out  that  they  had  a  plurality  of  wives.' 
Maurelle's  Jour.,  p.  19. 

62  All  the  young  unmarried  women  are  a  common  possession.   Powers, 
in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  viii.,  p.  330.     The  women  bewail  their  virginity  for 
three  nights  before  their  marriage.  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  1"3. 
If  we  believe  Powers,  they  cannot  usually  have  much  to  bewail. 

63  Boys   are  disgraced  by  work.     The  Shastas  and  their  Neighbors,  MS. 
Women  work,  while  men  gamble  or  sleep.    Wiley,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Pept.,  Joint 
Spec.   Com.,    1867,  p.  497;    Parker,  in   Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1857,  p.  242;  Pose- 
borough's  letter  to  the  author,  MS. 

<*' Kane's  Wand.,  p.  182. 


352  CALIFOKNIANS. 

playful  character,  are  common,  as  when  a  whale  is 
stranded,  an  elk  snared,  or  when  the  salmon  come. 
There  is  generally  a  kind  of  thanksgiving-day  once  a 
year,  when  the  people  of  neighboring  tribes  meet  and 
dance.  The  annual  feast  of  the  Veeards  is  a  good  illus 
tration  of  the  manner  of  these  entertainments.  The 
dance,  which  takes  place  in  a  large  wigwam,  is  per 
formed  -by  as  many  men  as  there  is  room  for,  and  a 
small  proportion  of  women.  They  move  in  a  circle 
slowly  round  the  fire,  accompanying  themselves  with 
their  peculiar  chant.  Each  individual  is  dressed  in  all 
the  finery  he  can  muster;  every  valuable  he  possesses  in 
the  way  of  shells,  furs,  or  woodpecker-scalps,  does  duty 
on  this  occasion ;  so  that  the  wealth  of  the  dancers  may 
be  reckoned  at  a  glance.  When  the  dance  has  conclud 
ed,  an  old  gray-beard  of  the  tribe  rises,  and  pronounces 
a  thanksgiving  oration,  wherein  he  enumerates  the  ben 
efits  received,  the  riches  accumulated,  and  the  victories 
won  during  the  year;  exhorting  the  hearers  meanwhile, 
by  good  conduct  and  moral  behavior,  to  deserve  yet 
greater  benefits.  This  savage  Nestor  is  listened  to  in 
silence  and  with  respect;  his  audience  seeming  to  drink 
in  with  avidity  every  drop  of  wisdom  that  falls  from  his 
lips ;  but  no  sooner  is  the  harangue  concluded  than  every 
one  does  his  best  to  violate  the  moral  precepts  so  lately 
inculcated,  by  a  grand  debauch. 

The  Cahrocs  have  a  similar  festival,  which  they  call 
the  Feast  of  the  Propitiation.  Its  object  is  much  the 
same  as  that  of  the  feast  just  described,  but  in  place 
of  the  orator,  the  chief  personage  of  the  day  is  called 
the  Chareya,  which  is  also  the  appellation  of  their  deity. 
No  little  honor  attaches  to  the  position,  but  much  suf 
fering  is  also  connected  with  it.  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
Chareya-man  to  retire  into  the  mountains,  with  one  at 
tendant  only,  and  there  to  remain  for  ten  days,  eating- 
only  enough  to  keep  breath  in  his  body.  Meanwhile 
the  Cahrocs  congregate  in  honor  of  the  occasion,  dance, 
sing,  and  make  merry.  When  the  appointed  period  has 
elapsed,  the  Chareya-man  returns  to  camp,  or  is  carried 


SPOETS  AND  GAMES.  353 

by  deputies  sent  out  for  the  purpose,  if  he  have  not 
strength  to  walk.  His  bearers  are  blindfolded,  for  no 
human  being  may  look  upon  the  face  of  the  Chareya- 
man  and  live.  His  approach  is  the  signal  for  the  ab 
rupt  breaking  up  of  the  festivities.  The  revelers  dis 
perse  in  terror,  and  conceal  themselves  as  best  they  may 
to  avoid  catching  sight  of  the  dreaded  face,  and  where 
a  moment  before  all  was  riot  and  bustle,  a  deathly  still 
ness  reigns.  Then  the  Chareya-man  is  conducted  to  the 
sweat-house,  where  he  remains  for  a  time.  And  now 
the  real  Propitiation-Dance  takes  place,  the  men  alone 
participating  in  its  sacred  movements,  which  are  accom 
panied  by  the  low,  monotonous  chant  of  singers.  The 
dance  over,  all  solemnity  vanishes,  and  a  lecherous  satur 
nalia  ensues,  which  will  not  bear  description.  The  gods 
are  conciliated,  catastrophes  are  averted,  and  all  is  joy 
and  happiness.65 

A  passion  for  gambling  obtains  among  the  northern  Cal- 
ifornians  as  elsewhere.  Nothing  is  too  precious  or  too  in 
significant  to  be  staked,  from  a  white  or  black  deer-skin, 
which  is  almost  priceless,  down  to  a  wife,  or  any  other 
trifle.  In  this  manner  property  changes  hands  with 
great  rapidity. 

I  have  already  stated  that  on  the  possession  of  riches 
depend  power,  rank,  and  social  position,  so  that  there  is 
really  much  to  be  lost  or  won.  They  have  a  game  played 
with  little  sticks,  of  which  some  are  black,  but  the  most 
white.  These  they  throw  around  in  a  circle,  the  object  be 
ing  seemingly  to  make  the  black  ones  go  farther  than  the 
white.  A  kind  of  guess-game  is  played  with  clay  balls.66 
There  is  also  an  international  game,  played  between 
friendly  tribes,  which  closely  resembles  our  'hockey.' 
Two  poles  are  set  up  in  the  ground  at  some  distance 
apart,  and  each  side,  being  armed  with  sticks,  endeavors 
to  drive  a  wooden  ball  round  the  goal  opposite  to  it.67 

65  For  the  god  Chareya,  see  Bancroft's  Nat.  Eaces,  vol.  hi.,  pp.  90,  161. 

66  Pfeiffer's  Second  Journ.,  p.  318.     The  Pitt  River  Indians  '  sing  as  they 
gamble  and  play  until  they  are  so  hoarse  they  cannot  speak.'  The  Shastas 
and  their  Neighbors,  MS. 

67  Chase,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  ii.,  p.  433. 

VOL.  I.    23 


354  CALIFORNIANS. 

In  almost  all  their  games  and  dances  they  are  accompa 
nied  by  a  hoarse  chanting,  or  by  some  kind  of  uncouth 
music  produced  by  striking  on  a  board  with  lobster-claws 
fastened  to  sticks,  or  by  some  other  equally  primitive 
method.  Before  the  introduction  of  spirituous  liquors 
by  white  men  drunkenness  was  unknown.  With  their 
tobacco  for  smoking,  they  mix  a  leaf  called  Jcinnik-Jcin- 


The  diseases  and  ailments  most  prevalent  among  these 
people  are  scrofula,  consumption,  rheumatism,  a  kind  of 
leprosy,  affection  of  the  lungs,  and  sore  eyes,  the  last 
arising  from  the  dense  smoke  which  always  pervades 
their  cabins.69  In  addition  to  this  they  have  imaginary 
disorders  caused  by  wizards,  witches,  and  evil  spirits, 
who,  as  they  believe,  cause  snakes  and  other  reptiles  to 
enter  into  their  bodies  and  gnaw  their  vitals.  Some  few 
roots  and  herbs  used  are  really  efficient  medicine,  but 
they  rely  almost  entirely  upon  the  mummeries  and  in 
cantations  of  their  medicine  men  and  women.70  Their 
whole  system  of  therapeutics  having  superstition  for  a 
basis,  mortality  is  great  among  them,  which  may  be  one 
vof  the  causes  of  the  continent  being,  comparatively 
speaking,  so  thinly  populated  at  the  time  of  its  discov 
ery.  Syphilis,  one  of  the  curses  for  which  they  may 
thank  the  white  man,  has  made  fearful  havoc  among 

68  '  They  used  tobacco,  which  they  smoaked  in  small  wooden  pipes,  in 
iorm  of  a  trumpet,  and  procured  from  little  gardens,  where  they  had  planted 
it.'  Maurelle's  Jour.,  p.  21. 

69  The  Pitt  River  Indians  '  give  no  medicines.'  The  Shaatas  and  their  Neigh- 
•bors,  MS.     'The  prevailing  diseases  are  venereal,  scrofula  and  rheumatism.' 
Many  die  of  consumption.  Force,  in  Ind.  Aff.   Kept.,  1871,  p.  157.     At  the 
mouth  of  Eel  river  '  the  principal  diseases  noticed,  were  sore  eyes  and  blind 
ness,  consumption,  and  a  species  of  leprosy.'  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraff  s  Arch., 
vol.  iii.,  p.  128.     They  suffer  from  a  species  of  lung  fever.  Gtiger,  in  Ind. 
Aff.  Rept.,  1858,  p.  289.     'A  disease  was  observed  among  them  (the  Shastas) 
which  had  the  appearance  of  the  leprosy.'   Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex., 
vol.  v.,  p.  255. 

70  '  The  only  medicine  I  know  of  is  a  root  used  for  poultices,  and  another 
root  or  plant  for  an  emetic.'    The  SJmstas  and  their  Neighbors,  MS.     'The 
root  of  a  parasite  fern,  found  growing  on  the  tops  of  the  fir  trees  (collque 
nashul),  is  the  principal  remedy.     The  plant  in  small  doses  is  expectorant 
and  diurtetic;  hence  it  is  used  to  relieve  difficulties  of  the  lungs  and  kid 
neys;  and,  in  large  doses,  it  becomes  sedative  and  is  an  emmenagogue;  hence, 
it  relieves  fevers,  and  is  useful  in  uterine  diseases,  .and  produces  abortions. 
The  squaws  use  the  root  extensively  for  this  last  mentioned  purpose.'  Hub- 
tard,  in  Golden  Era,  March,  1856. 


MEDICAL  TREATMENT.  355 

them.  Women  doctors  seem  to  be  more  numerous  than 
men  in  this  region ;  acquiring  their  art  in  the  temescal  or 
sweat-house,  where  unprofessional  women  are  not  ad 
mitted.  Their  favorite  method  of  cure  seems  to  consist 
in  sucking  the  affected  part  of  the  patient  until  the  blood 
flows,  by  which  means  they  pretend  to  extract  the  dis 
ease.  Sometimes  the  doctress  vomits  a  frog,  previously 
swallowed  for  the  occasion,  to  prove  that  she  has  not 
sucked  in  vain.  She  is  frequently  assisted  by  a  second 
physician,  whose  duty  it  is  to  discover  the  exact  spot 
where  the  malady  lies,  and  this  she  effects  by  barking 
like  a  dog  at  the  patient  until  the  spirit  discovers  to  her 
the  place.  Mr  Gibbs  mentions  a  case  where  the  patient 
was  first  attended  by  four  young  women,  and  afterward 
by  the  same  number  of  old  ones.  Standing  round  the 
unfortunate,  they  went  through  a  series  of  violent  ges 
ticulations,  sitting  down  when  they  could  stand  no  longer, 
sucking,  with  the  most  laudable  perseverance,  and  moan 
ing  meanwhile  most  dismally.  Finally,  when  with  their 
lips  and  tongue  they  had  raised  blisters  all  over  the 
patient,  and  had  pounded  his  miserable  body  with  hands 
and  knees  until  they  were  literally  exhausted,  the  per 
formers  executed  a  swooning  scene,  in  which  they  sank 
down  apparently  insensible.71  The  Rogue  River  medi 
cine-men  are  supposed  to  be  able  to  wield  their  mysteri 
ous  power  for  harm,  as  well  as  for  good,  so  that  should 
a  patient  die,  his  relatives  kill  the  doctor  who  attended 
him ;  or  in  case  deceased  could  not  afford  medical  attend 
ance,  they  kill  the  first  unfortunate  disciple  of  ^Escula- 
pius  they  can  lay  hands  on,  frequently  murdering  one 
belonging  to  another  tribe;  his  death,  however,  must  be 
paid  for.72 

But  the  great  institution  of  the  Northern  C  aliform  - 
ans  is  their  temescal,  or  sweat-house,  which  consists  of  a 

71  A  Pitt  Eiver  doctor  told  his  patient  that  for  his  fee  '  he  must  have  his 
horse  or  he  would  not  let  him  get  well.'  The  Shastas  and  their  Neighbors,  MS.; 
Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  viii.,  p.  428;  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcra/t's  Arch., 
vol.  iii.,  p.  175. 

72  The  Shastas  and  their  Neighbors,  MS.;  Rector,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1862, 
p.  261;  Ostrander,  in  Id.,  1857,  p.  369;  Miller,  in  Id.,  p.  361. 


356  CALIFOKNIANS. 

hole  dug  in  the  ground ,  and  roofed  over  in  such  a  man 
ner  as  to  render  it  almost  air-tight.  A  fire  is  built  in  the 
centre  in  early  fall,  and  is  kept  alive  till  the  follow 
ing  spring,  as  much  attention  being  given  to  it  as  ever 
was  paid  to  the  sacred  fires  of  Hestia;  though  between 
the  subterranean  temescal,  with  its  fetid  atmosphere, 
and  lurid  fire-glow  glimmering  faintly  through  dense 
smoke  on  swart,  gaunt  forms  of  savages,  and  the  stately 
temple  on  the  Forum,  fragrant  with  fumes  of  incense, 
the  lambent  altar-flame  glistening  on  the  pure  white 
robes  of  the  virgin  priestesses,  there  is  little  likeness. 
The  temescal73  is  usually  built  on  the  brink  of  a  stream ; 
a  small  hatchway  affords  entrance,  which  is  instantly 
closed  after  the  person  going  in  or  out.  Here  congre 
gate  the  men  of  the  village  and  enact  their  sudorific 
ceremonies,  which  ordinarily  consist  in  squatting  round 
the  fire  until  a  state  of  profuse  perspiration  sets  in,  when 
they  rush  out  and  plunge  into  the  water.  Whether 
this  mode  of  treatment  is  more  potent  to  kill  or  to  cure 
is  questionable.  The  sweat-house  serves  not  only  as 
bath  and  medicine  room,  but  also  as  a  general  rendez 
vous  for  the  male  drones  of  the  village.  The  women, 
with  the  exception  of  those  practicing  or  studying  medi 
cine,  are  forbidden  its  sacred  precincts  on  pain  of  death ; 
thus  it  offers  as  convenient  a  refuge  for  henpecked  hus 
bands  as  a  civilized  club-house.  In  many  of  the  tribes 
the  men  sleep  in  the  temescal  during  the  winter,  which, 
notwithstanding  the  disgusting  impurity  of  the  atmos 
phere,  affords  them  a  snug  retreat  from  the  cold  gusty 
weather  common  to  this  region.74 

Incremation  obtains  but  slightly  among  the  Northern 
Californians,  the  body  usually  being  buried  in  a  recum 
bent  position.  The  possessions  of  the  deceased  are  either 

73  Temescal  is  an  Aztec  word  defined  by  Molina,  Vocabularia,  '  Temazcalli, 
casilla  como  estufa,  adonde  se  banan  y  sudan.'     The  word  was  brought  to 
this  region  and  applied  to  the  native  sweat-houses  by  the  Franciscan  Fathers. 
Turner,  in  Pac.  E.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  72,  gives  'sweat-house '  in  the  Che- 
mehuevi  language,  as  pahcaba. 

74  Roseborough's  letter  to  the  author,  MS.;   The  Shastas  and  their  Neighbors, 
MS.;  Pfeiffer's  Second  Journ.,  p.  317;  Powers'  Porno,  MS.;  Chase,  in  Overland 
Monthly,  vol.  ii.,  p.  432. 


BURIAL  AND  MOURNING.  357 

interred  with  him,  or  are  hung  around  the  grave ;  some 
times  his  house  is  burned  and  the  ashes  strewn  over  his 
burial-place.  Much  noisy  lamentation  on  the  part  of 
his  relatives  takes  place  at  his  death,  and  the  widow 
frequently  manifests  her  grief  by  sitting  on,  or  even  half 
burying  herself  in,  her  husband's  grave  for  some  days, 
howling  most  dismally  meanwhile,  and  refusing  food  and 
drink;  or,  on  the  upper  Klamath,  by  cutting  her  hair 
close  to  the  head,  and  so  wearing  it  until  she  obtains  con 
solation  in  another  spouse.  The  Modocs  hired  mourners 
to  lament  at  different  places  for  a  certain  number  of 
days,  so  that  the  whole  country  was  filled  with  lamenta 
tion.  These  paid  mourners  were  closely  watched,  and 
disputes  frequently  arose  as  to  whether  they  had  fulfilled 
their  contract  or  not.75  Occasionally  the  body  is  doubled 
up  and  interred  in  a  sitting  position,  and,  rarely,  it  is 
burned  instead  of  buried.  On  the  Klamath  a  fire  is  kept 
burning  near  the  grave  for  several  nights  after  the  burial, 
for  which  rite  various  reasons  are  assigned.  Mr  Powers 
states  that  it  is  to  light  the  departed  shade  across  a  cer 
tain  greased  pole,  which  is  supposed  to  constitute  its  only 
approach  to  a  better  world.  Sir  Gibbs  affirms  that  the 
fire  is  intended  to  scare  away  the  devil,  obviously  an 
unnecessary  precaution  as  applied  to  the  Satan  of  civil 
ization,  who  by  this  time  must  be  pretty  familiar  with 
the  element.  The  grave  is  generally  covered  with  a 
slab  of  wood,  and  sometimes  two  more  are  placed  erect 
at  the  head  and  foot ;  that  of  a  chief  is  often  surrounded 
writh  a  fence;  nor  must  the  name  of  a  dead  person  ever 
be  mentioned  under  any  circumstances.76 

75  Meacham's  Lecture  on  the  Modocs,  in  8.  F.  Alta  California,  Oct.  6,  1873; 
The  Shastas  and  their  Neighbors,  MS. 

™  On  Pitt  River  they  burn  their  dead  and  heap  stones  over  the  ashes  for  a 
monument.  'No  funeral  ceremonies.'  The  Shastas  and  their  Neighbors,  MS. 
On  the  ocean  frontier  of  south  Oregon  and  north  California  'the  dead  are  buried 
with  their  faces  looking  to  the  west. '  Ifubbard,  in  Golden  Era,  March,  1856.  The 
Patawats  and  Chillulas  bury  their  dead.  The  Tolewahs  are  not  allowed  to  name 
the  dead.  Powers'  Porno,  MS.  '  It  is  one  of  the  most  strenuous  Indian  laws 
that  whoever  mentions  the  name  of  a  deceased  person  is  liable  to  a  heavy 
fine,  the  money  being  paid  to  the  relatives.'  Chase,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  431.  '  The  bodies  had  been  doubled  up,  and  placed  in  a  sitting  posture 
in  holes.  The  earth,  when  replaced,  formed  conical  mounds  over  the  heads.' 
Abbott,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  69.  'They  bury  their  dead  under 


358  CALIFOKNIANS. 

The  following  vivid  description  of  a  last  sickness  and 
burial  by  the  Pitt  River  Indians,  is  taken  from  the  letter 
of  a  lady  eye-witness  to  her  son  in  San  Francisco : — 

It  was  evening.  We  seated  ourselves  upon  a  log, 
your  father,  Bertie,  and  I,  near  the  fire  round  which  the 
natives  had  congregated  to  sing  for  old  Gesnip,  the 
chief's  wife.  Presently  Sootim,  the  doctor,  appeared, 
dressed  in  a  low-necked,  loose,  white  muslin,  sleeveless 
waist  fastened  to  a  breech-cloth,  and  red  buck -skin  cap 
fringed  and  ornamented  with  beads;  the  face  painted 
with  white  stripes  down  to  the  chin,  the  arms  from 
wrist  to  shoulder,  in  black,  red,  and  white  circles,  which 
by  the  lurid  camp-fire  looked  like  bracelets,  and  the  legs 
in  white  and  black  stripes, — presenting  altogether  a 
merry- Andrew  appearance.  Creeping  softly  along,  sing 
ing  in  a  low,  gradually-increasing  voice,  Sootim  ap 
proached  the  invalid  and  poised  his  hands  over  her  as 
in  the  act  of  blessing.  The  one  nearest  him  took  up 
the  song,  singing  low  at  first,  then  the  next  until  the 
circle  was  completed ;  after  this  the  pipe  went  round ;  then 
the  doctor  taking  a  sip  of  water,  partly  uncovered  the 
patient  and  commenced  sucking  the  left  side ;  last  of  all 
he  took  a  pinch  of  dirt  and  blew  it  over  her.  This. is 
their  curative  process,  continued  night  after  night,  and 
long  into  the  night,  until  the  patient  recovers  or  dies. 

Next  day  the  doctor  came  to  see  me,  and  I  determined 
if  possible  to  ascertain  his  own  ideas  of  these  things. 
Giving  him  some  muck-a-mudc?1  I  asked  him,  "  What  do 
you  say  when  you  talk  over  old  Gesnip?"  "  I  talk  to 
the  trees,  and  to  the  springs,  and  birds,  and  sky,  and 
rocks,"  replied  Sootim,  "to  the  wind,  and  rain,  and 

the  noses  of  the  living,  and  with  them  all  their  worldly  goods.  If  a  man 
of  importance,  his  house  is  burned  and  he  is  buried  on  its  site.'  Johnson, 
in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  ii.,  p.  536.  'The  chick  or  ready  money,  is  placed 
in  the  owner's  grave,  but  the  bow  and  quiver  become  the  property  of  the 
nearest  male  relative.  Chiefs  only  receive  the  honors  of  a  fence,  surmounted 
with  feathers,  round  the  grave.'  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  175. 
'  Upon  the  death  of  one  of  these  Indians  they  raised  a  sort  of  funeral  cry, 
and  afterward  burned  the  body  within  the  house  of  their  ruler.'  Maurelle's 
Jour.,  p.  19. 

77  Muck-a-muck,  food.  In  the  Chinook  Jargon  'to  eat;  to  bite;  food. 
Muckamuck  chuck,  to  drink  water.'  Diet.  Chinook  Jargon,  or  Indian  Trade 
Language,  p.  12. 


BUKIAL  CEREMONIES  AT  PITT  BIVEK.  359 

leaves,  I  beg  them  all  to  help  me."  lofalet,  the  doctor's 
companion  on  this  cccasion,  volunteered  the  remark: 
"  When  Indian  die,  doctor  very  shamed,  all  same  Boston 
doctor;78  when  Indian  get  well,  doctor  very  smart,  all 
same  Boston  doctor."  Gesnip  said  she  wanted  after  death 
to  be  put  in  a  box  and  buried  in  the  ground,  and  not 
burned.  That  same  day  the  poor  old  woman  breathed 
her  last — the  last  spark  of  that  wonderful  thing  called 
life  flickered  and  went  out;  there  remained  in  that  rude 
camp  the  shriveled  dusky  carcass,  the  low  dim  intelligence 
that  so  lately  animated  it  having  fled — whither?  When 
I  heard  of  it  I  went  to  the  camp  and  found  them  dressing 
the  body.  First  they  put  on  Gesnip  her  best  white 
clothes,  then  the  next  best,  placing  all  the  while  whatever 
was  most  valuable,  beads,  belts,  and  necklaces,  next  the 
body.  Money  they  put  into  the  mouth,  her  daughter 
contributing  about  five  dollars.  The  knees  were  then 
pressed  up  against  the  chest,  and  after  all  of  her  own 
clothing  was  put  on,  the  body  was  rolled  up  in  the  best 
family  bear- skin,  and  tied  with  strips  of  buckskin. 

Then  Soomut,  the  chief  and  husband,  threw  the  bun 
dle  over  his  shoulders,  and  started  off  for  the  cave  where 
they  deposit  their  dead,  accompanied  by  the  whole 
band  crying  and  singing,  and  throwing  ashes  from  the 
camp-fire  into  the  air.  And  thus  the  old  barbarian 
mourns:  "Soomut  had  two  wives — one  good,  one  bad; 
but  she  that  was  good  was  taken  away,  while  she  that  is 
bad  remains.  0  Gesnip  gone,  gone,  gone!"  And  the 
mournful  procession  take  up  the  refrain:  "0.  Gesnip 
gone,  gone,  gone!"  Again  the  ancient  chief:  "Soomut 
has  a  little  boy,  Soomut  has  a  little  girl,  but  no  one  is 
left  to  cook  their  food,  no  one  to  dig  them  roots.  0 
Gesnip  gone,  gone,  gone!"  followed  by  the  chorus.  Then 
again  Soomut:  "White  woman  knows  that  Gesnip  was 

78  In  the  vicinity  of  Nootka  Sound  and  the  Columbia  Eiver,  the  first 
United  States  traders  with  the  natives  were  from  Boston;  the  first  English 
vessels  appeared  about  the  same  time,  which  was  during  the  reign  of  George 
III.  Hence  in  the  Chinook  Jargon  we  find  'Boston,  an  American;  Boston 
illahie,  the  United  States;'  and  'King  George,  English — King  George  man,  an 
Englishman. ' 


360  CALIFOKNIANS. 

strong  to  work;  she  told  me  her  sorrow  when  Gesnip 
died.  0  Gesnip  gone,  gone,  gone!"  and  this  was  kept 
up  during  the  entire  march,  the  dead  wife's  virtues  sung 
and  chorused  by  the  whole  tribe,  accompanied  by  the 
scattering  of  ashes  and  lamentations  which  now  had  be 
come  very  noisy.  The  lady  further  states  that  the  scene 
at  the  grave  was  so  impressive  that  she  was  unable  to 
restrain  her  tears.  No  wonder  then  that  these  impulsive 
children  of  nature  carry  their  joy  and  sorrow  to  excess, 
even  so  far  as  in  this  instance,  where  the  affectionate 
daughter  of  the  old  crone  had  to  be  held  by  her  compan 
ions  from  throwing  herself  into  the  grave  of  her  dead 
mother.  After  all,  how  slight  the  shades  of  difference 
in  hearts  human,  whether  barbaric  or  cultured! 

As  before  mentioned,  the  ruling  passion  of  the  savage 
seems  to  be  love  of  wealth;  having  it,  he  is  respected, 
without  it  he  is  despised ;  consequently  he  is  treacher 
ous  when  it  profits  him  to  be  so,  thievish  when  he 
can  steal  without  danger,  cunning  when  gain  is  at  stake, 
brave  in  defense  of  his  lares  and  penates.  Next  to 
his  excessive  venality,  abject  superstition  forms  the 
the  most  prominent  feature  of  his  character.  He  seems 
to  believe  that  everything  instinct  with  animal  life — 
with  some,  as  with  the  Siahs,  it  extends  to  vegetable  life 
also — is  possessed  by  evil  spirits;  horrible  fancies  fill  his 
imagination.  The  rattling  of  acorns  on  the  roof,  the 
rustling  of  leaves  in  the  deep  stillness  of  the  forest  is 
sufficient  to  excite  terror.  His  wicked  spirit  is  the  very 
incarnation  of  fiendishness ;  a  monster  who  falls  suddenly 
upon  the  unwary  traveler  in  solitary  places  and  rends 
him  in  pieces,  and  whose  imps  are  ghouls  that  exhume 
the  dead  to  devour  them.79 

Were  it  not  for  the  diabolic  view  he  takes  of  nature, 
his  life  would  be  a  comparatively  easy  one.  His  wants 
are  few,  and  such  as  they  are,  he  has  the  means  of  sup 
plying  them.  He  is  somewhat  of  a  stoic,  his  motto  being 

79  '  They  will  often  go  three  or  four  miles  out  of  their  way,  to  avoid  pass 
ing  a  place  which  they  think  to  be  haunted.'  The,  Shastas  and  their  Neigh- 
bors,  MS. 


THE  CENTRAL  CALIFORNIANS.  361 

never  do  to-day  what  can  be  put  off  until  to-morrow, 
and  he  concerns  himself  little  with  the  glories  of  peace 
or  war.  Now  and  then  we  find  him  daubing  himself 
with  great  stripes  of  paint,  and  looking  ferocious,  but 
ordinarily  he  prefers  the  calm  of  the  peaceful  temescal 
to  the  din  of  battle.  The  task  of  collecting  a  winter 
store  of  food  he  converts  into  a  kind  of  summer  picnic, 
and  altogether  is  inclined  to  make  the  best  of  things,  in 
spite  of  the  annoyance  given  him  in  the  way  of  reserva 
tions  and  other  benefits  of  civilization.  Taken  as  a 
_whole,  the  Northern  Californian  is  not  such  a  bad  speci 
men  of  a  savage,  as  savages  go,  but  filthiness  and  greed 
are  not  enviable  qualities,  and  he  has  a  full  share  of 
both.80 

THE  CENTRAL  CALIFORNIANS  occupy  a  yet  larger  ex 
tent  of  territory,  comprising  the  whole  of  that  portion  of 
California  extending,  north  and  south,  from  about  40° 
30'  to  35°,  and,  east  and  west,  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  to 
the  Californian  boundary. 

80  The  Pitt  Eiver  Indians  '  are  very  shrewd  in  the  way  of  stealing,  and 
will  beat  a  coyote.  They  are  full  of  cunning.'  The  Shastas  and  their  Neigh 
bors,  MS.  They  'are  very  treacherous  and  bloody  in  their  dispositions.' 
Ajbott,  inPac.  R.  It.  Kept.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  61.  'The  Indians  of  the  North  of 
California  stand  at  the  very  lowest  point  of  culture.'  Pf tiffer's  Second  Journ., 
p.  316.  '  Incapable  of  treachery,  but  ready  to  fight  to  the  death  in  aveng 
ing  an  insult  or  injury.  They  are  active  and  energetic  in  the  extreme.' 
Kelly's  Excursion  to  Cal.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  166.  At  Klamath  Lake  they  are  noted 
for  treachery.  Fremont's  Explor.  Ex.,  p.  205.  'The  Tolowas  resemble 
the  Hoopas  in  character,  being  a  bold  and  masterly  race,  formidable  in  bat 
tle,  aggressive  and  haughty.'  The  Patawats  are  'extremely  timid  and  inof 
fensive.'  The  Chillulas,  like  most  of  the  coast  tribes  '  are  characterized  by 
hideous  and  incredible  superstitions.'  The  Modocs  '  are  rather  a  cloddish, 
indolent,  ordinarily  good-natured  race,  but  treacherous  at  bottom,  sullen 
when  angered,  and  notorious  for  keeping  punic  faith.  Their  bravery  nobody 
can  dispute.'  The  Yukas  are  a  'tigerish,  truculent,  sullen,  thievish,  and 
every  way  bad,  but  brave  race.'  Powers'  Porno,  MS.  On  Trinity  River  '  they 
have  acquired  the  vices  of  the  whites  without  any  of  their  virtues.'  Heintzel- 
man,  in  Ind.  Af.  Kept.,  1857,  p.  391.  Above  the  forks  of  the  main  Trinity 
they  are  '  fierce  and  intractable.'  On  the  Klamath  they  '  have  a  reputation 
for  treachery,  as  well  as  revengefulness;  are  thievish,  and  much  disposed  to 
sulk  if  their  whims  are  not  in  every  way  indulged.'  They  'blubber  like  a 
schoolboy  at  the  application  of  a  switch.'  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft' s  Arch.,  vol. 
iii.,  pp.  139,  141,  176.  The  Rogue  River  Indians  and  Shastas  '  are  a  warlike 
race,  proud  and  haughty,  but  treacherous  and  very  degraded  in  their  moral 
nature.'  Miller,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1857,  p.  361.  At  Rogue  River  they 
are  'brave,  haughty,  indolent,  and  superstitious.'  Ostrander,  in  Id.,  1857,  p. 
368;  Roseborough's  letter  to  the  author,  MS. 


362  CALIFOENIANS. 

The  Native  Races  of  this  region  are  not  divided,  as  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  state,  into  comparatively  large 
tribes,  but  are  scattered  over  the  face  of  the  country  in 
innumerable  little  bands,  with  a  system  of  nomenclature 
so  intricate  as  to  puzzle  an  (Edipus.  Neverthless,  as 
among  the  most  important,  I  may  mention  the  following: 
The  Tehamas,  from  whom  the  county  takes  its  name; 
the  Pomos,  which  name  signifies  l  people',  and  is  the 
collective  appellation  of  a  number  of  tribes  living  in  Pot 
ter  Valley,  where  the  head-waters  of  Eel  and  Russian 
rivers  interlace,  and  extending  west  to  the  ocean  and 
south  to  Clear  Lake.  Each  tribe  of  the  nation  takes  a 
distinguishing  prefix  to  the  name  of  Porno,  as,  the  Oastel 
Pomos  and  Ki  Pomos  on  the  head -waters  of  Eel  River ; 
the  Pome  Pomos,  Earth  People,  in  Potter  Valley; 
the  Cahto  Pomos,  in  the  valley  of  that  name;  the 
Choam  Chadela  Pomos,  Pitch-pine  People,  in  Redwood 
Yalley ;  the  Matomey  Ki  Pomos,  Wooded  Yalley  People, 
about  Little  Lake ;  the  Usals,  or  Camalel  Pomos,  Coast 
People,  on  Usal  Creek;  the  Shebalne  Pomos,  Neighbor 
People,  in  Sherwood  Yalley,  and  many  others.  On 
Russian  River,  the  Gallinomeros  occupy  the  valley  below 
Healdsburg ;  the  Sanels,  Socoas,  Lamas,  and  Seacos,  live  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  village  of  Sanel ;  the  Comachos  dwell  in 
Rancheria  and  Anderson  valleys ;  the  Ukialis,  or  Yokias, 
near  the  town  of  Ukiah,  which  is  a  corruption  of  their 
name;81  the  Guahlas^  on  the  creek  which  takes  its  name 
from  them,  about  twenty  miles  above  the  mouth  of 
Russian  River.  On  the  borders  of  Clear  Lake  were  the 
Lopittamillos,  the  Mipacmas,  and  Tyugas-,  the  Yolos,  or 
Yolays,  that  is  to  say,  t  region  thick  with  rushes,'  of 
which  the  present  name  of  the  county  of  Yolo  is  a 
corruption,  lived  on  Cache  Creek ;  the  Colusas  occupied 
the  west  bank  of  the  Sacramento ;  in  the  Yalley  of  the 
Moon,  as  the  Sonomas  called  their  country,  besides  them 
selves  there  were  the  Guillicas,  the  Kanimares,  the  Simba- 

81  These  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Yukas  in  Hound  Valley,  Teha- 
ma  County. 

82  Spelled  Walhalla  on  some  maps. 


NATIONS  OF  CENTEAL  CALIFOKNIA.  363 

fakees,  the  Petalumas,  and  the  Wapos;  the  Tachichumnes 
inhabited  the  country  between  Stockton  and  Mount 
Diablo.  According  to  Hittel,  there  were  six  tribes  in 
Napa  Valley :  the  Mayacomas,  the  Calajomanas,  the  Cay- 
mus,  the  Napas,  the  Ulucas,  and  the  Suscols ;  Mr  Taylor 
also  mentions  the  GuenocJes,  the  Tkdkays,  and  the  Socollo- 
millos ;  in  Suisun  Valley  were  the  Suisunes,  the  Pulpones, 
the  Tolenos,  and  the  Ulhdatas ;  the  tribe  of  the  celebrated 
chief  Marin  lived  near  the  mission  of  San  Rafael,  and 
on  the  ocean-coast  of  Marin  County  were  the  Bolanos 
and  Tamaks ;  the  Karquines  lived  on  the  straits  of  that 
name.  Humboldt  and  Muhlenpfordt  mention  the  Mata- 
lanes,  Salses,  and  Quirotes,  as  living  round  the  bay  of  San 
Francisco.  According  to  Adam  Johnson,  who  was  In 
dian  agent  for  California  in  1850,  the  principal  tribes 
originally  living  at  the  Mission  Dolores,  and  Yerba 
Buena,  were  the  Akwasktes,  Altahmos,  Romanans,  and 
Tufamos]  Choris  gives  the  names  of  more  than  fifteen 
tribes  seen  at  the  Mission,  Charnisso  of  nineteen,  and 
transcribed  from  the  mission  books  to  the  TRIBAL  BOUN 
DARIES  of  this  group,  are  the  names  of  nearly  two  hun 
dred  rancherias.  The  Socoi&ukas,  Thamiens,  and  Gerge- 
censens  roamed  through  Santa  Clara  County.  The 
Okhones  inhabited  the  coast  between  San  Francisco  and 
Monterey;  in  the  vicinity  of  the  latter  place  were  the 
Rumsens  or  Runsiens,  the  JEcdemaches,  Uscdem  or 
Eslens,  the  Achastliens,  and  the  Mutsunes.  On  the  San 
Joaquin  lived  the  Costrowers,  the  Pikiaches,  Talluches, 
Loommars,  and  Amonces ;  on  Fresno  River  the  Chowdas, 
Cookchaneys,  Fonechas,  NooJcchws,  and  Hvwetsers]  the 
JZemitches  and  Cowiahs,  lived  on  Four  Creeks;  the  Wa- 
ches,  Notoowthas,  and  Chunemmes  on  King  River,  and  on 
Tulare  Lake,  the  Talches  and  Wooivells. 

In  their  aboriginal  manners  and  customs  they  differ 
but  little,  so  little,  in  fact,  that  one  description  will  apply 
to  the  whole  division  within  the  above-named  limits. 
The  reader  will  therefore  understand  that,  except  where 
a  tribe  is  specially  named,  I  am  speaking  of  the  whole 
people  collectively. 


364  CALIFORNIANS. 

The  conflicting  statements  of  men  who  had  ample  op 
portunity  for  observation,  and  who  saw  the  people  they 
describe,  if  not  in  the  same  place,  at  least  in  the  same 
vicinity,  render  it  difficult  to  give  a  correct  description 
of  their  physique.  They  do  not  appear  to  deteriorate 
toward  the  coast,  or  improve  toward  the  interior,  so 
uniformly  as  their  northern  neighbors;  but  this  may  be 
accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  several  tribes  that  for 
merly  lived  on  the  coast  have  been  driven  inland  by  the 
settlers  and  vice  versa. 

Some  ethnologists  see  in  the  Californians  a  stock 
different  from  that  of  any  other  American  race ;  but  the 
more  I  dwell  upon  the  subject,  the  more  convinced  I  am, 
that,  except  in  the  broader  distinctions,  specific  classifica 
tions  of  humanity  are  but  idle  speculations.  Their 
height  rarely  exceeds  five  feet  eight  inches,  and  is  more 
frequently  five  feet  four  or  five  inches,  and  although 
strongly  they  are  seldom  symetrically  built.  A  low  re 
treating  forehead,  black  deep-set  eyes,  thick  bushy  eyer 
brows,  salient  cheek-bones,  a  nose  depressed  at  the  root 
and  somewhat  wide-spreading  at  the  nostrils,  a  large 
mouth  with  thick  prominent  lips,  teeth  large  and  white, 
but  not  always  regular,  and  rather  large  ears,  is  the  pre 
vailing  type.  Their  complexion  is  much  darker  than  that 
of  the  tribes  farther  north,  often  being  nearly  black;  so 
that  with  their  matted,  bushy  hair,  which  is  frequently 
cut  short,  they  present  a  very  uncouth  appearance.83 

83  In  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Ross,  '  Die  Indianer  sind  von  mittlerem  Wuchse, 
doch  trifft  man  auch  liohe  Gestalten  miter  ihnen  an;  sie  sind  ziemlich  wohl 
proportionirt,  die  Farbe  der  Haut  ist  braunlich,  doch  ist  diese  Farbe  mehr 
eine  Wirkung  der  Sonne  als  angeboren;  die  Augen  und  Haare  sind  schwarz, 
die  letzteren  stehen  straff. . .  .Beide  Geschlechter  sind  von  kraftigem  Korper- 
bau.'  Kostromitonow,  in  Baer.  Stat.  u.  Ethn.,  p.  81.  Quoique  surpris  dans  mi 
tres-graiid  neglige,  ces  hommes  me  parurent  beaux,  de  haute  taille,  robustes 
et  parf aitement  decouples . .  traits  reguliers .  . .  yeux  noirs . . .  nez  aquilin 
surmonte  d'un  front  eleve,  les  pommettes  des  joues  arrondies, ....  fortes  levres 
. . .  .dents  blanches  et  bien  rangees. . .  .peau  jaune  cuivre,  uii  cou  annonc.ant 
la  vigueur  et  soutenu  par  de  larges  epaules . . . .  un  air  intelligent  et  fier  a  la 
fois . . . .  Je  trouvai  toutes  les  f emmes  horriblement  laides. '  Laplace,  Circumnav, 
torn,  vi.,  145-6.  At  the  head  of  the  Eel  River  '  the  average  height  of  these  men 
was  not  over  five  feet  four  or  five  inches.  They  were  lightly  built,  with  no 
superfluous  flesh,  but  with  very  deep  chests  and  sinewy  legs.'  Gibbs,  in  School- 
craft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  1 19.  '  The  Clear  Lake  Indians  are  of  a  very  degraded 
caste;  their  foreheads  naturally  being  often  as  low  as  the  compressed  skulls 
of  the  Chinooks,  and  their  forms  commonly  small  and  ungainly.'  Id.,  p.  108. 


PHYSICAL  PECULIAKITIES.  365 

The  question  of  beard  has  been  much  mooted ;  some 
travelers  asserting  that  they  are  bearded  like  Turks, 

At  Bodega  Bay  '  they  are  an  ugly  and  brutish  race,  many  with  negro  pro 
files.'  Id.,  p.  103.  '  They  are  physically  an  inferior  race,  and  have  flat, 
unmeaning  features,  long,  coarse,  straight  black  hair,  big  mouths,  and  very 
dark  skins.'  Revere's  Tour.,  p.  120.  '  Large  and  strong,  their  colour  being 
the  same  as  that  of  the  whole  territory.'  Maurdle's  Jour.,  p.  47.  It  is 
said  of  the  natives  of  the  Sacramento  valley,  that  '  their  growth  is  short  and 
stunted;  they  have  short  thick  necks,  and  clumsy  heads;  the  forehead  is  low, 
the  nose  flat  with  broad  nostrils,  the  eyes  very  narrow  and  showing  no  in 
telligence,  the  cheek-bones  prominent,  and  the  mouth  large.  The  teeth  are 
white,  but  they  do  not  stand  in  even  rows;  and  their  heads  are  covered  by 
short,  thick,  rough  hair.  . .  .Their  color  is  a  dirty  yellowish-brown.'  Pfeiffer's 
Second  Journ.,  p.  307.  '  This  race  of  Indians  is  probably  inferior  to  all  others 
on  the  continent.  Many  of  them  are  diminutive  in  stature,  but  they  do  not 
lack  muscular  strength,  and  we  saw  some  who  were  tall  and  well-formed. 
. . . .  Their  complexion  is  a  dark  mahogany,  or  often  nearly  black,  their  faces 
round  or  square,  with  features  approximating  nearer  to  the  African  than 
the  Indian.  Wide,  enormous  mouth,  noses  nearly  flat,  and  hair  straight, 

black,  and  coarse Small,  gleaming  eyes.'  Johnson's  Cal.  and  Ogn.,pp.  142- 

3.     Of  good  stature,  strong  and  muscular.  Bryant's  Cal.,  p.  266.     '  Rather 

below  the  middle  stature,  but  strong,  well-knit  fellows Good-looking, 

and  well  limbed.'  Kelly's  Excursion  to  Cal.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  81,  111.  'They  were 
in  general  fine  stout  men.'  A  great  diversity  of  physiognomy  was  noticeable. 
Pickerin'fs  Races,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  pp.  105,  107.  On  the  Sacra 
mento  'were  fine  robust  men,  of  low  stature,  and  badly  formed.'  WilJces' 
Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  v.,  p.  198.  'The  mouth  is  very  large,  and  the 
nose  broad  and  depressed.'  '  Chiefly  distinguished  by  their  dark  color. . . . 
broad  faces,  a  low  forehead.'  Ilale's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  222. 
'  Their  features  are  coarse,  broad,  and  of  a  dark  chocolate  color.'  Taylor, 
in  Cal.  Farmer,  Nov.  2,  186'J.  At  Drake's  Bay,  just  above  San  Francisco, 
the  men  are  '  commonly  so  strong  of  bodjr,  that  that  which  two  or  three  of 
our  men  could  hardly  beare,  one  of  them  would  take  vpon  his  backe,  and 
without  grudging  carrie  it  easily  away,  vp  hill  and  downe  hill  an  English  mile 
together.'  Drake's  World  Encomp.,  p.  131,  'Los  Naturales  de  este  sitio  y 
Puerto  son  algo  triguenos,  por  lo  quemados  del  Sol,  aunque  los  venidos  de  la 
otra  banda  del  Puerto  y  del  Estero.  .  .son  mas  blancos  y  corpulentos.'  Palou 
Vida  de  Jum'pero  Serra,  p.  215.  'Ugly,  stupid,  and  savage;  otherwise  they 
are  well  formed,  tolerably  tall,  and  of  a  dark  brown  complexion.  The  women 
are  short,  and  very  ugly;  they  have  much  of  the  negro  in  their  countenance. 
. . .  .Very  long,  smooth,  and  coal-black  hair.'  Kotzebm's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  282-3. 
'  They  all  have  a  very  savage  look,  and  are  of  a  very  dark  color.'  Chamisso, 
in  Kotzebue's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  47.  '  111  made;  their  faces  ugly,  presenting  a 
dull,  heavy,  and  stupid  countenance.'  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  13.  The 
Tcholovoiii  tribe  '  differe  beaucoup  de  toutes  les  autres  par  les  traits  du  visage 
par  sa  physionomie,  par  un  exterieur  assez  agreable.'  Choris,  Voy.  Pitt,  part 
iii.,  p.  6.,  plate  vi.,  vii.,  xii.  'The  Alchones  are  of  good  height,  and  the 
Tuluraios  were  thought  to  be,  generally,  above  the  standard  of  Englishmen. 
Their  complexion  is  much  darker  than  that  of  the  South-sea  Islanders,  and 
their  features  far  inferior  in  beauty.'  Beechey's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  76.  At 
Santa  Clara  they  are  '  of  a  blackish  colour,  they  have  flat  faces,  thick  lips, 
and  black,  coarse,  straight  hair.'  Kotzebue's  New  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,p.  98.  'Their 
features  are  handsome,  and  well-proportioned;  their  countenances  are  cheer 
ful  and  interesting.'  Morrell's  Voy.,  p.  212.  At  Placerville  they  are  'most 

repulsive-looking  wretches They  are  nearly  black,  and  are  exceedingly 

ugly.'  Borthwick's  Three  Years  in  Cal.,  p.  128.  In  the  Yosemite  Valley  'they 
are  very  dark  colored,'  and  'the  women  are  perfectly  hideous.'  Kneeland's 
Wonders  of  Yosemite,  p.  52.  The  Monos  on  the  east  side  of  the  Sierra  are 
'  a  fine  looking  race,  straight,  and  of  good  height,  and  appear  to  be  active.' 


366  CALIFORNIANS. 

others  that  they  are  beardless  as  women.  Having  care 
fully  compared  the  pros  and  cons,  I  think  I  am  justified 
in  stating  that  the  Central  Californiaris  have  beards, 

Von  Schmidt,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1856,  p.  2-3.  At  Monterey  'ils  sont 
en  general  bien  faits,  mais  faibles  d'esprit  et  de  corps.'  In  the  vicinity 
of  San  Miguel,  they  are  '  generalement  d'une  couleur  foncee,  sales  et  mal 
faits. . .  .a  1'exceptioii  tout  fois  des  Indiens  qui  habitent  sur  les  bords  de  la 
riviere  des  tremblements  de  terre,  et  sur  la  cote  voisine.  Ceux-ci  sont  blancs, 
d'une  joli  figure,  et  leurs  cheveux  tirent  sur  le  roux.'  Pages,  in  Nouvelles 
Annales  des  Vby.t  1844,  torn,  ci.,  pp.  332,  163;  also  quoted  in  Marmier,  Notice 

sur  les  Indiens,  p.  236.     'Sont  generalement  petits,  faibles leur  couleur 

est  tres-approchante  de  celle  des  negres  dont  les  cheveux  ne  sont  point 
laineux:  ceux  de  cespeuples  sont  longs  ettres-forts.'  La  Pe'rouse,  Voy.,  torn, 
ii.,  p.  281.  'La  taille  des  hommes  est  plus  haute  (than  that  of  the  Chili 
ans),  et  leurs  muscles  mieux  prononces.'  The  figure  of  the  women  '  est  plus 
elevee  (than  that  of  the  Chilian  women),  et  la  forme  de  leurs  membres  est 
plus  reguliere;  elles  sont  en  general  d'une  stature  mieux  developpee  et 
d'une  physionornie  moins  repoussante.'  Eollin,  in  La  Pe'rouse,  Voy.,  torn,  iv., 
p.  52.  At  San  Jose  '  the  men  are  almost  all  rather  above  the  middling  sta 
ture,  and  well  built;  very  few  indeed  are  what  may  be  called  undersized. 
Their  complexions  are  dark  but  not  negro  like ....  some  seemed  to  possess 
great  muscular  strength;  they  have  very  coarse  black  hair.'  Some  of  the 
women  were  more  than  five  feet  six  inches  in  height.  And  speaking  of  the 
Californian  Indians,  in  general,  '  they  are  of  a  middling,  or  rather  of  a  low 
stature,  and  of  a  dark  brown  colour,  approaching  to  black large  project 
ing  lips,  and  broad,  flat,  negro-like  noses;. . .  .bear  a  strong  resemblance  to 
the  negroes ....  None  of  the  men  we  saw  were  above  five  feet  high . . .  ill-pro 
portioned.  . .  .we  had  never  seen  a  less  pleasing  specimen  of  the  human  race.' 
Langsdorff's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  194-5,  164,  see  plate.  And  speaking  gener 
ally  of  the  Californian  Indians:  '  Die  Manner  sind  im  Allgemeinen  gut  gebaut 
und  von  starker  Korperbildung, '  height  '  zwischen  fiinf  Fuss  vier  Zoll  und 
funf  Fuss  zehn  oder  eilf  Zoll.'  Complexion  '  die  urn  ein  klein  wenig  heller 
als  bei  den  Mulatten,  also  weit  dunkler  ist,  als  bei  den  iibrigen  Indianer- 
stammen.'  Osswald,  Calif ornien,  p.  62.  The  coast  Indians  'are  about  five 
feet  and  a  half  in  height,  and  rather  slender  and  feeble, '  in  the  interior  they 
'are  taller  and  more  robust.'  Farnham's  Life  in  CaL,  p.  364.  '  Cubische 
Schadelform,  niedrige  Stirn,  breites  Gesicht,  mit  hervorragendem  Jochbogen, 
breite  Lippen  und  grosser  Mund,  mehr  platte  Nase  und  am  Innenwinkel 
herabgezogene  Augen.'  Wimmel,  Calif ornien,  pp.  v.,  177.  'Les  Californiens 
sont  presque  noirs;  la  disposition  de  leur  yeux  et  1'ensemble  de  leur  visage 
leur  donnent  avec  les  europeens  uiie  ressemblance  assez  marquee.'  Rossi, 
Souvenirs,  pp.  279-80.  'They  are  small  in  stature;  thin,  squalid,  dirty,  and 
degraded  in  appearance.  In  their  habits  little  better  than  an  ouraiig-outang, 
they  are  certainly  the  worst  type  of  savage  I  have  ever  seen.'  Lord's  Nat., 
vol.  i.,  p.  249.  '  More  swarthy  in  complexion,  and  of  less  stature  than  those 
east  of  the  Kocky  Mountains ....  more  of  the  Asiatic  cast  of  countenance  than 
the  eastern  tribe.'  Delano's  Life  on  the  Plains,  p.  304.  '  Depasse  rarement  la 
hauteur  de  cinq  pieds  deux  'ou  trois  pouces;  leur  membres  sout  greles  et 
mediocrement  muscles.  Ils  ont  de  grosses  levres  qui  se  projettent  en  avant, 
le  nez  large  et  aplati  coinrne  les  Ethiopiens;  leurs  cheveux  sont  noirs,  rude 
etdroits.'  Auger,  Voy.  en  CaL,  p.  165.  '  Generally  of  small  stature,  robust  ap 
pearance,  and  not  well  formed.'  Thornton's  Ogn.  and  CaL,  vol.  ii.,  p.  91. 
' Schon  gewachsen  und  von  schwartzlich-brauner  Farbe.'  Muhlenpfordt 
Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  part  ii.,  p.  455.  '  Low  foreheads  and  skins  as  black  as 
Guinea  negroes.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  i.,  p.  85.  'En  naissant  les  en- 
f  ants  sont  presque  blancs ....  mais  ils  noircissent  en  grandissant. '  '  Depuis 
le  nord  du  Bio  Sacramento  jusqu'au  cap  San  Lucas. .  .  .leurs  caracteres  phy 
sique,  leurs  moeurs  et  leurs  usages  sont  les  memes.'  Mofras,  JExplor.,  torn. 


DKESS  IN  CENTRAL  CALIFORNIA.  367 

though  not  strong  ones,  and  that  some  tribes  suffer  it  to 
grow,  while  others  pluck  it  out  as  soon  as  it  appears.84 

During  summer,  except  on  festal  occasions,  the  apparel 
of  the  men  is  of  the  most  primitive  character,  a  slight 
strip  of  covering  round  the  loins  being  full  dress;  but 
even  this  is  unusual,  the  majority  preferring  to  be  per 
fectly  unencumbered  by  clothing.  In  winter  the  skin 
of  a  deer  or  other  animal  is  thrown  over  the  shoulders, 
or  sometimes  a  species  of  rope  made  from  the  feathers  of 
water-fowl,  or  strips  of  otter-skin,  twisted  together,  is 
wound  round  the  body,  forming  an  effectual  protection 
against  the  weather.  The  women  are  scarcely  better 
clad,  their  summer  costume  being  a  fringed  apron  of 
tule-grass,  which  falls  from  the  waist  before  and  behind 


ii.,  pp.  263,  367.  '  Skin  of  such  a  deep  reddish-brown  that  it  seems  almost 
black.'  Figuier's  Human  Race,  p.  493;  Buschmann,  Spuren  der  Aztek.  Sprache, 
p.  528;  Forbes'  CaL,  pp.  180-3;  Harper's  Monthly,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  583.  'A 
fine  set  of  men,  who,  though  belonging  to  different  nationalities,  had  very 
much  the  same  outward  appearance;  so  that  when  you  have  seen  one  you 
seem  to  have  seen  them  all.'  Pirn  and  Seemann's  Dotting,  p.  15. 

84  On  the  Sacramento  River  '  the  men  universally  had  some  show  of  a 
beard,  an  inch  or  so  in  length,  but  very  soft  and  fine.'  Pickering's  Races, 
in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  p.  105.  'They  had  beards  and  whiskers  an  inch 
or  two  long,  very  soft  and  fine.'  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  v.,  p.  198. 
On  Russian  River  '  they  have  quite  heavy  moustaches  and  beards  on  the  chin, 
but  not  much  on  the  cheeks,  and  they  almost  all  suffer  it  to  grow.'  The 
Clear  Lake  Indians  '  have  also  considerable  beards,  and  hair  on  the  per 
son.'  At  the  head  of  South  Fork  of  Eel  River,  '  they  pluck  their  beards.' 
Gibbs,  in  RchoolcrafVs  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  108-119.  At  Monterey  'plusieurs 
ont  de  la  barbe;  d'autres,  suivant  les  peres  missionaires,  n'en  ont  jamais  eu, 
et  c'est  un  question  qui  n'est  pasmeme  decidee  dans  le  pays.'  La  Perouse, 
Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  282.  '  Les  Californiens  ont  la  barbe  plus  fournie  que  les 
Chiliens,  et  les  parties  genitales  mieux  garnies:  cependant  j'ai  remarque, 
parmi  les  hommes,  un  grand  nombre  d'individus  totalement  depourvus  de 
barbe;  les  femmes  ont  aussi  peu  de  poil  au  penil  et  aux  aisselles.'  Eollm, 
in  La  Perouse,  Voy.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  53.  'They  have  the  habit  common  to  all 
American  Indians  of  extracting  the  beard  and  the  hair  of  other  parts  of  their 
body.'  FarnhanCs  Life  in  CaL,  p.  364.  Beards  'short,  thin,  and  stiff.'  Bart- 
lett's  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  34.  'In  general  very  scanty,  although  occasionally  a 
full  flowing  beard  is  observed.'  Forbes'  CaL,  pp.  181-2.  '  Beards  thin;  many 
shave  them  close  with  mussel-shells.'  Langsdorff's  Voy.,  vol.ii.,  p.  J64.  '  Ihr 
Bart  ist  schwach.'  Wimmd,  Calif ornien,  vol.  v.  At  San  Antonio,  '  in  the  olden 
times,  before  becoming  Christians,  they  pulled  out  their  beards.'  Taylor,  in 
CaL  Farmer,  April  27,  1860.  Choris  in  his  Voy.  Pitt.,  plates  vi..  vii.,  xii., 
of  part  iii.,  draws  the  Indians  with  a  very  slight  and  scattered  beard. 
'Pluck  out  their  beard.'  Auger,  Voy.  in  CaL,  p.  165.  'Wear  whiskers.' 
Thornton's  Ogn.  and  CaL,  vol.  ii.,  p.  91.  '  Les  Indiens  qui  habitent  dans  la 
direction  du  cap  de  Nouvel-An  (del  Ano  Nuevo) . . .  .ont  des  moustaches.' 
Fages,  in  Nouvellcs  Annales  des  Voy.,  1844,  torn,  ci.,  p.  335.  Miihlenpfordt 
mentions  that  at  the  death  of  a  relation,  '  die  Manner  raufen  Haupthaar 
und  Bart  sich  aus.'  Mejico,  vol.  ii.,  part  ii.,  p.  456. 


368  CALIFORNIANS. 

nearly  down  to  the  knees,  and  is  open  at  the  sides. 
Some  tribes  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Sacramento  Val 
ley  wear  the  round  bowl-shaped  hat  worn  by  the  natives 
on  the  Klamath.  During  the  cold  season  a  half- tanned 
deer-skin,  or  the  rope  garment  above  mentioned,  is  added. 
The  hair  is  worn  in  various  styles.  Some  bind  it  up  in 
a  knot  on  the  back  of  the  head,  others  draw  it  back  and 
club  it  behind ;  farther  south  it  is  worn  cut  short,  and 
occasionally  we  find  it  loose  and  flowing.  It  is  not  un 
common  to  see  the  head  adorned  with  chaplets  of  leaves 
or  flowers,  reminding  one  of  a  badly  executed  bronze  of 
Apollo  or  Bacchus.  Ear-ornaments  are  much  in  vogue ; 
a  favorite  variety  being  a  long  round  piece  of  carved 
bone  or  wood,  sometimes  with  beads  attached,  which  is 
also  used  as  a  needle-case.  Strings  of  shells  and  beads 
also  serve  as  ear-ornaments  and  necklaces.  The  head 
dress  for  gala  days  and  dances  is  elaborate,  composed  of 
gay  feathers,  skillfully  arranged  in  various  fashions.85 

85  At  Fort  Koss  '  Die  Manner  gehen  ganz  nackt,  die  Frauen  hingegen  be- 
decken  nur  den  mittleren  Theil  des  Korpers  von  vorne  und  von  hinten  mit 
den  Fellen  wilder  Ziegen;  das  Haar  binden  die  Manner  auf  dem  Schopfe, 
die  Frauen  am  Nacken  in  Biischel  zusammen;  bisweilen  lassen  sie  es  frei 
heruiiter  walleii;  die  Manner  heften  die  Biischel  mit  ziemlich  kiinstlich,  aus 
einer  rothen  Palme  geschnitzten  Holzchenfest.'  Kostromitonow,  in  Baer,  Stat. 
u.  Ethno.,  p.  82.  At  Clear  Lake  'the  women  generally  wear  a  small  round, 
bowl-shaped  basket  on  their  heads;  and  this  is  frequently  interwoven  with 
the  red  feathers  of  the  woodpecker,  and  edged  with  the  plume  tufts  of  the 
blue  quail.'  Gibbs,  in  Schooler -aft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  107.  See  also  p.  68, 
plate  xiv.,  for  plate  of  ornaments.  At  Kelsey  Elver,  dress  '  consists  of  a  deer 
skin  robe  thrown  over  the  shoulders.'  Id.,  p.  122.  In  the  Sacramento  Valley 
•they  were  perfectly  naked.'  Kelly's  Excursion  to  Cal.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  111.  'Both 
sexes  have  the  ears  pierced  with  large  holes,  through  which  they  pass  a  piece 
of  wood  as  thick  as  a  man's  finger,  decorated  with  paintings  or  glass  beads.' 
Pfeiffer's  Second  Journ.,  p.  307.  '  The  men  go  entirely  naked;  but  the  women, 
with  intuitive  modesty,  wear  a  small,  narrow,  grass  apron,  which  extends  from 
the  waist  to  the  knees,  leaving  their  bodies  and  limbs  partially  exposed.' 
Delano's  Life  on  Plains,  pp.  305,  307.  '  They  wear  fillets  around  their  heads 
of  leaves.'  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  v.,  p.  192.  'The  dress  of 
the  women  is  a  cincture,  composed  of  narrow  slips  of  fibrous  bark,  or  of 
strings  of  '  Calif ornian  flax,'  or  sometimes  of  rushes.'  Men  naked.  Picker 
ing's  Races,  in  U.  S.  Ex  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  p.  108.  At  Bodega  they  '  most  liberally 
presented  us  with  plumes  of  feathers,  rosaries  of  bone,  garments  of  feathers, 
as  also  garlands  of  the  same  materials,  which  they  wore  round  their  head.' 
Maurelle's  Jour.,  p.  47.  '  The  women  wore  skins  of  animals  about  their  shoul 
ders  and  waists;'  hair  'clubbed  behind.'  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  436. 
Around  San  Francisco  Bay :  '  in  summer  many  go  entirely  naked.  The  women, 
however,  wear  a  deer-skin,  or  some  other  covering  about  their  loins;  but  skin 
dresses  are  not  common.'  To  their  ears  the  women  'attach  long  wooden 
cylinders,  variously  carved,  which  serve  the  double  purpose  of  ear-rings  and 
needle-cases.'  Beechey's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  77.  'All  go  naked.'  Chamisso,  in 


PERSONAL  ADORNMENT.  369 

Tattooing  is  universal  with  the  women,  though  con 
fined  within  narrow  limits.     They  mark  the  chin  in 

Kotzebue's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p. 48.  'The  men  either  go  naked  or  wear  a  simple 
breech-cloth.  The  women  wear  a  cloth  or  strips  of  leather  around  their 
loins.'  BartleWs  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  33.  Three  hundred  years  ago  we  are 
told  that  the  men  in  the  vicinity  of  San  Francisco  Bay  '  for  the  most  part  goe 
naked;  the  women  take  a  kinde  of  bulrushes,  and  kembing  it  after  the  man 
ner  of  hemp,  make  themselues  thereof  a  loose  garment,  which  being  knitte 
about  their  middles,  hanges  downe  about  their  hippes,  and  so  affordes  to  them 
a  couering  of  that  which  nature  teaches  should  be  hidden;  about  their  shoul 
ders  they  weare  also  the  skin  of  a  deere,  with  the  haire  vpon  it.'  The  king 
had  upon  his  shoulders  '  a  coate  of  the  skins  of  conies,  reaching  to  his  wast; 
his  guard  also  had  each  coats  of  the  same  shape,  but  of  other  skin.' . . .  .After 
these  in  their  order,  did  follow  the  naked  sort  of  common  people,  whose 
haire  being  long,  was  gathered  into  a  bunch  behind,  in  which  stucke  plumes 
of  feathers;  but  in  the  forepart  onely  single  feathers  like  homes,  every  one 
pleasing  himselfe  in  his  owne  device.'  Drake's  World  Encamp.,  pp.  121,  126. 
'  Asi  como  Adamitas  se  presentan  sin  el  menor  rubor  ni  vergiienza  (esto  es,  los 
hombres).  y  para  librarse  del  frio  que  todo  el  aiio  hace  en  esta  Mision  (San 
Francisco),  principalmente  las  mammas,  se  embarran  con  lodo,  diciendo  que 
les  preserva  de  el,  y  en  quanto  empieza  a  calentar  el  Sol  se  la  van:  las  mu- 
geres  andan  algo  honestas,  hasta  las  muchachas  chiquitas:  usan  para  la 
honestidad  de  tin  delantar  que  hacen  de  hilos  de  tule,  6  juncia,  que  no- 
pasa  de  la  rodilla,  y  otro  atras  amarrados  a  la  cintura,  que  ambos  forman 
como  unas  enaguas,  con  que  se  presentan  con  alguna  honestidad,  y  en  las- 
espaldas  se  ponen  otros  semejantes  para  librarse  en  alguna  manera  del  frio.' 
Palou,  Vida  de  Junipero  Serra,  p.  217.  At  Monterey,  and  on  the  coast  be 
tween  Monterey  and  Santa  Barbara  the  dress  '  du  plus  riche  consiste  en  un 
manteau  de  peau  de  loutre  qui  couvre  ses  reins  et  descend  au-dessous  des 
aines  ...L'habillement  des  femmes  est  un  manteau  de  peau  de  cerf  mal 
tannee. . .  .Les  jeunes  filles  au-dessous  de  neuf  ans  n'ont  qu'une  simple  cein- 
ture.  et  les  enfans  de  1'autre  sexe  sont  tout  mis.'  La  Perouse,  Voy.,  torn,  ii., 
pp.  304-5.  '  Us  se  percent  aussi  les  oreilles,  et  y  portent  des  ornemens  d'un 
genre  et  d'un  gout  tres-varies.'  Eollin,  in  La  Perouse,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  53. 
'Those  between  Monterey  and  the  extreme  northern  boundary  of  the  Mexi 
can  domain,  shave  their  heads  close.'  Boscana,  in  Robinson's  Life  in  CaL, 
p.  239.  On  the  coast  between  San  Diego  and  San  Francisco  'presque  tous 

vont  entierement  nus;  ceux  qui  ont  quelques  vetements,  n'ont  autre 

chose  qu'une  casaque  faite  de  courroies  de  peau  de  lapins,  de  lievres  ou  de 
loutres,  tresses  ensemble,  et  qui  ont  conserve  le  poil . .  Les  femmes  ont  une  es- 
pece  de  tablier  de  roseaux  tresses  qui  s'attache  autour  de  la  taille  par  un  cor 
don,  et  pend  jusqu'aux  genoux;  une  peau  de  cerf  mal  tannee  et  mal  preparee, 
jetee  sur  leurs  epaules  en  guise  de  manteau,  complete  leur  toilette.'  Fayes,  in 
Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1844,  torn. ci., p. 155 ;  see  also  Marmier,  Notice,  in  Bry 
ant,  Voy.  en  CaL,  p.  227.  '  Sont  tres  pen  converts,  et  en  ete,  la  plupart  vont  tout 
nus.  Les  femmes  font  usage  de  peaux  de  daim  pour  se  couvrir.  .Ces  femmes 
portent  encore  comme  vetement  des  especes  de  couvertures  sans  envers, 
faites  en  plumes  tissues  ensemble. .  .il  a  1'avantage  d'etre  tres-chaud. .  .Elles 
portent  generalement,  au  lieu  de  boucles  d'oreilles,  des  morceaux  d'os  ou  de 
bois  en  forme  de  cylindre  et  sculptes  de  differentes  manieres.  Ces  ornements 
sont  creux  et  servent  egalement  d'etuis  pour  renfermer  leurs  aiguilles.'  Petit- 
Thouars,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  135.  Speaking  generally  of  the  Californian  In 
dians,  '  both  sexes  go  nearly  naked,  excepting  a  sort  of  wrapper  round  the 
waist,  only  in  the  coldest  part  of  the  winter  they  throw  over  their  bodies  a 
covering  of  deer-skin,  or  the  skin  of  the  sea-otter.  They  also  make  them 
selves  garments  of  the  feathers  of  many  different  kinds  of  water-fowl,  par 
ticularly  ducks  and  geese,  bound  together  fast  in  a  sort  of  ropes,  which  ropes 
are  then  united  quite  close  so  as  to  make  something  like  a  feather  skin.'  It 
VOL.  I.  24 


370  CALIFORNIANS. 

perpendicular  lines  drawn  downward  from  the  corners 
and  centre  of  the  mouth,  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
Northern  Californians ;  they  also  tattoo  slightly  on  the 
neck  and  breast.  It  is  said  that  by  these  marks  women 
of  different  tribes  can  be  easily  distinguished.  The  men 
rarely  tattoo,  but  paint  the  body  in  stripes  and  grotesque 
patterns  to  a  considerable  extent.  Red  was  the  favorite 
color,  except  for  mourning,  when  black  was  used.  The 
friars  succeeded  in  abolishing  this  custom  except  on  oc 
casions  of  mourning,  when  affection  for  their  dead  would 
not  permit  them  to  relinquish  it.  The  New  Almaden 
•cinnabar  mine  has  been  from  time  immemorial  a  source 
•of  contention  between  adjacent  tribes.  Thither,  from  a 
liundred  miles  away,  resorted  vermilion-loving  savages, 
-and  often  such  visits  were  not  free  from  blood-shed.86 

Is  very  warm.  '  In  the  same  manner  they  cut  the  sea-otter  skins  into  small 
strips,  which  they  twist  together,  and  then  join  them  as  they  do  the  feathers, 
so  that  both  sides  have  the  fur  alike.'  Langsdorff's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  163-4. 
"See  also  Famham's  Life  in  CaL,  p.  364,  and  Forbes'  Cal.,  p.  183.  '  Irn  Winter 
uelbst  tragen  sie  wenig  Bekleidung,  vielleicht  nur  eine  Hirschhaut,  welche 
•sie  fiber  die  Schulter  werfen;  Manner,  Frauen  und  Kinder  gehen  selbst  im 
Winter  im  Schnee  barfuss.'  Wimmel,  Calif ornien,  p.  177;  Lord's  Nat.,  vol. 
i.,  p.  249;  Patrick,  Gilbert,  Heald,  and  Von  Schmidt,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1856, 
pp.  240-4;  Choris,  Voy.,  Pitt,  part  iii.,  p.  4,  and  plate  xii.;  Muhlenpfordt, 
Mejico,  vol.  ii.,  part  ii.,  p.  455;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  i.,  p.  239;  Shea's 
•Catholic  Missions,  p.  98;  Johnston,  in  Schooler aft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  223;  D'Or- 
Myny,  Voy.,  p.  457;  Auger,  Voy.  en  CaL,  p.  100.  After  having  collated  the 
.above  notes  I  was  rather  taken  aback  by  meeting  the  following:  '  The  gen 
eral  costume  of  nearly  all  the  California!!  Indians  gives  them  rather  an  inter 
esting  appearance;  when  fully  dressed,  their  hair,  which  has  been  loose,  is 
tied  up,  either  with  a  coronet  of  silver,  or  the  thongs  of  skin,  ornamented 
with  feathers  of  the  brightest  colours;  bracelets  made  in  a  similar  manner 
are  wore;  breeches  and  leggings  of  doe-skin,  sewed,  not  unfrequently  with 
human  hair;  a  kind  of  kilt  of  varied  coloured  cloth  or  silk  (!),  fastened  by 
a  scarf,  round  their  waist;  .  . .  The  women  wear  a  cloth  petticoat,  dyed  either 
blue  or  red,  doe-skin  shirt,  and  leggings,  with  feathered  bracelets  round  their 
waist.'  Coulter's  Adventures,  vol.  i.,  pp.,  172-3.  Surely  Mr  Coulter  should 
know  an  Indian  dress  from  one  composed  of  Mexican  cloth  and  trinkets. 

86  At  Bodega  the  women  '  were  as  much  tatooed  or  punctured  as  any  of 
the  females  of  the  Sandwich  islands.'  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  436.  In 
the  Sacramento  Valley  '  most  of  the  men  had  some  slight  marks  of  tattooing 
on  the  breast,  disposed  like  a  necklace.'  Pickering's  Eaces,  in  V.  S.  Ex.  Ex., 
'vol.  ix.,  p.  105.  Dana,  in  a  note  to  Hale,  says:  '  The  faces  of  the  men  were 
•colored  with  black  and  red  paint,  fancifully  laid  on  in  triangles  and  zigzag  lines. 
The  women  were  tattooed  below  the  mouth.'  Hale's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex., 
vol.  vi.,  p.  222.  'Most  of  them  had  some  slight  marks  of  tattooing  on  their 
breast;  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  Chinooks. . .  .The  face  was  usually 
painted,  the  upper  part  of  the  cheek  in  the  form  of  a  triangle,  with  a  blue- 
black  substance,  mixed  with  some  shiny  particles  that  looked  like  pulverized 
mica.'  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.v.,  pp.  198,  259.  '  Their  faces  daubed 
with  a  thick  dark  glossy  substance  like  tar,  in  a  line  from  the  outside  corners 


DWELLINGS  IN  CENTRAL  CALIFORNIA.  371 

A  thick  coat  of  mud  sometimes  affords  protection  from 
a  chilly  wind.  It  is  a  convenient  dress,  as  it  costs  noth 
ing,  is  easily  put  on,  and  is  no  incumbrance  to  the  wearer. 
The  nudity  of  the  savage  more  often  proceeds  from  an 
indifference  to  clothing  than  from  actual  want.  No  peo 
ple  are  found  entirely  destitute  of  clothing  when  the 
weather  is  cold,  and  if  they  can  manage  to  obtain  gar 
ments  of  any  sort  at  one  time  of  year  they  can  at  an 
other. 

Their  dwellings  are  about  as  primitive  as  their  dress. 
In  summer  all  they  require  is  to  be  shaded  from  the 
sun,  and  for  this  a  pile  of  bushes  or  a  tree  will  suf 
fice.  The  winter  huts  are  a  little  more  pretentious. 
These  are  sometimes  erected  on  the  level  ground,  but 
more  frequently  over  an  excavation  three  or  four  feet 
deep,  and  varying  from  ten  to  thirty  feet  in  diameter. 
Round  the  brink  of  this  hole  willow  poles  are  sunk  up 
right  in  the  ground  and  the  tops  drawn  together,  form 
ing  a  conical  structure,  or  the  upper  ends  are  bent  over 

of  the  eyes  to  the  ends  of  the  mouth,  and  back  from  them  to  the  hinge  of  the 
jawbone. . .  .some  also  had  their  entire  foreheads  coated  over.'  Kdly's  Excur 
sion  to  Gal.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  111.  'The  women  are  a  little  tattooed  on  the  chin.' 
Pfeiffer's  Second  Journ.,  p.  307.  At  Monterey  and  vicinity,  'se  peignent  le 
corps  en  rouge,  et  en  noir  lorsqu'ils  sont  en  deuil,'  La  Perouse,  Voy.,  torn,  ii., 
p.  305.  '  He  peignent  la  peau  pour  se  parer.'  Rollin,  in  La  Perouse,  Voy.,  torn, 
iv.,  p.  53.  '  This  one  thing  was  obserued  to  bee  generall  amongst  them  all,  that 
euery  one  had  his  face  painted,  some  with  white,  some  blacke,  and  some  with 
other  colours.'  Drake's  World  Encornp.,  p.  126.  '  Tattooing  is  practised  in  these 
tribes  by  both  sexes,  both  to  ornament  the  person  and  to  distinguish  one  clan 
from  another.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  women  mark  their  chins  precisely 
in  the  same  way  as  the  Esquimaux.'  Beechey's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  77.  'Leg 
indigenes  independents  de  la  Haute-Californie  sont  tatoues. . .  .ces  signes 
servent  d'oriiement  et  de  distinction,  non  seulement  d'une  tribu  a  une 
autre  tribu,  mais  encore,  d'une  famille  a  une  autre  famille.'  Petit-Thouars, 
Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  134-5.  'Tattooing  is  also  used,  but  principally  among 
the  women.  Some  have  only  a  double  or  triple  line  from  each  corner  of 
the  mouth  down  to  the  chin;  others  have  besides  a  cross  stripe  extending 
from  one  of  these  stripes  to  the  other;  and  most  have  simple  long  and 
cross  stripes  from  the  chin  over  the  neck  down  to  the  breast  and  upon  the 
shoulders.'  Langsdorff's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  167;  see  plate,  p.  169.  When  danc 
ing,  'ils  se  peignent  sur  le  corps  des  lignes  regulieres,  noires,  rouges  et 
blanches.  Quelques-uns  ont  la  moitie  du  corps,  depuis  la  tete  jusqu'en  bas, 
barbouillee  de  noir,  et  1'autre  de  rouge;  le  tout  croise  par  des  raies  blanches, 
d'autres  se  poudrent  les  cheveux  avec  du  duvet  d'oiseaux.'  Choris,  Voy.  Pitt., 
part  iii.,  p.  4;  see  also  plate  xii.  'I  have  never  observed  any  particular 
figured  designs  upon  their  persons,  but  the  tattooing  is  generally  on  the 
chin,  though  sometimes  on  the  wrist  and  arm.'  Mostly  on  the  persons  of 
the  females.  Johnston,  in  Schoolcraffs  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  223.  'Les  femmeB 
seules  emploient  le  tatouage.'  Auyer,  Voy,  en  Cat.,  p.  165. 


372  CALIFOKNIANS. 

and  driven  into  the  earth  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  pit, 
thus  giving  the  hut  a  semi-globular  shape.  Bushes,  or 
strips  of  bark,  are  then  piled  up  against  the  poles,  and 
the  whole  is  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  earth  or  mud. 
In  some  instances,  the  interstices  of  the  frame  are  filled 
by  twigs  woven  cross-wise,  over  and  under,  between  the 
poles,  and  the  outside  covering  is  of  tule-reeds  instead  of 
earth.  -  A  hole  at  the  top  gives  egress  to  the  smoke,  and 
a  small  opening  close  to  the  ground  admits  the  occu 
pants. 

Each  hut  generally  shelters  a  whole  family  of  rela 
tions  by  blood  and  marriage,  so  that  the  dimensions  of 
the  habitation  depend  on  the  size  of  the  family.87 

Thatched  oblong  houses  are  occasionally  met  with  in 
Russian  River  Valley,  and  Mr  Powers  mentions  having 
seen  one  among  the  Grallinomeros  which  was  of  the  form 
of  the  letter  L,  made  of  slats  leaned  up  against  each 
other,  and  heavily  thatched.  Along  the  centre  the  dif- 
erent  families  or  generations  had  their  fires,  while  they 
slept  next  the  walls.  Three  narrow  holes  served  as 
doors,  one  at  either  end  and  one  at  the  elbow.88  A  col 

s'''  '  II  est  bien  rare  qu'un  Indien  passe  la  nuit  clans  sa  maison.  Vers  le 
soir  chacim  prend  son  arc  et  ses  fleches  et  va  se  reunir  aux  autres  dans  de 
grandes  cavernes,  parce-qu'ils  craignent  d'etre  attaques  a  1'iniproviste  par 
leurs  ennemis  et  d'etre  surpris  sans  defense  au  milieu  de  leurs  femmes  et  de 
leurs  enfants.'  Pages,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1844,  torn.  ci.,pp.  316-7. 

88  Two  authors  describe  their  dwellings  as  being  much  smaller  than  I  have 
stated  them  to  be:  '  leur  maisonsont  quatre  pieds  de  diametre.'  Marmier,  No 
tice,  in  Bryant,  Voy.  en  Cal.  p.  238.  Their  wigwams  have  '  une  elevation  au- 
dessus  du  sol  de  cinq  ahuit  pieds  et  une  circonference  de  dix  adouze.'  Holin- 
ski,  La  Calif  ornie,  p.  172.  The  authorities  I  have  followed,  and  who  agree 
in  essential  particulars,  are:  Pickering's  Races,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix., 
pp.  103,  106;  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  v.,  p.  198;  Pfeiffer's  Second 
Journ.,  pp.  307-8;  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  106;  Fremont's 
Explor.  Ex.,  p.  242;  Kelly's  Excursion  to  Cal.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  34,  282;  Choris, 
Voy.  Pitt.,  part  iii.,  p.  2;  Drake's  World  Encomp.,  p.  121;  Bartlett'  s  Pers. 
Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  30,  with  cut;  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  13,  15;  Palou, 
Noticias,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  vol.  vi.,  pp.  367,  390;  Suttt  y  Mexicana, 
Viage,  p.  165;  La  Pe'rouse,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  295;  Delano's  Life  on  the  Plains, 
p.  306;  Gerstaecker's  Journ.,  p.  218;  Gilbert,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rep't.,  1856,  p.  242; 
Patrick,  in  Id.,  .  240;  Jewdt,  in  Id  .,  .  244;  Baile,  in  Id.  1858,  .  299; 


Lord 


trick,  in  Id.,  p.  240;  Jewdt,  in  Id  .,  p.  244;  Bailey,  in  Id.,  1858,  p.  299; 
d's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  248;  Langsdorff's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  163;  Wimmel,  Cali- 


fornien,  pp.  177,  179;  Farnham's  Life  in  Cal.,  p.  365;  Beechey's  Voy.,  vol.  ii., 
p.  51;  Baer,  Stat.und  Ethno.,  p.  72;'  Kostromitonow,  in  Id.,  p.  83;  Domenech's 
Deserts,  vol.  i.,  p.  239;  Miihlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  p.  456;  Johnston,  in 
Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  223;  Thornton's  Ogn.  and  Cal.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  91; 
Roquefeuil's  Voy.  Round  the  World,  p.  29;  Fages,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des 
Voy.,  1844,  torn,  ci.,  pp,  316,  343. 


FOOD  AND  METHODS  OF  OBTAINING  ITi  373 

lection  of  native  huts  is  in  California  called  a  rancheria, 
from  rancho,  a  word  first  applied  by  the  Spaniards  to 
the  spot  where,  in  the  island  of  Cuba,  food  was  distrib 
uted  to  repartimiento  Indians. 

The  bestial  laziness  of  the  Central  Californian  pre 
vents  him  from  following  the  chase  to  any  extent,  or 
from  even  inventing  efficient  game-traps.  Deer  are, 
however,  sometimes  shot  with  bow  and  arrow.  The 
hunter,  disguised  with  the  head  and  horns  of  a  stag, 
creeps  through  the  long  grass  to  within  a  few  yards  of 
the  unsuspecting  herd,  and  drops  the  fattest  buck  at  his 
pleasure.  Small  game,  such  as  hares,  rabbits,  and  birds, 
are  also  shot  with  the  arrow.  Reptiles  and  insects  of 
all  descriptions  not  poisonous  are  greedily  devoured ;  in 
fact,  any  life-sustaining  substance  which  can  be  pro 
cured  with  little  trouble,  is  food  for  them.  But  their 
main  reliance  is  on  acorns,  roots,  grass-seeds,  ber 
ries  and  the  like.  These  are  eaten  both  raw  and  pre.- 
pared.  The  acorns  are  shelled,  dried  in  the  sun,  and 
then  pounded  into  a  powder  with  large  stones.  From 
this  flour  a  species  of  coarse  bread  is  made,  which  is 
sometimes  flavored  with  various  kinds  of  berries  or 
herbs.  This  bread  is  of  a  black  color  when  cooked,  of 
about  the  consistency  of  cheese,  and  is  said,  by  those 
who  have  tasted  it,  to  be  not  at  all  unpalatable.89  The  ]  - 
dough  is  frequently  boiled  into  pudding  instead  of  being  / 
baked.  A  sort  of  mush  is  made  from  clover-seed,  which 
is  also  described  as  being  rather  a  savory  dish.  Grass 
hoppers  constitute  another  toothsome  delicacy.  When 

89  Wilkes,  and  the  majority  of  writers,  assert  that  the  acorns  are  sweet  and 
palatable  in  their  natural  state;  Kostroinitonow,  however,  says:  'Nachdem 
die  Eicheln  von  Baume  gepfliickt  sind,  werden  sie  on  der  Sonne  gedorrt,  da- 
rauf  gereinigt  und  in  Korben  mittelst  besonders  dazu  behauener  Steine  ge- 
stossen,  dann  wird  im  Sande  oder  sonst  wo  in  lockerer  Erde  eine  Grube  ge- 
graben,  die  Eicheln  werden  hineingeschiittet  und  niit  Wasser  iibergossen, 
welches  bestandig  von  der  Erde  eingezogen  wird.  Dieses  Ausspiilen  wieder- 
holt  man  so  lange  bis  die  Eicheln  alle  ihre  eigenthiimliche  Bitterkeit  verloren 
haben.'  Baer,  Mat.  und  Ethno.,  p.  84.  The  acorn  bread  'looks  and  tastes 
like  coarse  black  clay,  strongly  resembling  the  soundings  in  Hampton  roads, 
and  being  about  as  savory  and  digestible.'  Revere 's  Tour.,  p.  121.  Never 
having  eaten  'coarse  black  clay,'  I  cannot  say  how  it  tastes,  but,  according 
to  all  other  authorities,  this  bread,  were  it  not  for  the  extreme  filthiness  of 
those  who  prepare  it,  would  be  by  no  means  disagreeable  food. 


374  CALIFORNIANS. 

for  winter  use,  they  are  dried  in  the  sun ;  when  for  pres 
ent  consumption,  they  are  either  mashed  into  a  paste, 
which  is  eaten  with  the  fingers,  ground  into  a  fine  pow 
der  and  mixed  with  mush,  or  they  are  saturated  with 
salt  water,  placed  in  a  hole  in  the  ground  previously 
heated,  covered  with  hot  stones,  and  eaten  like  shrimps 
when  well  roasted.  Dried  chrysalides  are  considered  a 
bonne  bouche,  as  are  all  varieties  of  insects  and  worms. 
The  boiled  dishes  are  cooked  in  water-tight  baskets, 
into  which  hot  stones  are  dropped.  Meat  is  roasted 
on  sticks  before  the  fire,  or  baked  in  a  hole  in  the  ground. 
The  food  is  conveyed  to  the  mouth  with  the  fingers. 

Grasshoppers  are  taken  in  pits,  into  which  they  are 
driven  by  setting  the  grass  on  fire,  or  by  beating  the 
grass  in  a  gradually  lessening  circle,  of  which  the  pit  is 
the  centre.  For  seed-gathering  two  baskets  are  used ;  a 
large  one,  which  is  borne  on  the  back,  and  another 
smaller  and  scoop-shaped,  which  is  carried  in  the  hand; 
with  this  latter  the  tops  of  tbe  ripe  grass  are  swept,  and 
the  seed  thus  taken  is  thrown  over  the  left  shoulder  into 
the  larger  basket.  The  seeds  are  then  parched  and  pul 
verized,  and  usually  stored  as  pinole,90  for  winter  use.91 

9°  Pinole  is  an  Aztec  word,  and  is  applied  to  any  kind  of  grain  or  seeds, 
parched  and  ground,  before  being  made  into  dough.  '  Pinolli,  la  harina  de 
mayz  y  chia,  antes  que  la  deslian.'  Molina,  Vocabulario.  The  Aztecs  made 
pinole  chiefly  of  maize  or  Indian  corn. 

. 91  '  Nos  trageron  su  regalo  de  tamales  grandes  de  mas  de  a  tercia  con  su 
correspondiente  grueso,  amasados  de  semillas  silvestres  muy  prietas  que 
parecen  brea;  los  probe  y  no  tienen  mal  gusto  y  son  muy  mantecosos.'  Palou, 
Noticias,  in  Doc.  Hist.  3/tJC.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  vii.,  p.  68.  Among  the  pres 
ents  given  to  Drake  by  the  Indians  was  '  a  roote  which  they  call  Petah, 
whereof  they  make  a  kind  of  meale,  and  either  bake  it  into  bread  or  eate  it 
raw;  broyled  fishes,  like  a  pilchard;  the  seede  and  downe  aforenamed,  with 
such  like.'  Drake's  World  Encomp.,  p.  126.  Catch  salmon  in  baskets.  '  They 
neither  sow  nor  reap,  but  burn  their  meadows  from  time  to  time  to  increase 
their  fertility.'  Chamisso,  in  Kotzebue's  Voy.,  vol.  hi.,  p.  48.  'Les  rats,  les 
insectes,  les  serpentes,  tout  sans  exception  leur  sert  de  nourriture ....  Us  sont 
trop  maladroits  et  trop  paresseux  pour  chasser.'  Choris,  Voy.  Pitt.,  part  iii., 
p.  2.  '  Entre  ellas  tienen  una  especie  de  semilla  negra,  y  de  su  harina  hacen 
unos  tamales,  a  modo  de  bolas,  de  tamano  de  una  naranja,  que  son  muy  sa- 
brosos,  que  parecen  de  almendra  tostada  muy  mantecosa.'  Palou,  Vida  de  Jum- 
pero  Serra,  p.  216;  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  p.  164;  Kotzebue's  New  Voy.,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  116.  'Their  fastidiousness  does  not  prompt  them  to  take  the  entrails 
out '  of  fishes  and  birds.  Delano's  Life  on  the  Plains,  p.  305.  '  Live  upon  va 
rious  plants  in  their  several  seasons,  besides  grapes,  and  even  use  the  Arte- 
mesia.'  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  V.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  v.,  pp.  202,  259.  'Us  trouvent 

aussi  autour  d'eux  une  quantite  d'aloes  dont  ils  font  un  frequent  usage Us 

utilisent  encore  la  racine  d'une  espece  de  roseau ...  Ils  mangent  aussi  une  fleur 


ACOBNS  AND  WILD  FOWL.  375 

When  acorns  are  scarce  the  Central  Californian  resorts 
to  a  curious  expedient  to  obtain  them.  The  woodpecker, 
or  carpintero  as  the  Spaniards  call  it,  stores  away  acorns 
for  its  own  use  in  the  trunks  of  trees.  Each  acorn  is 
placed  in  a  separate  hole,  which  it  fits  quite  tightly. 
These  the  natives  take;  but  it  is  never  until  hunger 
compels  them  to  do  so,  as  they  have  great  respect  for 
their  little  caterer,  and  would  hold  it  sacrilege  to  rob_ 
him  except  in  time  of  extreme  need.92  Wild  fowl  are 
taken  with  a  net  stretched  across  a  narrow  stream  be 
tween  two  poles,  one  on  either  bank.  Decoys  are  placed 
on  the  water  just  before  the  net,  one  end  of  which  is 
fastened  to  the  top  of  the  pole  on  the  farther  bank.  A 
line  passing  through  a  hole  in  the  top  of  the  pole  on  the 
bank  where  the  fowler  is  concealed,  is  attached  to  the 

sucree  qui  ressemble  a  celle  de  1'eglantier  d'Espagne,  etqui  croit  dans  les  en- 
droits  marecageux.'  Marmier,  Notice,  in  Bryant,  Voy.  en  Cat.,  pp.  232-3,  237. 
Were  cannibals  and  their  sorcerers  still  eat  human  flesh.  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn, 
ii.,  pp.  362,  366-9.  The  Meewocs  '  eat  all  creatures  that  swim  in  the  waters, 
all  that  fly  through  the  air,  and  all  that  creep,  crawl,  or  walk  upon  the  earth, 
with,  perhaps  a  dozen  exceptions.'  Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  x.,  p. 
324.  'Us  se  nourrissent  egalement  d'une  espece  de  gateaux  fabriques  aveo 
du  gland,  et  qu'ils  roulent  dans  le  sable  avant  de  le  livrer  a  la  cuisson;  de 
la  vient  qu'ils  sont,  jeuries  encore,  les  dents  usees  jusqu'a  la  racine,  et  ce 
n'estpas,  comme  le  dit  Malte-Brun,  parce  qu'ils  out  1'habitude  de  les  limer.' 
Auger,  Voy.  en  CaL,  p.  163.  '  While  I  was  standing  there  a  couple  of  pretty 
young  girls  came  from  the  woods,  with  flat  baskets  full  of  flower-seed,  emit 
ting  a  peculiar  fragrance,  which  they  also  prepared  for  eating.  They  put  some 
live  coals  among  the  seed,  and  swinging  it  and  throwing  it  together,  to  shake 
the  coals  and  the  seed  well,  and  bring  them  in  continual  and  close  contact 
without  burning  the  latter,  they  roasted  it  completely,  and  the  mixture 
smelled  so  beautiful  and  refreshing  that  I  tasted  a  good  handful  of  it,  and 
found  it  most  excellent.'  Gerstaecker's  Joum.,  p.  211.  See  farther:  Humboldt, 


Kelly's 
King's 

Eept.,  in  Taylor's  El  Dorado,  vol.  ii.,  p.  210;  Langsdorff's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p. 
163;  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  248;  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  36;  Pickering's 
Races,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  p.  103;  Petit-Thouars,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  pp. 
136-7;  Fremont's  Explor.  Ex.,  pp.  242,  244;  Johnson's  Gal.  and  Ogn.,  p.  142; 
Hale's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  222;  Placerville  Index,  Aug., 
1859;  Henley,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1854,  p.  303;  Patrick,  McDermott,  Gilbert, 
Benitz,  Jannsdn,  Von  Schmidt,  McAdam,  Bowlby,  and  Jeicett,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept., 
1856,  pp.  18,  41-4;  La  Perouse,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  282;  Helper's  Land  of  Gold, 
pp.  269-70;  Hutchings'  Cat.  Mag.,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  441-2;  Macfie's  Vane.  IsL,  pp. 
450-1;  Thornton's  Ogn.  and  CaL,  pp.  91-2,  152,  316;  Tate's  Sketch  of  the  Sac 
ramento  Valley  in  1842,  MS.;  D'Orbigny,  Voy.,  p.  457;  McDaniels'  Early  Days 
of  CaL  MS.;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.'i.,  pp.  339,  346;  Muhknpfordt,  Mejico, 
torn,  ii.,  pt.  ii.,  pp.  455-6;  Knight's  Pioneer  Life,  MS. 

92  When  the  Indian  finds  a  tree  stocked  by'the  carpenter  bird  he  '  kindles 
a  fire  at  its  base  and  keeps  it  up  till  the  tree  falls,  when  he  helps  himself  to 
the  acorns.'  Helper's  Land  of  Gold,  p.  269. 


376  CALIFOKNIANS. 

nearest  end  of  the  net,  which  is  allowed  to  hang  low. 
When  the  fowl  fly  rapidly  up  to  the  decoys,  this  end  is 
suddenly  raised  with  a  jerk,  so  that  the  birds  strik^  it 
with  great  force,  and,  stunned  by  the  shock,  fall  into  a 
large  pouch,  contrived  for  the  purpose  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  net.93 

Fish  are  both  speared  and  netted.  A  long  pole,  pro 
jecting  sometimes  as  much  as  a  hundred  feet  over  the 
stream,  is  run  out  from  the  bank.  The  farther  end  is 
supported  by  a  small  raft  or  buoy.  Along  this  boom  the 
net  is  stretched,  the  nearer  corner  being  held  by  a  na 
tive.  As  soon  as  a  fish  becomes  entangled  in  the  meshes 
it  can  be  easily  felt,  and  the  net  is  then  hauled  in.94 
On  the  coast  a  small  fish  resembling  the  sardine  is  caught 
on  the  beach  in  the  receding  waves  by  means  of  a  hand- 
net,  in  the  manner  practiced  by  the  Northern  Californian 
heretofore  described.95  The  Central  Californians  do  not 
hunt  the  whale,  but  it  is  a  great  day  with  them  when 
one  is  stranded.96  In  reality  their  food  was  not  so  bad 
as  some  writers  assert.  Before  the  arrival  of  miners 
game  wras  so  plentiful  that  even  the  lazy  natives  could 
supply  their  necessities.  The  '  nobler  race/  as  usual, 
thrust  them  down  upon  a  level  with  swine.  Johnson 
thus  describes  the  feeding  of  the  natives  at  Sutter's  Fort: 
"Long  troughs  inside  the  walls  were  filled  with  a  kind 
of  boiled  mush  made  of  the  wheat-bran;  and  the  In 
dians,  huddled  in  rows  upon  their  knees  before  these 
troughs,  quickly  conveyed  their  contents  by  the  hand  to 
the  mouth."  "But,"  writes  Powers  to  the  author,  "it 
is  a  well-established  fact  that  California  Indians,  even 
when  reared  by  Americans  from  infancy,  if  they  have 

93  Beechey's  Voy  ,  vol.  ii.,  p.  75. 

a*  '  When  a  sturgeon  is  caught,  the  spinal  marrow,  which  is  considered  a 
delicacy,  is  drawn  out  whole,  through  a  cut  made  in  the  back,  and  devoured 
raw.5  Bartlett's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  pp1.  32-3. 

95  Browne,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xxiii.,  p.  315. 

96  '  They  cook  the  flesh  of  this  animal  in  holes  dug  in  the  ground  and 
curbed  up  with  stone  like  wells.     Over  this  they  build  large  fires,  heat  them 
thoroughly,  clean  out  the  coals  and  ashes,  fill  them  with  whale  flesh,  cover 
the  opening  with  sticks,  leaves,  grass  and  earth,  and  thus  bake  their  repast.' 
Farnham's  Life  in  CaL,  p.  366-7.     'Us  font  rotir  cette  chair  dans  des  trous 
creases  en  terre.'  Marpiier,  Notice,  in  Bryant,  Voy.  en  CaL,  p.  237. 


CALIFOBNIAN  WEAPONS.  377 

been  permitted  to  associate  meantime  with  others  of  their 
race,  will,  in  the  season  of  lush  blossoming  clover,  go 
out  and  eat  it  in  preference  to  all  other  food."97  v 

In  their  personal  habits  they  are  filthy  in  the  extreme,  j 
Both  their  dwellings  and  their  persons  abound  in  ver-  j 
min,  which  they  catch  and  eat  in  the  same  manner  as 
their  northern  neighbors.98 

Their  weapons  are  bows  and  arrows,  spears,  and  some 
times  clubs.  The  first-named  do  not  differ  in  any  es 
sential  respect  from  those  described  as  being  used  by 
the  Northern  Californians.  They  are  well  made,  from 
two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  long,  and  backed  with  sinew ; 
the  string  of  wild  flax  or  sinew,  and  partially  covered 
with  bird's  down  or  a  piece  of  skin,  to  deaden  the  twang. 

The  arrows  are  short,  made  of  reed  or  light  wood, 
and  winged  with  three  of  four  feathers.  The  head 
is  of  flint,  bone,  obsidian,  or  volcanic  glass,  sometimes 
barbed  and  sometimes  diamond-shaped.  It  is  fastened 
loosely  to  the  shaft,  and  can  only  be  extracted  from 
a  wound  by  cutting  it  out.  The  shaft  is  frequently 
painted  in  order  that  the  owner  may  be  able  to  distin 
guish  his  own  arrows  from  others.  Spears,  or  rather 
javelins,  are  used,  seldom  exceeding  from  four  and  a  half 
to  five  feet  in  length.  They  are  made  of  some  tough 
kind  of  wood  and  headed  with  the  same  materials  as 
the  arrows.  Occasionally  the  point  of  the  stick  is  merely 
sharpened  and  hardened  in  the  fire."  The  head  of  the 

97  Johnson's  Cal.  and  Ogn.,  p.  132;  Powers9  Account  of  John  A.  Suiter,  MS.; 
and  Id.,  Letter  to  the  author,  MS. 

93  <  Reinlichkeit  kenneu  sie  nicht,  und  in  ihren  Hiitten  sind  die  diverse- 
sten  Parasiten  vertreten.'  Wimmel,  Californien,  p.  177.  'I  have  seen  them 
eating  the  vermin  which  they  picked  from  each  other's  heads,  and  from  their 
blankets.  Although  they  bathe  frequently,  they  lay  for  hours  in  the  dirt, 
basking  in  the  sun,  covered  with  dust. '  Delano's  Life  on  the  Plains,  p.  305.  '  In 
their  persons  they  are  extremely  dirty.'  Eat  lice  like  the  Tartars.  Beechey's 
Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  76-7.  '  Very  filthy,  and  showed  less  sense  of  decency  in 
every  respect  than  any  we  had  ever  met  with.'  Gibbs,  in  SchoolcrafVs  Arch.t 
vol.  iii.,  p.  106. 

99  'Ein  Bogen  mit  Pfeilen  und  ein  Spiess  sind  ihre  Waffen;  alles  dieses 
wird  meisteus  aus  jungem  Tannenholz  verfertigt.  Die  Spitzen  der  Pfeile  und 
Spiesse  bestehen  aus  scharfen,  kunstlich  behauenen  Steinen,  zur  Bogensehne 
nehmen  sie  die  Sehnen  wilder  Ziegen;  ausserdem  fuhren  sie  in  Kriegszeiten 
eine  Art  von  Schleuder,  mit  welcher  sie  Steine  auf  eine  grosse  Entfernung 
werfen.'  Kostromitonow,  in  J3aer,  Stat.  u.  Ethno.,  p.  89.  Bow" 'from  three  to 


378  CALIFOKNIANS. 

fishing- spear  is  movable,  being  attached  to  the  shaft  by 
a  line,  so  that  when  a  fish  is  struck  the  pole  serves  as  a 
float.  Some  of  the  tribes  formerly  poisoned  their  ar 
rows,  but  it  is  probable  that  the  custom  never  prevailed 

four  and  a  half  feet  long.'  Farnham's  Life  in  CaL,  p.  368.  'Their  arms  are 
clubs,  spears  of  hard  wood,  and  the  bow  and  arrow  .  .Arrows  are  mostly  made 
of  reeds.'  Taylor,  in  CaL  Farmer,  Feb.  22,  1860.  'Die  einzige  Waffe  zur  Erle- 
gung  des  WjQdes  ist  ihneii  der  Bogen  und  Pfeil.'  Wimmel,  Calif ornien,  p.  180. 
'  Their  only  arms  were  bows  and  arrows.'  Hole's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex., 
vol.  vi.,  p.  222.  Bows  'about  thirty  inches  long.  .  .  .arrows  are  a  species  of 
reed  ...  spears  are  pointed  with  bone.'  Delano's  Life  on  Plains,  p.  306.  '  The 
quiver  of  dressed  deer-skin,  holds  both  bow  and  arrows.'  Gibbs,  in  School- 
craft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  123.  '  The  point  (of  the  arrow)  itself  is  a  piece  of 
flint  chipped  down  into  a  flat  diamond  shape,  about  the  size  of  a  diamond 
on  a  playing-card;  the  edges  are  very  sharp,  and  are  notched  to  receive  the 
tendons  with  which  it  is  firmly  secured  to  the  arrow.'  Borthwick's  Three  Years 
in  CaL,  p.  131.  '  Arrows  are  pointed  with  flint,  as  are  also  their  spears,  which 
are  very  short.  They  do  not  use  the  tomahawk  or  scalping  knife.'  Thorn 
ton's  Ogn.  and  CaL,  vol.  ii.,  p.  91.  'Leurs  armes  sont  1'arc  et  les  fleches 
armees  d'un  silex  tres-artistement  travaille.'  La  Perouse,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  305. 
'  Ces  arcs  sont  encore  garnis,  au  milieu,  d'une  petite  laniere  de  cuir,  qui  a 
pour  object  d'empecher  la  fleche  de  devier  de  la  position  qu'on  lui  donne  en 
la  posant  sur  1'arc.  . .  .Us  pretendent  que  cette  precaution  rend  leurs  coups 
encore  plus  siirs.  Les  fleches  sont  moins  longues  que  1'arc,  elles  ont  ordi- 
iiairement  de  80  a  85  centimetres  de  long,  elles  sont  faites  d'un  bois  tres- 
leger  et  sont  egales  en  grosseur  a  chaque  extremite.  . .  .1'autre  extremite  de  la 
fleche  es«,  garnie,  sur  quatre  faces,  de  barbes  en  plumes  qui  out  10  centi 
metres  de  longueur  sur  0,015  millimetres  de  hauteur.'  Petit-Thouars,  Voy., 
torn,  ii.,  p.  138.  They  'maintain  armories  to  make  their  bows,  and  arrows, 
and  lances.'  Arrows  '  are  tipped  with  barbed  obsidian  heads.  . .  .the  shaft  is 
ornamented  with  rings  of  the  distinguishing  paint  of  the  owner's  rancheria. 
Their  knives  and  spear-points  are  made  of  obsidian  and  flint. '  Arrows  are 
of  two  kinds,  '  one  short  and  light  for  killing  game,  and  the  other  a  war-shaft 
measuring  a  cloth-yard  in  length.'  Eevere's  Tour.,  pp.  121-2.  'Ces  fleches 
offrent  peu  de  danger  a  une  certaine  distance,  a  cause  de  la  parubole  qu'  elles 
sont  forcees  de  decrire,  et  qui  donne  a  celui  que  les  voit  venir  le  temps  de  les 
eviter.'  Auger,  Voy.  en  CaL,  p.  163.  'La  corde,  faite  avec  du  chanvre  sylves- 
tre,  est  garnie  d'un  petit  morceau  de  peau  qui  en  etouffe  le  sifflmeiit.'  Mo- 
fras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  378;  see  Atlas,  plate  25.  'Hire  Waffen  bestehen 
nur  in  Bogen  und  Pfeil.'  M&hlenpfordt,  Mcjico,  torn,  ii.,  part  ii.,  p.  455.  '  They 
have  no  offensive  arms  at  all,  except  bows  and  arrows,  and  these  are  small 
and  powerless.  . .  .Arrows  are  about  two  feet  long.'  Gerstaecker' s  Journ.,  p. 
212.  '  Sometimes  the  bow  is  merely  of  wood  and  rudely  made.  Chamisso,  in 
Kotzebue's  Voy.,  vol.  iii..  p.  48.  'Their  weapons  consist  only  of  bows  and 
arrows;  neither  the  tomahawk  nor  the  spear  is  ever  seen  in  their  hands.' 
Beechey's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  77.  'A  portion  of  the  string  is  covered  with  downy 
fur '  to  deaden  the  sound.  Arrows  are  invariably  pointed  with  flint.  They 
have  'sometimes  wooden  barbs.'  Javelins  pointed  with  flint,  or  sometimes 
simply  sharpened  at  the  end.  Pickerings  Races,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  p; 
109.  Arrows  were  about  three  feet  long,  and  pointed  with  flint.  Short 
spears  also  pointed  with  flint.  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  v.,  p.  198. 
'  Traian  unas  lanzas  cortas  con  su  lengiieta  de  pedernal  tan  bien  labradas 
como  si  fuesen  de  hierro  6  acero,  con  solo  la  diferencia  de  no  estar  lisas.' 
Palou,  Noticias,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  vii.,  p.  p.  68.  'Los  mas 
de  ellos  traian  varas  largas  en  las  manos  a  modo  de  lanzas.'  Id.,  p.  61;  Lord's 
Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  249;  Langsdorff's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  165;  Life  of  Gov.  L.  W. 
Boggs,  by  his  Son,  MS. 


BATTLES  AND  WEAPONS.  379 

to  any  great  extent.  M.  du  Petit-Thouars  was  told  that 
they  used  for  this  purpose  a  species  of  climbing  plant 
which  grows  in  shady  places.  It  is  said  that  they  also 
poison  their  weapons  with  the  venom  of  serpents.100 
Pedro  Fages  mentions  that  the  natives  in  the  country 
round  San  Miguel  use  a  kind  of  sabre,  made  of  hard 
wood,  shaped  like  a  cimeter,  and  edged  with  sharp  flints. 
This  they  employ  for  hunting  as  well  as  in  war,  and 
with  such  address  that  they  rarely  fail  to  break  the  leg 
of  the  animal  at  which  they  hurl  it.101 

Battles,  though  frequent,  were  not  attended  with  much 
loss  of  life.  Each  side  was  anxious  for  the  fight  to  be 
over,  and  the  first  blood  would  often  terminate  the  con 
test.  Challenging  by  heralds  obtained.  Thus  the  Shu- 
meias  challenge  the  Pomos  by  placing  three  little  sticks, 
notched  in  the  middle  and  at  both  ends,  on  a  mound 
which  marked  the  boundary  between  the  two  tribes.  If 
the  Pornos  accept,  they  tie  a  string  round  the  middle 
notch.  Heralds  then  meet  and  arrange  time  and  place, 
and  the  battle  comes  off  as  appointed.102  Among  some 
tribes,  children  are  sent  by  mutual  arrangement  into  the 
enemy's  ranks  during  the  heat  of  battle  to  pick  up  the 
fallen  arrows  and  carry  them  back  to  their  owners  to  be 
used  again.103  When  fighting,  they  stretch  out  in  a  long 
single  line  and  endeavor  by  shouts  and  gestures  to  in 
timidate  the  foe.104 

100  Petit-Thouars,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  139. 

101  Pages,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1844,  torn,  ci.,  p.  164;  Marmier, 
Notice,  in  Bryant,  Voy.  en  Cal.,  p.  228.     It  is  impossible  to  locate  with  cer 
tainty  the  San  Miguel  of  Fages.     There  are  now  several  places  of  the  name 
in  California,  of  which  the  San  Miguel  in  San  Luis  Obispo  County  conies 
nearest  the  region  in  which,  to  agree  with  his  own  narrative,  Fages  must 
have  been  at  the  time.     The  cimeter  mentioned  by  him,  must  have  strongly 
resembled  the  rnaquahuitl  of  the  ancient  Mexicans,  and  it  was  possibly  much 
farther  south  that  he  saw  it. 

102  Powers'  Porno,  MS.;  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage.  p.  169. 

103  Butte  Record,  Aug.,  1866. 

104  '  Suelen  entrar  en  ella  entonando  canticos  militares  mezclados  de  ex- 
tranos  alaridos;  y  acostumbran  formarse  los  campeones  en  dos  lineas  muy 
prdximas  para  empezar  disparandose  flechazos.     Como  uno  de  sus  princi- 
pales  ardides  consiste  en  intimidar  al  enemigo,  para  conseguirlo  procura  cada 
partido  que  oiga  el  contrario  los  preparatives  de  la  batalla.'  Sutil  y  Mexica 
na,   Viage,  p.  170.     '  On  coming  in  sight  of  the  enemy  they  form  in  an  ex 
tended  line,  something  like  light  infantry,  and  shouting,  like  bacchanals 
dance  from  side  to  side  to  prevent  the  foe  from  taking  deliberate  aim.'  JKe- 
vere's  Tour,  p.  122. 


380  CALIFORNIANS. 

Notwithstanding  the  mildness  of  their  disposition  and 
the  inferiority  of  their  weapons,  the  Central  Californians 
do  not  lack  courage  in  battle,  and  when  captured  will 
meet  their  fate  with  all  the  stoicism  of  a  true  Indian. 
For  many  years  after  the  occupation  of  the  country  by 
the  Spaniards,  by  abandoning  their  villages  and  lying 
in  ambush  upon  the  approach  of  the  enemy,  they  were 
enabled  to  resist  the  small  squads  of  Mexicans  sent 
against  them  from  the  presidios  for  the  recovery  of  de 
serters  from  the  missions.  During  the  settlement  of  the 
country  by  white  people,  there  were  the  usual  skirmishes 
growing  out  of  wrong  and  oppression  on  the  one  side, 
and  retaliation  on  the  other;  the  usual  uprising  among 
miners  and  rancheros,  and  vindication  of  border  law, 
which  demanded  the  massacre  of  a  village  for  the  steal 
ing  of  a  cow. 

Trespass  on  lands  and  abduction  of  women  are  the 
usual  causes  of  war  among  themselves.  Opposing  armies, 
on  approaching  each  other  in  battle  array,  dance  and  leap 
from  side  to  side  in  order  to  prevent  their  enemies  from 
taking  deliberate  aim.  Upon  the  invasion  of  their  ter 
ritory  they  rapidly  convey  the  intelligence  by  means  of 
signals.  A  great  smoke  is  made  upon  the  nearest  hill 
top,  which  is  quickly  repeated  upon  the  surrounding 
hills,  and  thus  a  wide  extent  of  country  is  aroused  in  a 
remarkably  short  time. 

The  custom  of  scalping,  though  not  universal  in  Cali 
fornia,  was  practiced  in  some  localities.  The  yet  more 
barbarous  habit  of  cutting  off  the  hands,  feet,  or  head 
of  a  fallen  enemy,  as  trophies  of  victory,  prevailed  more 
widely.  They  also  plucked  out  and  carefully  preserved 
the  eyes  of  the  slain. 

It  has  been  asserted  that  these  savages  were  cannibals, 
and  there  seems  to  be  good  reason  to  believe  that  they 
did  devour  pieces  of  the  flesh  of  a  renowned  enemy  slain 
in  battle.  Human  flesh  was,  however,  not  eaten  as  food, 
nor  for  the  purpose  of  wreaking  vengeance  on  or  show 
ing  hate  for  a  dead  adversary,  but  because  they  thought 
that  by  eating  part  of  a  brave  man  they  absorbed  a  por- 


IMPLEMENTS  AND  MANUFACTURES.  381 

tion  of  his  courage.  They  do  not  appear  to  have  kept 
or  sold  prisoners  as  slaves,  but  to  have  either  exchanged 
or  killed  them.105 

They  are  not  ingenious,  and  manufacture  but  few 
articles  requiring  any  skill.  The  principal  of  these  are 
the  baskets  in  which,  as  I  have  already  mentioned,  they 
carry  water  and  boil  their  food.  They  are  made  of  fine 
grass,  so  closely  woven  as  to  be  perfectly  water-tight, 
and  are  frequently  ornamented  with  feathers,  beads, 
shells,  and  the  like,  worked  into  them  in  a  very  pretty 
manner.  Fletcher,  who  visited  the  coast  with  Sir  Fran 
cis  Drake  in  1579,  describes  them  as  being  umade  in 
fashion  like  a  deep  boale,  and  though  the  matter  were 
rushes,  or  such  other  kind  of  stufte,  yet  it  was  so  cun 
ningly  handled  that  the  most  part  of  them  would  hold 
water ;  about  the  brimmes  they  were  hanged  with  peeces 
of  the  shels  of  pearles,  and  in  some  places  with  two  or 

three  linkes  at  a  place,  of  the  chaines  forenamed 

and  besides  this,  they  were  wrought  vpon  with  the  matted 
downe  of  red  feathers,  distinguished  into  diuers  workes 
and  formes."106  The  baskets  are  of  various  sizes  and 

105  In  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Ross :  '  In  ihren  Kriegen  wird  Unerschrocken- 
lieit  geachtet;  gefangene  Feiiide  todtet  man  nickt,  sondern  wechselt  sie  nach 
beendigtem  Kampfe  aus;  iiie  verurtheilt  man  sie  zu  Sklaven.'    Baer,  Stat. 
u.  Ethno.,  p.  77.     Near  Feather  River  'they  carry  off  their  dead  to  prevent 
their  being  scalped,  which  next  after  death  'they  are  most  fearful  of. '  Kelly's 
Excursion  to  Cal.,  vol.  ii  ,  p.  83.     In  the  Sacramento  Valley  'the  Californians 
differ  from  the  other  North  American  tribes  in  the  absence  of  the  tomahawk 
and  of  the  practice  of  scalping.'  Pickering's  Races,  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix., 
p.  108.     At  Clear  Lake,  ;  they  do  not  scalp  the  slain.'  Kevere's  Tour.,  p.  122. 
In  the  vicinity  of  San  Francisco  'occasionally,  they  appear  to  have  eaten  pieces 
of  the  bodies  of  their  more  distinguished  adversaries  killed  in  battle.'  tioule's 
Annals  of  San  Francisco,  p.  52.     At  Monterey,  'lorsqu'ils  avaient  vaincu  et 
mis  a  mbrt  sur  le  champ  de  bataille  des  chefs  ou  des  hornmes  tres-courageux, 
ils  en  mangaient  quelques  rnorceaux,  moins  en  signe  de  haine  et  de  vengeance, 
que  comme  im  homniage  qu'ils  rendaient  a  leur  valeur,  et  dans  la  persua 
sion  que  cette  nouriture  etait  propre  a  augmenter  leur  courage.'  La  Pe'rouse, 

Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  306.  '  Muchos  indios  armados  de  arco  y  flechas  y  llarnando- 
los  vinieroii  luego  y  me  regalaron  muchos  de  ellos  flechas,  que  es  entre  ellos 
la  mayor  demostracion  de  paz.'  Palou,  Noticias,  in  Doc.  Mex.  Hist.,  serie  iv., 
torn,  vii.,  p.  53.  At  Santa  Cruz  they  eat  slices  of  the  flesh  of  a  brave  fallen 
enemy,  thinking  to  gain  some  of  his  valour.  They  '  take  the  scalps  of  their 
enemies. . .  .they  pluck  out  the  eyes  of  their  enemies.'  Farnham's  Life  in  Cal., 
p.  370.  'Gefangene  werden  nicht  lange  gehalten,  sondern  gleich  getodtet.' 

Wimmel,  Calif ornien,  p.  178.  In  order  to  intimidate  their  enemies  '  cometen 
con  el  propio  fin  en  las  primeras  vfctimas  las  crueldades  mas  horrorosas.'  Suttt 
y  Mexicana,  Viage,  p.  170. 

106  Drake's  World  Encomp.,  p.  126. 


382  CALIFORNIANS. 

shapes,  the  most  common  being  conical  or  wide  and  flat. 
Their  pipes  are  straight,  the  bowl  being  merely  a  con 
tinuation  of  the  stem,  only  thicker  and  hollowed  out.107 
It  is  a  singular  fact  that  these  natives  about  the  bay 
of  San  Francisco  and  the  regions  adjacent,  had  no  canoes 
of  any  description.  Their  only  means  of  navigation 
were  bundles  of  tule-rushes  about  ten  feet  long  and  three 
or  four  wide,  lashed  firmly  together  in  rolls,  and  pointed 
at  both  ends.  They  were  propelled,  either  end  foremost, 
with  long  double-bladed  paddles.  In  calm  weather,  and 
on  a  river,  the  centre,  or  thickest  part  of  these  rafts 
might  be  tolerably  dry,  but  in  rough  water  the  rower, 
who  sat  astride,  was  up  to  his  waist  in  water.108  It  has 

W7  'Make  baskets  of  the  bark  of  trees.'  Farnham's  Life  in  Cal,  p.  368. 
Make  a  very  ingenious  straw  box  for  keeping  their  worm  bait  alive ;  burying 
it  in  the  earth,  yet  not  allowing  the  worms  to  escape.'  Kneeland's  Wonders  of 
Yosemite,  p.  52.  '  Die  gewohlichste  Form  fur  den  Korb  ist  halbconisch,  3  Fuss 
lang  und  18  Zoll  breit.'  Wimmel,  Californien,  p.  182.  '  Their  baskets,  made  of 
willows,  are  perfectly  water-tight.'  Delano's  Life  on  the  Plains,  p.  305.  '  They 
sometimes  ornament  the  smaller  ones  with  beads,  pearl-shell,  feathers,  &c.' 
Revere's  Tour.,  p.  122.  '  Leurs  mortiers  de  pierre  et  divers  autres  utensiles 
sout  artistiquement  incrustes  de  morceaux  de  nacre  de  perle ....  garnissent 
leur  calebasses  et  leur  cruches  d'ouvrages  de  vannerie  brodes  avec  des  fils- 
delies  qu'elles  tirent  de  diverses  racines. '  Marmier,  Notice,  in  Bryant,  Voy.  en 
Cal.,  p.  233;  Lanjsdorff's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  165;  Fremont's  Explor.  Ex.,  p.  243; 
Oibbs,  in  SchoolcrafVs  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  107;  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  367; 
Chamisso,  in  Kotzebue's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  48;  Borthwick's  Three  Years  in  CaL, 
p.  131;  Humboldt,  Essai  Pol.,  torn,  i.,  p.  324. 

103  Maurelle's  Jour.,  p.  47.  At  Clear  Lake  'their  canoes  or  rather  rafts 
are  made  of  bundles  of  the  tule  plant.'  Gibbs,  in  SchoolcrafVs  Arch.,  vol.  iii., 
p.  107.  At  San  Francisco  Bay  and  vicinity  '  the  only  canoes  of  the  Indians 
are  made  of  plaited  reeds.'  Kotzebue's  New  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  90.  'They  do 
not  possess  horses  or  canoes  of  any  kind;  they  only  know  how  to  fasten 
together  bundles  of  rushes,  which  carry  them  over  the  water  by  their  com 
parative  lightness.'  Chamisso,  in  Kotzebue's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  48.  'Les  In- 
diens  font  leur  pirogues  a  1 'instant  on  ils  veulent  entreprendre  un  voyage 
par  eau;  elles  sont  en  roseaux.  Lorsque  1'on  y  entre  elles  s'emplissent  a 
moitie  d'eau;  de  sorte  qu'assis,  1'on  en  a  jus-qu'au  gras  de  la  jambe;  on  les 
fait  aller  avec  des  avirons  extremernent  longs,  et  pointus  aux  deux  extremites.' 
Choris,  Voy.  Pitt.,  part  iii.,  p.  6.  Had  no  boats,  but  it  was  reported  that  they 
had  previously  used  boats  made  of  rushes.  Pickering's  Eaces,  in  U.  S.  Ex. 
Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  p.  103.  'The  most  rude  and  sorry  contrivances  for  embarca- 
tion  I  had  ever  beheld ....  They  were  constructed  of  rushes  and  dried  grass 
of  a  long  broad  leaf,  made  up  into  rolls  the  length  of  the  canoe,  the  thickest 
in  the  middle  and  regularly  tapering  to  a  point  at  each  end. . .  .appeared  to 
be  very  ill  calculated  to  contend  with  wind  and  waves..  They  conducted 
their  canoe  or  vessel  by  long  double-bladed  paddles,  like  those  used  by  the 
Esquimaux.'  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  5.  '  The  balsas  are  entirely  formed 
of  the  bulrush.  . .  .  commonly  the  rowers  sit  on  them  soaked  in  water,  as  they 
seldom  rise  above' the  surface.'  Forbes'  Cal.,  p.  191.  Build  no  canoes,  but 
occasionally  make  use  of  rafts  composed  of  one  or  two  logs,  generally  split. 
Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  v.,  p.  192.  '  The  "Balsa  "  is  the  only 
thing  of  the  boat  kind  known  among  them.  It  is  constructed  entirely  of 


NO  BOATS  IN  SAN  FRANCISCO  BAY.  383 

been  asserted  that  they  even  ventured  far  out  to  sea  on 
them,  but  that  this  was  common  I  much  doubt.109  They 
were  useful  to  spear  fish  from,  but  for  little  else ;  in  proof 
of  which  I  may  mention,  on  the  authority  of  Roque- 
feuil,  that  in  1809-11,  the  Koniagas  employed  by  the 
Russians  at  Bodega,  killed  seals  and  otters  in  San  Fran 
cisco  Bay  under  the  very  noses  of  the  Spaniards,  and  in 
spite  of  all  the  latter,  who  appear  to  have  had  no  boats 
of  their  own,  could  do  to  prevent  them.  In  their  light 
skin  baidarkas,  each  with  places  for  two  persons  only, 
these  bold  northern  boatmen  would  drop  down  the  coast 
from  Bodega  Bay,  where  the  Russians  were  stationed, 
or  cross  over  from  the  Farallones  in  fleets  of  from  forty 
to  fifty  boats,  and  entering  the  Golden  Gate  creep  along 
the  northern  shore,  beyond  the  range  of  the  Presidio's 
guns,  securely  establish  themselves  upon  the  islands  of 
the  bay  and  pursue  their  avocation  unmolested.  For 
three  years,  namely  from  1809  to  1811,  these  northern 
fishermen  held  possession  of  the  bay  of  San  Francisco, 
during  which  time  they  captured  over  eight  thousand 
otters.  Finally,  it  occurred  to  the  governor,  Don  Luis 
Argiiello,  that  it  would  be  well  for  the  Spaniards  to  have 
boats  of  their  own.  Accordingly  four  were  built,  but 
they  were  so  clumsily  constructed,  ill  equipped,  and 
poorly  manned,  that  had  the  Russians  and  Koniagas  felt 
disposed,  they  could  easily  have  continued  their  incur 
sions.  Once  within  the  entrance,  these  northern  bar 
barians  were  masters  of  the  bay,  and  such  was  their 
sense  of  security  that  they  would  sometimes  venture  for 
a  time  to  stretch  their  limbs  upon  the  shore.  The  cap 
ture  of  several  of  their  number,  however,  by  the  sol 
diers  from  the  fort,  made  them  more  wary  thereafter. 
Maurelle,  who  touched  at  Point  Arenas  in  1775,  but  did 

bulrushes.  .  .sit  flat  upon  the  craft,  soaked  in  water,  plying  their  paddles. . . . 
most  of  them  in  all  kinds  of  weather,  are  either  below,  or  on  a  level  with  the 
water.'  Farnham's  Life  in  CaL,  p.  368.  'My  opinion  is  that  the  Indians  of 
California,  previous  to  the  occupation  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers  had  no  other 
boats  than  those  made  from  the  tule,  and  even  as  late  as  1840,  I  never  knew 
or  heard  of  an  Indian  using  any  other.'  Phelps'  Letter,  MS. 

io9  Pickering's  Races,  in  U.  S.  Ex.   Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  p.  103;  Cronise's  Nat. 
Wealth,  p.  23. 


384  CALIFORNIANS. 

not  enter  the  bay  of  San  Francisco,  says  that  ua  vast 
number  of  Indians  now  presented  themselves  on  both 
points,  who  passed  from  one  to  the  other  in  small  canoes 
made  of  fule,  where  they  talked  loudly  for  two  hours 
or  more,  till  at  last  two  of  them  came  alongside  of  the 
ship,  and  most  liberally  presented  us  with  plumes  of 
feathers,  rosaries  of  bone,  garments  of  feathers,  as  also 
garlands  .of  the  same  materials,  which  they  wore  round 
their  head,  and  a  canister  of  seeds  which  tasted  much 
like  walnuts."  The  only  account  of  this  voyage  in  my  pos 
session  is  an  English  translation,  in  which  u  canoes  made 
of  fule"  might  easily  have  been  mistaken  for  boats  or 
floats  of  tule.110  Split  logs  were  occasionally  used  to 
cross  rivers,  and  frequently  all  means  of  transportation 
were  dispensed  with,  and  swimming  resorted  to. 

Captain  Phelps,  in  a  letter  to  the  author,  mentions 
having  seen  skin  boats,  or  baidarkas,  on  the  Sacramento 
River,  but  supposes  that  they  were  left  there  by  those 
same  Russian  employes.111  Vancouver,  speaking  of  a 
canoe  which  he  saw  below  Monterey,  says:  " Instead  of 
being  composed  of  straw,  like  those  we  had  seen  on  our 
first  visit  to  San  Francisco,  it  was  neatly  formed  of  wood, 
much  after  the  Nootka  fashion,  and  was  navigated  with 
much  adroitness  by  four  natives  of  the  country.  Their 
paddles  were  about  four  feet  long  with  a  blade  at  each 
end;  these  were  handled  with  great  dexterity,  either 
entirely  on  one  side  or  alternately  on  each  side  of  their 
canoe."112  I  account  for  the  presence  of  this  canoe  in 
the  same  manner  that  Captain  Phelps  accounts  for  the 

110  Roquefeutt's  Voy.,  pp.  25-6.  Tule  is  an  Aztec  word,  from  tollin,  signi 
fying  rushes,  nags,  or  reeds.  Molina,  Vocabulario.  Mendoza  says  that  when 
the  ancient  Mexicans  arrived  at  the  site  of  Mexico,  it  was  a  complete  swamp, 
covered  '  con  grandes  matorrales  de  enea,  que  Hainan  tuli.'  Esplimcion  del 
Codice,  in  JCmgsborough's  Mex.  Antiq.,  vol.  v.,  p.  40.  That  the  Spaniards 
themselves  had  not  boats  at  this  time  is  also  asserted  by  Kotzebue :  '  That 
no  one  has  yet  attempted  to  build  even  the  simplest  canoe  in  a  country  which 
produces  a  superabundance  of  the  finest  wood  for  the  purpose,  is  a  striking 
proof  of  the  indolence  of  the  Spaniards,  and  the  stupidity  of  the  Indians.' 
New  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  90. 

in  Phelps'  Letter,  MS. 

112  Vancouver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  4.45.  '  Sending  off  a  man  with  great  ex 
pedition,  to  vs  in  a  canow.'  Drake's  World  Encomp.,  p.  119. 


CHIEFTAINSHIP  AND  ITS  EIGHTS.  385 

skin  canoes  on  the  Sacramento,  and  think  that  it  must 
have  come  either  from  the  south  or  north. 

The  probable  cause  of  this  absence  of  boats  in  Cen 
tral  California  is  the  scarcity  of  suitable,  favorably  lo 
cated  timber.  Doubtless  if  the  banks  of  the  Sacramento 
and  the  shores  of  San  Francisco  Bay  had  been  lined  with 
large  straight  pine  or  fir  trees,  their  waters  would  have 
been  filled  with  canoes;  yet  after  all,  this  is  but  a  poor 
excuse;  for  not  only  on  the  hills  and  mountains,  at  a 
little  distance  from  the  water,  are  forests  of  fine  trees, 
but  quantities  of  driftwood  come  floating  down  every 
stream  during  the  rainy  season,  out  of  which  surely  suf 
ficient  material  could  be  secured  for  some  sort  of  boats.. 

Shells  of  different  kinds,  but  especially  the  variety 
known  as  aukne,  form  the  circulating  medium.  They 
are  polished,  sometimes  ground  down  to  a  certain  size,, 
and  arranged  on  strings  of  different  lengths.113 

Chieftainship  is  hereditary,  almost  without  exception. ' 
In  a  few  instances  I  find  it  depending  upon  wealth,  in 
fluence,  family,  or  prowess  in  war,  but  this  rarely.     In 
some  parts,  in  default  of  male  descent,  the  females  of 
the  family  are  empowered  to  appoint  a  successor.114    Al 
though  considerable  dignity  attaches  to  a  chief,  and  his 
family  are  treated  with  consideration,  yet  his  power  is 
limited,  his  principal  duties  consisting  in  making  peace 
and  war,  and  in  appointing  and  presiding  over  feasts. 
Every  band   has   its   separate  head,  and  two  or  even 


113  The  shells  'they  broke  and  rubbed  down  to  a  circular  shape,  to  the- 
size  of  a  dime,  and  strung  them  on  a  thread  of  sinews.'  Taylor,  in  Cal.  Farmer, 

March  2,  1860.     '  Three  kinds  of  money  were  employed white  shell-beads, 

or  rather  buttons,  pierced  in  the  centre  and  strung  together,  were  rated  at 
$5  a  yard;  periwinkles,  at  $1  a  yard;  fancy  marine  shells,  at  various  prices, 
from  $3  to  $10,  or  $15,  according  to  their  beauty.'  Powers,  in  Overland 
Monthly,  vol.  x.,  p.  325. 

u*  The  office  of  chief  is  hereditary  in  the  male  line  only.  The  widows 
and  daughters  of  the  chiefs  are,  however'^treated  with  distinction,  and  are 
not  required  to  work,  as  other  women.  Beechey's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  73.  In 
one  case  near  Clear  Lake,  when  '  the  males  of  a  family  had  become  extinct 
and  a  female  only  remained,  she  appointed  a  chief.'  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's 
Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  112.  At  the  Port  of  Sardinas  '  durmio  dos  noches  en  la 
capitaiia  una  india  anciana,  que  era  se flora  de  estos  pueblos,  acompanada 
de  muchos  Indies.'  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  p.  xxxii. 
VOL.  I.  25 


386  CALIFORNIANS. 

three  have  been  known  to  preside  at  the  same  time.115 
Sometimes  when  several  bands  are  dwelling  together 
they  are  united  under  one  head  chief,  who,  however,  can 
not  act  for  the  whole  without  consulting  the  lesser  chiefs. 
Practically,  the  heads  of  families  rule  in  their  own 
circle,  and  their  internal  arrangements  are  seldom  inter 
fered  with.  Their  medicine-men  also  wield  a  very  pow 
erful  influence  among  them.116  Sometimes,  when  a  fla 
grant  murder  has  been  committed,  the  chiefs  meet  in 
-council  and  decide  upon  the  punishment  of  the  offender. 
The  matter  is,  however,  more  frequently  settled  by  the 
relatives  of  the  victim,  who  either  exact  blood  for  blood 
from  the  murderer  or  let  the  thing  drop  for  a  considera- 
| lion.  Among  the  Neeshenams  revenge  must  be  had 
|j  within  twelve  months  after  the  murder  or  not  at  all.117 
According  to  Fletcher's  narrative,  there  seems  to  have 
been  much  more  distinction  of  rank  at  the  time  of  Drake's 
visit  to  California  than  subsequent  travelers  have  seen; 

115  The  Kainameahs  had  three  hereditary  chiefs.  Gibbs,  in  SchoolcrafV  s 
Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  103. 

us  In  Russian  River  Valley  and  the  vicinity:  'Die  Achtung  die  man  fur 
den  Vater  hegte,  geht  ha'ufig  auf  den  Sohn  iiber;  aber  die  Gewalt  des  Ober- 
hauptes  ist  im  Allgemeinen.  sehr  nichtig;  deiin  es  steht  einem  jeden  frei, 
•Heineii  Geburtsort  zu  verlassen  und  einen  anderen.  Aufenthalt  zu  wahlen.' 
Baer,  Stai.  u.  Ethno.,  pp.  77-8.  'Derjenige,  der  am  meisten  Anverwandte 
besitzt,  wird  als  Hauptling  oder  Tojon  anerkaiint;  in  grosseren  Wolmsitzen 
;giebt  es  mehrere  solcher  Tojoiie,  aber  ihre  Autoritat  ist  iiichts  sagend.  Sie 
habeu  weder  das  Recht  zu  befehlen,  noch  den  Ungehorsam  zu  ziichtigen.' 
Kostrondtonow,  in  Baer,  Stat.  u.  Ethno.,  p.  86.  At  Clear  Lake  chiefdom  was 
ihereditary.  Gibbs,  in  SchoolcrafVs  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  112.  See  also  pp.  103, 
110.  Among  the  Gualalas  and  Gallinomeros,  chieftainship  was  hereditary. 
The  Sanels  live  in  large  huts,  each  containing  20  or  30  persons  related  to 
•  each  other,  each  of  these  families  has  its  own  government.  The  Comachos 
paid  voluntary  tribute  for  support  of  chief.  Powers'  Porno,  MS.  In  the  Sac 
ramento  Valley  a  chief  has  more  authority  than  that  arising  merely  from  his 
personal  character.  Pickering's  Races,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  108.  On  the 
coast  between  San  Diego  and  San  Francisco,  in  the  vicinity  of  San  Miguel 
'  chaque  village  est  gouverne  despotiquement  par  un  chef  qui  est  seul  arbitre 
de  la  paix  et  de  la  guerre.'  Pages,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1844,  torn, 
ci.,  p.  1G3.  See  also  Marmier,  Notice,  in  Bryant,  Voy.  en  Cal.,  p.  227;  Jeicett, 
'in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1856,  p.  244;  Gerstaecker's  Journ.,  p.  213;  Histoire  Chre- 
.Uenne  de  id  Cal.,  p.  52;  Wimmel,  Calif ornien,  pp.  177-8. 

117  'El  robo  era  un  delito  casi  desconocido  en  ambas  naciones.  Entre  los 
Runsienes  se  miraba  quasi  con  indiferencia  el  homicidio;  pero  no  asf  entre 
los  Eslenes,  los  quales  castigaban  al  delinqiiente  con  peiia  demuerte.'  Sutily 
Mexicana,  Viage,  p.  171.  '  1m  Fall  ein  Iiidi;mer  ein  Verbrechen  in  irgeiid 
einem  Stamme  verabt  hat,  und  die  Hauptlinge  sich  bestimmt,  liabeii  ihn  zu 
todten,  so  geschieht  dies  durch  Bogen  und  Pfeil.'  Wimmd,  Calif  ornien,  pp. 
177-8;  Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  xii.,  p.  24. 


RULERS  OF  NEW  ALBION.  387 

however,  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  exaggerations 
invariably  found  in  the  reports  of  early  voyagers.  In 
proof  of  this,  we  have  only  to  take  up  almost  any 
book  of  travel  in  foreign  lands  printed  at  that  time; 
wherein  dragons  and  other  impossible  animals  are  not 
only  zoologically  described,  but  carefully  drawn  and  en 
graved,  as  well  as  other  marvels  in  abundance.  Cap 
tain  Drake  had  several  temptations  to  exaggerate.  The 
richer  and  more  important  the  country  he  discovered, 
the  more  would  it  redound  to  his  credit  to  have  been  the 
discoverer;  the  greater  the  power  and  authority  of  the 
chief  who  formally  made  over  his  dominions  to  the 
queen  of  England,  the  less  likely  to  be  disputed  would 
be  that  sovereign's  claims  to  the  ceded  territory.  Fletcher 
never  speaks  of  the  chief  of  the  tribe  that  received  Drake, 
but  as  'the  king,'  and  states  that  this  dignitary  was 
treated  with  great  respect  and  ceremony  by  the  courtiers 
who  surrounded  him.  These  latter  were  distinguished 
from  the  canaille  by  various  badges  of  rank.  They 
wore  as  ornaments  chains  "of  a  bony  substance,  euery 
linke  or  part  thereof  being  very  little,  and  thinne,  most 
finely  burnished,  with  a  hole  pierced  through  the  mid- 
dest.  The  number  of  linkes  going  to  make  one  chaine, 
is  in  a  manner  infinite;  but  of  such  estimation  it  is 
amongst  them,  that  few  be  the  persons  that  are  admitted 
to  weare  the  same;  and  euen  they  to  whom  its  lawfull 
to  use  them,  yet  are  stinted  what  number  they  shall  vse, 
as  some  ten,  some  twelue,  some  twentie,  and  as  they  ex 
ceed  in  number  of  chaines,  so  thereby  are  they  knowne 
to  be  the  more  honorable  personages."  Another  mark 
of  distinction  was  a  "certain  downe,  which  groweth  vp 
in  the  countrey  vpon  an  herbe  much  like  our  lectuce, 
which  exceeds  any  other  downe  in  the  world  for  fine- 
nesse,  and  beeing  layed  vpon  their  cawles,  by  no  winds 
can  be  remoued.  Of  such  estimation  is  this  herbe 
amongst  them,  that  the  downe  thereof  is  not  lawfull  to 
be  worne,  but  of  such  persons  as  are  about  the  king  (to 
whom  also  it  is  permitted  to  weare  a  plume  of  feather 
on  their  heads,  in  signe  of  honour) ,  and  the  seeds  are 


388  CALIFOKNIANS. 

not  vsed  but  onely  in  sacrifice  to  their  gods."  The  king, 
who  was  gorgeously  attired  in  skins,  with  a  crown  of 
feather- work  upon  his  head,  was  attended  by  a  regular 
body-guard ,  uniformly  dressed  in  coats  of  skins.  His 
coming  was  announced  by  two  heralds  or  ambassadors, 
one  of  whom  prompted  the  other,  during  the  proclama 
tion,  in  a  low  voice.  His  majesty  was  preceded  in  the 
procession  by  "  a  man  of  large  body  and  goodly  aspect, 
bearing  the  septer  or  royall  mace;"  all  of  which  hap 
pened,  if  we  may  believe  the  worthy  chaplain  of  the 
expedition,  on  the  coast  just  above  San  Francisco  Bay, 
three  hundred  years  ago.118 

Slavery  in  any  form  is  rare,  and  hereditary  bondage 
unknown.119  Polygamy  obtains  in  most  of  the  tribes, 
although  there  are  exceptions.120  It  is  common  for 
a  man  to  marry  a  whole  family  of  sisters,  and  some 
times  the  mother  also,  if  she  happen  to  be  free.121  Hus- 

ns  Drake's  World  Encomp.,  pp.  124-6. 

us  Wimmel,  Californien,  p.  178. 

120  Near  San  Francisco,  '  teniendo  muchas  mugeres,  sin  que  entre  ellas 
se  experimente  la  meiior  emulacion.'  Palou,  Vida,  de  Junipero  Serra,  p. 
2J7.  At  Monterey  'la  polygamie  leur  etait  permise.'  La  Pe'rouse,  Voy., 
torn,  ii.,  p.  31)3.  In  Tuolumiie  County  'polygamy  is  practiced.'  Healey,  in 
Ind.  Aff.  Rfpt.,  185i>,  p.  244.  At  Clear  Lake  'polygamy  is  practiced  only  by 
the  chiefs.'  Revere' 8  Tow,  p.  1:25.  '  Bei  mancheii  Staminen  wird  Vielweiberei 
gestattet.'  Wimmd,  Californien,  p.  178.  '  A  man  often  marries  a  whole  family, 
the  mother  and  her  daughters . .  .  No  jealousies  ever  appear  among  these  fam 
ilies  of  wives.'  Farnham's  Life  in  CaL,  p.  367.  *  An  Indian  man  may  have  as 
many  wives  as  he  can  keep;  but  a  woman  cannot  have  a  plurality  of  hus 
bands,  or  men  to  whom  she  owes  obedience.'  Johnston,  in  S&ioolwfyt's  Arch., 
vol.  iv.,  p.  224.  In  the  Sacramento  Valley  'the  men  in  general  have  but  one 
wife.'  Pickering's  Races,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  p.  108.  'Of  these  In 
dians  it  is  reported  that  no  one  has  more  than  one  wife.'  Willces'  Nar.,  in 
U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  v.,  p.  201.  'Entre  los  Runsienes  y  Eslenes  no  era  per- 
mitido  a  cada  hombre  tener  mas  de  una  muger.'  SutU  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  p. 
170.  At  Clear  Lake  and  down  the  coast  to  San  Francisco  Bay  '  they  have 
but  one  wife  at  a  time.'  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  112.  In  the 
vicinity  of  Fort  Boss  '  es  ist  nich  erlaubt  mehr  als  eine  Frau  zu  haben.' 
Kostromitonow,  in  Baer,  Stat.  u.  Ethno.,  p.  88.  In  the  country  round  San 
Miguel  '  nou-seulement  ce  capitaiiie  a  le  droit  d'avoir  deux  femmes,  tandis 
que  les  autres  Indiens  n'en  out  qu'une,  mais  il  peut  les  renvoyer  quand  cela 
lui  plait,  pour  en  prendre  d'autres  dans  le  village.'  Pages,  in  Nouvelles  Annales 
des  Voy.,  1844,  torn,  ci.,  p.  163.  See  also  Marmier,  Notice,  in  Bryant,  Voy. 
en  CaL,  p.  227. 

!2i  At  Monterey,  « ils  etaient  meme  dans  1'usage  d'epouser  tontes  les  soeurs 
id'une  famille.'  La  Perouse,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  303.  Near  Fort  Ross,  '  die  Bluts- 
verwandtschaft  wird  streng  beachtet  und  es  ist  nicht  gestattet  aus  dem  ersten 
oder  zweiten  Grade  der  Verwandschaft  zu  heirathen;  selbst  im  Falle  einer 
Scheidung  darf  der  nachste  Anverwandte  die  Frau  nich  ehelichep,  doch. 
giebt  es  auch  Ausnahmen.'  Kostromitonow,  in  Baer,  Stat.  u.  Ethno.,  p.  88.  At 


HOW  A  BRIDE  IS  WON.  389 

band  and  wife  are  united  with  very  little  ceremony. 
The  inclinations  of  the  bride  seem  to  be  consulted 
here  more  than  among  the  Northern  Californians.  It 
is  true  she  is  sometimes  bought  from  her  parents,  but  if 
she  violently  opposes  the  match  she  is  seldom  compelled  : 
to  marry  or  to  be  sold.  Among  some  tribes  the  wooer, 
after  speaking  with  her  parents,  retires  with  the  girl ;  if 
they  agree,  she  thenceforth  belongs  to  him ;  if  not,  the 
match  is  broken  off.122  The  Neshenam  buys  his  wife  in 
directly  by  making  presents  of  game  to  her  family.  He 
leaves  the  gifts  at  the  door  of  the  lodge  without  a  word, 
and,  if  they  are  accepted,  he  shortly  after  claims  and 
takes  his  bride  without  further  ceremony.  In  this  tribe 
the  girl  has  no  voice  whatever  in  the  matter,  and  resist 
ance  on  her  part  merely  occasions  brute  force  to  be  used 
by  her  purchaser.123 

When  an  Oleepa  lover  wishes  to  marry,  he  first  obtains 
permission  from  the  parents.  The  damsel  then  flies  and 
conceals  herself;  the  lover  searches  for  her,  and  should 
he  succeed  in  finding  her  twice  out  of  three  times  she 
belongs  to  him.  Should  he  be  unsuccessful  he  waits  a. 
few  weeks  and  then  repeats  the  performance.  If  she 
again  elude  his  search,  the  matter  is  decided  against 
him.124  The  bonds  of  matrimony  can  be  thrown  aside 

San  Francisco  'no  conocen  para  sus  casamientos  el  pareutezco  deafinidad; 
antes  bien  este  los  incita  a  recibir  por  sus  propias  mugeres  a  sus  cunadas,  y 
aun  a  las  suegras,  y  la  costumbre  que  observan  es,  que  el  que  logra  una 
muger,  tiene  por  suyas  a  todas  sus  hermanas.'  Palou,  Vide  de  Juniper  o  Serra, 
p.  217.  '  Parentage  and  other  relations  of  consanguinity  are  no  obstacles 
to  matrimony.'  Farnham's  Life  in  CaL,  p.  367.  '  Souvent  une  femme  presse 
son  mari  d'epouser  ses  soeurs,  et  meme  sa  mere,  et  cette  proposition  est  fre- 
quemment  acceptee.'  Marntier,  Notice,  in  Bryant,  Voy.  en  CaL,  p.  235.  'Este 
metodo  de  comprar  las  mugeres  era  comun  a  entraiiibas  naciones  (Eunsien- 
es  y  Eslenes),  bien  que  entre  los  llunsienes  hacia  mucho  mas  solemne  el 
contrato  la  intervencion  de  los  parientes  de  los  novios,  contribuyendo  los  del 
varon  con  su  quota,  la  qual  se  dividia  entre  los  de  la  novia  al  tiempo  de  en- 
tregar  a  esta.'  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Via</e,  p.  171. 

122  Johnston,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  223. 

123  Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  xii.,  p.  23. 

12*  Delano's  Life  on  the  Plains,  p.  306.  At  Santa  Cruz,  '  the  Gentile  Indian, 
when  he  wishes  to  marry,  goes  to  the  hut  of  her  he  desires  for  a  wife,  and 
sitting  himself  close  by  her,  sighs  without  speaking  a  word,  and  casting 
at  her  feet  some  beads  on  a  string,  goes  out,  and  without  further  cere 
mony  he  is  married.'  Cornelias'  Letter,  in  CaL  Farmer,  April  5, 1860.  At  Clear 
Lake  '  rape  exists  among  them  in  an  authorized  form,  and  it  is  the  custom 
for  a  party  of  young  men  to  surprise  and  ravish  a  young  girl^who  becomes 
the  wife  of  one  of  them.'  Severe' &  Tour,  pp.  125-6. 


390  CALIFOKNIANS. 

as  easily  as  they  are  assumed.  The  husband  has  only 
to  say  to  his  spouse,  I  cast  you  off,  and  the  thing  is 
done.125  The  Gallinomeros  acquire  their  wives  by  pur 
chase,  and  are  at  liberty  to  sell  them  again  when  tired 
of  them.126  As  usual  the  women  are  treated  with  great 
contempt  by  the  men,  and  forced  to  do  all  the  hard  and 
menial  labor;  they  are  not  even  allowed  to  sit  at  the 
same  fire  or  eat  at  the  same  repast  with  their  lords. 
Both  sexes  treat  children  with  comparative  kindness;127 
boys  are,  however,  held  in  much  higher  estimation  than 
girls,  and  from  early  childhood  are  taught  their  superi 
ority  over  the  weaker  sex.  It  is  even  stated  that  many 
female  children  are  killed  as  soon  as  born,128  but  I  am 
inclined  to  doubt  the  correctness  of  this  statement  as 
applied  to  a  country  where  polygamy  is  practiced  as 
extensively  as  in  California.  Old  people  are  treated 
with  contumely,  both  men  and  women,  aged  warriors 
being  obliged  to  do  menial  work  under  the  supervision 
of  the  women.  The  Gallinomeros  kill  their  aged  par 
ents  in  a  most  cold-blooded  manner.  The  doomed  crea 
ture  is  led  into  the  woods,  thrown  on  his  back,  and 
firmly  fastened  in  that  position  to  the  ground.  A  stout 
pole  is  then  placed  across  the  throat,  upon  either  end  of 
which  a  person  sits  until  life  is  extinct.129  A  husband 
takes  revenge  for  his  wife's  infidelities  upon  the  person 
of  her  seducer,  whom  he  is  justified  in  killing.  Some 
times  the  male  offender  is  compelled  to  buy  the  object  of 
his  unholy  passions.  In  consequence  of  their  strictness 
in  this  particular,  adultery  is  not  common  among  them 
selves,  although  a  husband  is  generally  willing  to  prosti- 

125  Marmier,  Notice,  in  Bryant,  Voy.  en  CaL,  p.  234.    At  Clear  Lake  « if  the 
parties  separate  the  children  go  with  the  wife.'  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch., 
vol.  iii.,  p.  112. 

126  Powers'  Porno,  MS. 

127  <  The  Yukas  are  often  brutal  and  cruel  to  their  women  and  children, 
especially  to  the  women.'  Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  ix.,  p.  308.     In 
the  vicinity  of  Fort  Boss,  'sie  lieben  ihre  Kinder  mit  grosser  Zartlichkeit.' 
£aer,  Stat.  u.  Ethno.,  p.  77. 

128  Wimmel,  Calif ornien,  p.  178.     '  The  practice  of  abortion,  so  common 
among  the  Chinooks  and  some  other  tribes  in  Oregon,  is  unknown  here.' 
Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  112-13. 

129  Mr  Powers,  in  his  Porno,  MS.,  makes  this  assertion  upon  what  he 
states  to  be  reliable  authority. 


CHILD-BIKTH  AND  THE  COUVADE.  391 

tute  his  dearest  wife  to  a  white  man  for  a  consideration. 
The  Central  Californian  women  are  inclined  to  rebel 
against  the  tyranny  of  their  masters,  more  than  is  usual 
in  other  tribes.  A  refractory  Tahtoo  wife  is  sometimes 
frightened  into  submission.  The  women  have  a  great 
dread  of  evil  spirits,  and  upon  this  weakness  the  hus 
band  plays.  He  paints  himself  in  black  and  white 
stripes  to  personate  an  ogre,  and  suddenly  jumping  in 
among  his  terrified  wives,  brings  them  speedily  to  peni 
tence.  Child-bearing  falls  lightly  on  the  Californian 
mother.  When  the  time  for  delivery  arrives  she  betakes 
herself  to  a  quiet  place  by  the  side  of  a  stream ;  some 
times  accompanied  by  a  female  friend,  but  more  fre 
quently  alone.  As  soon  as  the  child  is  born  the  mother 
washes  herself  and  the  infant  in  the  stream.  The  child 
is  then  swaddled  from  head  to  foot  in  strips  of  soft  skin, 
and  strapped  to  a  board,  which  is  carried  on  the  mother's 
back.  When  the  infant  is  suckled,  it  is  drawn  round  in 
front  and  allowed  to  hang  there,  the  mother  meanwhile 
pursuing  her  usual  avocations.  So  little  does  child- 
bearing  affect  these  women,  that,  on  a  journey,  they  will 
frequently  stop  by  the  way-side  for  half  an  hour  to  be 
delivered,  and  then  overtake  the  party,  who  have  trav 
eled  on  at  the  usual  pace.  Painful  parturition,  though 
so  rare,  usually  results  fatally  to  both  mother  and  child 
when  it  does  occur.  This  comparative  exemption  from 
the  curse,  "in  sorrow  shalt  thou  bring  forth,"  is  doubt 
less  owing  partly  to  the  fact  that  the  sexes  have  their 
regular  season  for  copulation,  just  as  animals  have  theirs, 
the  women  bringing  forth  each  year  with  great  regu 
larity.  A  curious  custom  prevails,  which  is,  however, 
by  no  means  peculiar  to  California.  When  child-birth 
overtakes  the  wife,  the  husband  puts  himself  to  bed,  and 
there  grunting  and  groaning  he  affects  to  suffer  all  the 
agonies  of  a  woman  in  labor.  Lying  there,  he  is  nursed 
and  tended  for  some  days  by  the  women  as  carefully  as 
though  he  were  the  actual  sufferer.  Ridiculous  as  this 
custom  is,  it  is  asserted  by  Mr  Tylor  to  have  been  prac 
ticed  in  western  China,  in  the  country  of  the  Basques, 


392  CALIFOKNIANS. 

by  the  Tibareni  at  the  south  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  in 
modified  forms  by  the  Dyaks  of  Borneo,  the  Arawaks 
of  Surinam,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Kamchatka  and 
Greenland.130  The  females  arrive  early  at  the  age  of 
puberty,131  and  grow  old  rapidly.132 

Most  important  events,  such  as  the  seasons  of  hunt 
ing,  fishing,  acorn-gathering,  and  the  like,  are  celebrated 
with  feasts  and  dances  which  differ  in  no  essential  re 
spect  from  those  practiced  by  the  Northern  Californians. 
They  usually  dance  naked,  having  their  heads  adorned 
with  feather  ornaments,  and  their  bodies  and  faces 
painted  with  glaring  colors  in  grotesque  patterns.  Broad 
stripes,  drawn  up  and  down,  across,  or  spirally  round 
the  body,  form  the  favorite  device;  sometimes  one  half 
of  the  body  is  colored  red  and  the  other  blue,  or  the 
whole  person  is  painted  jet  black  and  serves  as  a  ground 
for  the  representation  of  a  skeleton,  done  in  white,  which 
gives  the  wearer  a  most  ghastly  appearance.133  The 

iso  For  a  full  account  of  this  custom  of  the  couvade,  as  it  existed  in  vari 
ous  parts  of  the  world,  see  Tylor's  Researches,  pp.  293-302,  and  Max  Muller's 
Chips,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  271-9.  For  its  observance  in  California,  see  Venegas,  No- 
ticias  de  CaL,  torn,  i.,  p.  94,  and  Farnham's  Life  in  Cal.,  p.  367. 

131  '  It  was  not  a  thing  at  all  uncommon,  in  the  days  of  the  Indians'  an 
cient  prosperity,  to  see  a  woman  become  a  mother  at  twelve  or  fourteen. 
An  instance  was  related  to  me  where  a  girl  had  borne  her  first-born  at  ten, 
as  nearly  as  her  years  could  be  ascertained,  her  husband,  a  White  Man,  being 
then  sixty-odd.'  Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  ix.,  p.  500. 

13-2  por  further  authorities  on  family  and  domestic  affairs,  see :  Miihlen- 
pfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  456;  Delano's  Life  on  the  Plains,  pp.  306; 
Forbes'  CaL,  p.  190;  Pages,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1844,  torn,  ci.,  pp. 
317-26.  Also  quoted  in  Marmier,  Notice,  in  Bryant,  Voy.  en  CaL,  pp.  232-35; 
Wimmel,  Californien,  p.  178;  Johnston,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  pp. 
223-4;  Cornelias'  Letter,  in  CaL  Farmer,  April  5,  1860;  Palou,  Vida  de  Junipero 
Serra,  p.  217;  Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  ix.,  pp.  308,  500-6,  vol.  x.,  p. 
325;  Pickering's  Races,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  ix.,  pp.  106-8;  Suttt  y  Mexicana, 


torn. 
vi. 

U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  v.,  pp.  201/259;  D'Orbigny,  Voy.,  p.  457;  Gilbert,  McAdam, 
and  Jewett,  in  Ind.  A/.  Kept.,  1856,  pp.242-±;  Revere's  Tour,  p.  126;  Reid,  in 
Los  Angeles  Star,  1852;  Farnham's  Life  in  CaL,  pp.  367-70;  Baer,  Stat.  u. 
Ethno.,  p.  77;  Kostromitonow,  in  Baer,  Stat.  u.  Ethno.,  pp.  83-8. 

133  Every  traveler  who  has  seen  them  dance  enters  into  details  of  dress, 
etc. ;  but  no  two  of  these  accounts  are  alike,  and  the  reason  of  this  is  that 
they  have  no  regular  figures  or  costumes  peculiar  to  their  dances,  but  that 
every  man,  when  his  dress  is  not  paint  only,  wears  all  the  finery  he  possesses 
with  an  utter  disregard  for  uniformity.  '  At  some  of  their  dances  .we  were 
told  that  they  avoid  particular  articles  of  food,  even  fowls  and  eggs.'  Gibbs, 
in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  113.  Dancing  is  executed  at  Santa  Cruz, 


CALIFORNIAN  DIVERSIONS.  393 

dancing  is  accompanied  by  chantings,  clapping  of  hands, 
blowing  on  pipes  of  two  or  three  reeds  and  played  with 
the  nose  or  mouth,  beating  of  skin  drums,  and  rattling 
of  tortoise-shells  filled  with  small  pebbles.     This  hor 
rible  discord  is,  however,  more  for  the  purpose  of  mark 
ing  time  than  for  pleasing  the  ear.134     The  women  are^ 
seldom  allowed  to  join  in  the  dance  with  the  men,  and    ; 
when  they  are  so  far  honored,  take  a  very  unimportant 
part  in  the  proceedings,  merely  swaying  their  bodies  to 
and  fro  in  silence. 

Plays,  representing  scenes  of  war,  hunting,  and  private 
life,  serve  to  while  away  the  time,  and  are  performed 
with  considerable  skill.  Though  naturally  the  very  in 
carnation  of  sloth,  at  least  as  far  as  useful  labor  is  con 
cerned,  the}'  have  one  or  two  games  which  require  some 
exertion.  One  of  these,  in  vogue  among  the  Meewocs, 
is  played  with  bats  and  an  oak-knot  ball.  The  former 
are  made  of  a  pliant  stick,  having  the  end  bent  round 
and  lashed  to  the  main  part  so  as  to  form  a  loop,  which 
is  filled  with  a  network  of  strings.  They  do  not  strike 
but  push  the  ball  along  with  these  bats.  The  players 
take  sides,  and  each  party  endeavors  to  drive  the  ball 
past  the  boundaries  of  the  other.  Another  game,  which 
was  formerly  much  played  at  the  missions  on  the  coast, 
requires  more  skill  and  scarcely  less  activity.  It  consists 

by  forming  a  circle,  assuming  a  stooping  posture,  raising  a  loud,  discordant 
chant,  and,  without  moving  from  their  places,  lifting  and  lowering  a  foot, 
and  twisting  the  body  into  various  contortions.  Archives  of  Santa  Cruz  Mission. 
'In  their  dances  they  sometimes  wear  white  masks.'  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S. 
Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  v.,  p.  192.  '  Se  poudrent  les  cheveux  avec  du  duvet  d'oiseaux.' 
Choris,  Voy.  Pitt.,  part  iii.,  p.  4.  When  a  Wallie  chief  'decides  to  hold  a 
dance  in  his  village,  he  dispatches  messengers  to  the  neighboring  rancherias, 
each  bearing  a  string  whereon  is  tied  a  certain  number  of  knots.  Every 
morning  thereafter  the  invited  chief  unties  one  of  the  knots,  and  when  the 
last  but  one  is  reached,  they  joyfully  set  forth  for  the  dance.'  Powers,  in 
Overland  Monthly,  vol.  x.,  p.  325.  For  descriptions  of  dances  of  Neeshe- 
nams,  see  Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  xii.,  pp.  26-7. 

134  '  Each  one  had  two  and  sometimes  three  whistles,  made  of  reeds,  in 
his  mouth.'  San  Francisco  Bulletin,  Oct.  21,  1858.  'Some  had  whistles  or 
double  flageolets  of  reed  which  were  stuck  into  their  noses.'  Revere' s  Tour, 
p.  133.  '  The  Gentiles  do  not  possess  any  instrument  whatever. '  Cornelias1 
Letter,  in  Cal.  Farmer,  April  5,  1860.  '  Their  own  original  instrument  con 
sists  of  a  very  primitive  whistle,  some  double,  some  single,  and  held  in  the 
mouth  by  one  end,  without  the  aid  of  the  fingers;  they  are  about  the  size 
and  length  of  a  common  fife,  and  only  about  two  notes  can  be  sounded  on 
them.'  Cat.  Farmer,  Oct.  26, 


394  CALIFORNIANS. 

in  throwing  a  stick  through  a  hoop  which  is  rapidly 
rolled  along  the  ground.  If  the  player  succeeds  in  this, 
he  gains  two  points;  if  the  stick  merely  passes  partially 
through,  so  that  the  hoop  remains  resting  upon  it,  one 
point  is  scored. 

But,  as  usual,  games  of  chance  are  much  preferred  to 
games  of  skill.  The  chief  of  these  is  the  same  as  that 
already  described  in  the  last  chapter  as  being  played  by 
the  natives  all  along  the  coasts  of  Oregon,  Washington, 
and  British  Columbia,  and  which  bears  so  close  a  re 
semblance  to  the  odd-and-even  of  our  school-days.  They 
are  as  infatuated  on  this  subject  as  their  neighbors,  and 
quite  as  willing  to  stake  the  whole  of  their  possessions 
on  an  issue  of  chance.  They  smoke  a  species  of  strong 
tobacco  in  the  straight  pipes  before  mentioned;135  but 
they  have  no  native  intoxicating  drink.136 

The  principal  diseases  are  small-pox,  various  forms  of 
fever,  and  syphilis.  Owing  to  their  extreme  filthiness 
they  are  also  very  subject  to  disgusting  eruptions  of  the 
skin.  Women  are  not  allowed  to  practice  the  healing 
art,  as  among  the  Northern  Californians,  the  privileges 
of  quackery  being  here  reserved  exclusively  to  the  men. 
Chanting  incantations,  waving  of  hands,  and  the  suck 
ing  powers  obtain.  Doctors  are  supposed  to  have  power 

135  « They  use  a  species  of  native  tobacco  of  nauseous  and  sickening  odour. ' 
Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  107.     '  They  burned  the  aulone  shell 
for  the  lime  to  mix  with  their  tobacco,  which  they  swallowed  to  make  them 
drunk.'   Taylor,  in  Cal.  Farmer,  April  27,  1860.     'A  species  of  tobacco  is 
found  on  the  sandy  beaches  which  the  Indians  prepare  and  smoke.'    Wilkes' 
Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  v.,  p.  202.     '  Se  pusieron  a  chupar  y  repare  en 
ellos  la  misma  ceremonia  de  esparcir  el  humo  hacia  arriba  diciendo  en  cada 
bocanada  unas  palabras;  solo  entendf  una  que  fue  estnen  que  quiere  decir  sol; 
observe  la  misma  costumbre  de  chupar  primero  el  mas  principal,  luego  da  la 
pipa  a  otro,  y  da  vuelta  a  otros.'  Palou,  Notidas,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv., 
torn,  vii.,  p.  69;  see  also  p.  77. 

136  On  the  subject  of  amusements,  see  Kotzebut's  Voy.,  vol.  i.,  p.  282.  Z)e- 
lano's  Life  on  the  Plains,  p.  307;  Helper's  Land  of  Gold,  pp.  271-2;  Baer,  Stat.  u. 
Ethno.,  pp.  72,  76-7;  Kostromitonow,  in  Id.,  pp.  85-92;  Holinski,  La  Calif ornie, 
p.  173;  Cornelias'  Letter,  in  Cal.  Farmer,  Oct.  5,  1860;  Wimmel,  Calif ornien,  p. 
178;  Drake's  World  Encamp.,  p.  128;  Revere's  Tour,  pp.  120-133;  San  Fran- 
cisco  Bulletin,  Oct.  21*,  1858,  Nov.  29,  1871;  Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol. 
ix.,  pp.  307-8,  501-5,  vol.  x.,  pp.  325-7;  Power's  Porno,  MS.;  Laplace,  Circum- 
nav.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  150;  Kotzebue's  New  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  127;  Hutchings'  Cal. 
Mag.,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  442-6;  Farnham's  Life  in  Cal.,  p.  367;  Hist.  Chretienne,  pp. 
53-4;  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii,  pt.  ii,  p.  456;  Choris,  Voy.  Pitt.,  pt.iii., 
pp. '4-5;  La  Perouse,  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  306-7. 


MEDICINE  AND  SWEAT-HOUSES.  393 

over  life  and  death,  hence  if  they  fail  to  effect  a  cure, 
they  are  frequently  killed.137  They  demand  the  most 
extortionate  fees  in  return  for  their  services,  and  often 
refuse  to  officiate  unless  the  object  they  desire  is  prom 
ised  them.  Sweat-houses  similar  to  those  already  de 
scribed  are  in  like  manner  used  as  a  means  of  cure  for 
every  kind  of  complaint.138  They  have  another  kind  of 
sudatory.  A  hole  is  dug  in  the  sand  of  a  size  sufficient 
to  contain  a  person  lying  at  full  length ;  over  this  a  fire  is 
kept  burning  until  the  sand  is  thoroughly  heated,  when 
the  fire  is  removed  and  the  sand  stirred  with  a  stick 
until  it  is  reduced  to  the  required  temperature.  The 
patient  is  then  placed  in  the  hole  and  covered,  with  the 
exception  of  his  head,  with  sand.  Here  he  remains 
until  in  a  state  of  profuse  perspiration,  when  he  is  un 
earthed  and  plunged  into  cold  wrater.  They  are  said  to 
practice  phlebotomy,  using  the  right  arm  when  the  body 
is  affected  and  the  left  when  the  complaint  is  in  the 
limbs.  A  few  simple  decoctions  are  made  from  herbs, 
but  these  are  seldom  very  efficient  medicines,  especially 
when  administered  for  the  more  complicated  diseases 
which  the  whites  have  brought  among  them.  Owing  to 
the  insufficient  or  erroneous  treatment  they  receive, 
many  disorders  which  would  be  easily  cured  by  us,  de 
generate  with  them  into  chronic  maladies,  and  are  trans 
mitted  to  their  children.139 

137  The  Meewocs  '  believe  that  their  male  physicians,  who  are  more  prop 
erly  sorcerers,  can  sit  on  a  mountain  top  fifty  miles  distant  from  a  man  they 
wish  to  destroy,  and  compass  his  death  by  filliping  poison  towards  him  from 
their  finger-ends.'  Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  x.,  p.  327. 

138  '  I  incautiously  entered  one  of  these  caverns  during  the  operation 
above  described,  and  was  in  a  few  moments  so  nearly  suffocated  with  the 
heat,  smoke,  and  impure  air,  that  I  found  it  difficult  to  make  my  way  out. ' 
Bryant's  Cal.,  p.  272. 

139  <  Zur  Heilung  bedienen  sich  die  Schamane  der  Krauter  und  Wurzeln, 
grosstentheils  aber  saugen  sie  mit  dem  Munde  das  Blut  aus  der  kranken 
Stelle  aus,  wobei  sie  Steinchen  oder  kleine  Schlangen  in  den  Mund  nehmen 
und  darauf  versichern,  sie  hatten  dieselben  aus  der  Wunde  herausgezogen.' 
Kostromitonow,  in  Baer,  Stat.  u.  Ethno.,  p.  95;  see  also  pp.  83,  91,  94-5.    '  Until 
now  it  has  not  been  ascertained  that  the  Indians  had  any  remedy  for  curing 
the  sick  or  allaying  their  sufferings.     If  they  meet  with  an  accident  they  in 
variably  die.'  Cornelias'  Letter,  in  Cal.  Farmer,  April  5,  1860.     'Ring-worm 
is  cured  by  placing  the  milk  of  the  poison  oak  in  a  circle  round  the  af 
fected  part.'  Hutchings'  Cal.  Mag.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  440.     'Among  the  Meewocs~~" 
stomachic  affections  and  severe  travail  are  treated  with  a  plaster  of  hot     I 


396  CALIFORNIANS. 

Incremation  is  almost  universal  in  this  part  of  Cali 
fornia.140  The  body  is  decorated  with  feathers,  flowers, 
and  beads,  and  after  lying  in  state  for  some  time,  is 
burned  amid  the  howls  and  lamentations  of  friends  and 
relations.  The  ashes  are  either  preserved  by  the  family 
of  the  deceased  or  are  formally  buried.  The  weapons 
and  effects  of  the  dead  are  burned  or  buried  with  them.141 
When  a  body  is  prepared  for  interment  the  knees  are 
doubled  up  against  the  chest  and  securely  bound  with 
cords.  It  is  placed  in  a  sitting  posture  in  the  grave, 
which  is  circular.  This  is  the  most  common  manner  of 
sepulture,  but  some  tribes  bury  the  body  perpendicularly 
in  a  hole  just  large  enough  to  admit  it,  sometimes  with 
the  head  down,  sometimes  in  a  standing  position.  The 
Pomos  formerly  burned  their  dead,  and  since  they  have 
been  influenced  by  the  whites  to  bury  them,  they  inva 
riably  place  the  body  with  its  head  toward  the  south. 

A  scene  of  incremation  is  a  weird  spectacle.      The 

ashes  and  moist  earth  spread  on  the  stomach.'  Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly, 
vol.  x.,  p.  327.  See  further:  Petit-Thouars,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  140;  Farn- 
ham's  Life  in  Cal.,  p.  370;  Holinski,  La  Californie,  p.  173;  Humboldt,  Et- 
sai  Pol.,  torn,  i.,  p.  324;  Beechey's  Voy.,  voL  ii.,  pp.  35,  78;  San  Joaquin 
Republican,  Sept.,  1858;  La  Pe  rouse,  Voy.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  63;  Gibbs,  in  School- 
craft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  103,  107;  WUkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  v., 
p.  193;  Pickering's  Races,  in  Id.,  vol.  ix..  p.  109;  Pages,  in  Nouvelles  Annales 
des  Voy.,  1844,  torn,  ci.,  p.  333;  also  quoted  in  Marmier,  Notice,  in  Bryant, 
Voy.  en  Cal.,  p.  237;  Knee-land's  Wonders  of  Yosemite,  p.  52;  Kelly's  Excur 
sion  to  Cal.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  284;  Powers'  Porno,  MS.;  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  p. 
166;  Thornton's  Ogn.  and  Cal.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  94;  Delano's  Life  on  the  Plains, 
p.  295;  Laplace,  Circumnav.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  152. 

HO  « From  north  to  south,  in  the  present  California,  up  to  the  Columbia 
river  they  burnt  the  dead  in  some  tribes,  and  in  others  buried  them.  These 
modes  of  sepulture  differed  every  few  leagues.'  Taylor's  Indianology,  in 
Cal.  Farmer,  June  8,  1860.  A  dead  Oleepa  was  buried  by  one  woman  in  '  a 

Sit  about  four  feet  deep,  and  ten  feet  in  front  of  the  father's  door.'  Delano's 
if  eon  the  Plains,  p.  301.  At  Santa  Cruz  'the  Gentiles  burn  the  bodies  of 
their  warriors  and  allies  who  fall  in  war;  those  who  die  of  natural  death  they 
inter  at  sundown.'  Cornelias'  Letter,  in  Cal.  Farmer,  April  5,  1860.  The  In 
dians  of  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco  burned  their  dead  with  everything  belong 
ing  to  them,  'but  those  of  the  more  southern  regions  buried  theirs.'  Dome- 
nech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  363.  In  the  vicinity  of  Clear  Lake  all  the  tribes 
with  the  exception  of  the  Yubas  bury  their  dead.  Geiger,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept., 
1858,  p.  289. 

141  '  Los  Runsienes  dividian  liltimamente  entre  los  parientes  las  pocas  cosas 
que  componian  la  propiedad  del  difunto.  Los  Eslenes,  al  contrario,  no  solo  no 
repartian  cosa  alguna,  sino  que  todos  sus  amigos  y  siibditos  debian  contribuir 
con  algunos  abalorios  que  enterraban  con  el  cadaver  del  fallecido.'  Sutil  y 
Mexicana,  Viage,  p.  172.  '  If  a  woman  dies  in  becoming  a  mother,  the  child, 
whether  living  or  dead,  is  buried  with  its  mother.'  Hutchings'  Cal.  Mag.,  vol. 
iii.,  p.  437. 


MOUKNING  FOR  THE  DEAD.  397 

friends  and  relatives  of  the  deceased  gather  round  the 
funeral  pyre  in  a  circle,  howling  dismally.  As  the  flames 
mount  upward  their  enthusiasm  increases,  until  in  a 
perfect  frenzy  of  excitement,  they  leap,  shriek,  lacerate 
their  bodies,  and  even  snatch  a  handful  of  smoldering 
flesh  from  the  fire,  and  devour  it. 

The  ashes  of  the  dead  mixed  with  grease,  are  smeared 
over  the  face  as  a  badge  of  mourning,  and  the  compound 
is  suffered  to  remain  there  until  worn  off  by  the  action 
of  the  weather.  The  widow  keeps  her  head  covered 
with  pitch  for  several  months.  In  the  Russian  River 
Valley,  where  demonstrations  of  grief  appear  to  be  yet 
more  violent  than  elsewhere,  self-laceration  is  much 
practiced.  It  is  customary  to  have  an  annual  Dance  of 
Mourning,  when  the  inhabitants  of  a  whole  village  col 
lect  together  and  lament  their  deceased  friends  with 
howls  and  groans.  Many  tribes  think  it  necessary  to 
nourish  a  departed  spirit  for  several  months.  This  is 
done  by  scattering  food  about  the  place  where  the  re 
mains  of  the  dead  are  deposited.  A  devoted  Neeshenam 
widow  does  not  utter  a  word  for  several  months  after 
the  death  of  her  husband ;  a  less  severe  sign  of  grief  is 
to  speak  only  in  a  low  whisper  for  the  same  time.142 

Regarding  a  future  state  their  ideas  are  vague ;  some 
say  that  the  Meewocs  believe  in  utter  annihilation  after 
death,  but  who  can  fathom  the  hopes  and  fears  that 
struggle  in  their  dark  imaginings.  They  are  not  par 
ticularly  cruel  or  vicious ;  they  show  much  sorrow  for  the 


142  '  Die  nachsten  Anverwandten  schneideu  sich  das  Haar  ab  und  \verfen 
es  ins  Feuer,  wobei  sie  sich  mit  Steineu  an  die  Brust  schlagen,  auf  den  Bo- 
den  stiitzen,  ja  bisweilen  aus  besonderer  Anhanglicbkeit  zu  dem  Verstorbe- 
nen  sich  bhitriinstig  oder  gar  zu  Tode  stossen;  doch  sind  solche  Fiille  selten.' 
Kostromitonow,  in  Baer,  Stat.  u.  Ethno.,  p.  88.  '  The  body  is  consumed  upon 
a  scaffold'  built  over  a  hole,  into  which  the  ashes  are  thrown  and  covered. ' 
Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  112.  See  also:  Tehama  Gazette,  May, 
1859;  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  pp.  171-2;  Powers'  Porno,  MS.;  also  in  Overland 
Monthly,  vol.  ix.,  p.  502,  vol.  x.,  p.  328,  vol.  xii.,  p.  28;  San  Francisco  Evening 
Bulletin,  April  4,  1861;  Marfe's  Vane.  Isl,  pp.  448-50;  LaPerouse,  Voy.,  torn. 
ii.,  p.  306;  Placerville  Index,  1857;  Marmier,  in  Bryant,  Voy.  en  Cal,  pp.  230, 
236;  Hutchings'  Cal.  Mag.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  437;  Wimmel,  Californien,  p.  178;  Farn- 
liam's  Life  in  Cal,  p,  369;  Folsom  Dispatch,  in  Cal.  Fanner,  Nov.  9,  I860; 
Johnston,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  225;  D'Orbigny,  Voy.,  p.  458; 
Henley,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1856,  p.  242;  Forbes'  Cal,  p.  195. 


398  CALIFORNIANS. 

death  of  a  relative ;  in  some  instances  they  are  affection 
ate  toward  their  families.143 

i«  In  the  Russian  River  Valley  the  Indians  '  siiid  weichherzig,  und  von 
Natur  nicht  rachsiiehtig  . .  .  sie  erlernen  mit  Leichtigkeit  maiicherlei  Handaiv 
beiten  und  G-ewarbs.'  Bur,  Slat.  u.  Elhno.,  pp.  77-8.  Near  Fort  Ross  '  sind 
sie  sanft  und  friedfertig,  und  sehr  fahig,  besonders  in  der  Auffassung  sinn- 
licher  G-egenstaiicle.  Nur  in  Folge  ihrer  unmassigen  Tragheit  und  Sorglosig- 
keit  scheinen  sie  sehr  dunim  zu  seyn.'  Kostromitonow,  in  Id.,  pp.  81-2.  '  They 

appear  by  no  means  so  stupid'  as  those  at  the  missions.    Kotzebue's 

N.'W  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  25.  At  Bodega  Bay  '  their  disposition  is  most  liberal.' 
Maurelle's  Jour.,  p.  47.  At  Clear  Lake  'they  are  docile,  mild,  easily  man 
aged.  . .  .roguish,  ungrateful,  and  incorrigibly  lazy.  . .  .cowardly  and  cringing 
towards  the  whites .  . .  thorough  sensualists  and  most  abandoned  gamblers  . . 
wretchedly  improvident.'  Revere' s  Tour,  pp.  120-1.  In  the  Sacramento  Val 
ley  they  are  '  excessively  jealous  of  their  squaws  ...  stingy  and  inhospitable.' 
Kelly's  Excursion  to  CaL,  vol.  ii.,  p.  114.  'A  mirthful  race,  always  disposed 
to  jest  and  laugh.'  Dana,  in  Hole's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  222. 
'  Possessed  of  mean,  treacherous,  and  cowardly  traits  of  character,  and  the 
most  thievish  propensities.'  Johnson's  CaL  and  0<jn.,  p.  143.  In  the  vicinity 
of  San  Francisco  Bay  '  they  are  certainly  a  race  of  the  most  miserable  be 
ings  I  ever  saw,  possessing  the  faculty  of  human  reason.'  Vancouver's  Voy., 
vol.  ii.,  p.  13.  '  For  the  most  part  an  idle,  intemperate  race.'  Thornton's  Oyn. 
and  CaL,  vol.  ii.,  p.  78.  'They  are  a  people  of  a  tractable,  free,  and  loiiing 
nature,  without  guile  or  treachery.'  Drake's  World  Encomp.,  p.  131.  '  Bas- 
tantes  rancherias  de  gentiles  muy  mansos  y  apacibles.'  Crespi,  in  Doc.  Hist. 
Mex..  serie  iv.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  497.  '  Son  muy  mansos,  afables,  de  buenas  caras  y 
los  mas  de  ellos  barbados.'  Palou,  Notidas,  in  Id.,  torn,  vii.,  p.  59.  At  Monte 
rey  they  '  etaient  lourds  et  peu  intelligents.'  Those  living  farther  from  the 
missions  were  not  without  '  une  certaine  finasse,  commune  a  tons  les  hommes 
eleves  dans  1'etat  de  nature. '  Pettt-Thouars,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  134.  '  Ces peuples 
sont  si  peu  courageux,  qu'ils  n'opposent  jamais  aucune  resistance  aux  trois  ou 
quatre  soldats  qui  violent  si  evidement  a  leur  egard  le  droit  des  gens.'  La  Pe- 
rousi,  Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  297.  '  The  Yukas  are  a  tigerish,  truculent,  sullen,  thiev 
ish,  aud  every  way  bad,  but  brave  race.'  Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.ix., 
p.  306.  The  Tahtoos  were  very  cowardly  and  peace-loving.  Powers'  Porno,  M8. 
Than  the  Oleepas  '  a  more  jolly,  laughter-loving,  careless,  and  good-natured 
people  do  not  exist. . .  .For  intelligence  they  are  far  behind  the  Indians  east 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains.'  Delano's  Life  on  the  Plains,  p.  297.  The  Kaniii- 
mares  'were  considered  a  brave  and  warlike  Indian  race.'  Taylor,  in  CaL 
farmer,  March  30,  1860^  The  condition  of  the  Wallas  '  is  the  most  miserable 
that  it  is  possible  to  conceive;  their  mode  of  living,  the  most  abject  and  des 
titute  known  to  man.'  Henley,  in  Ind.  Aff.  R>pL,  1856,  p.  241.  The  Fresno 
River  Indians  'are  peaceable,  quiet  and  industrious.'  Henley,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
R'ipL,  1851,  p.  3)4.  A  rational/  calculating  people,  generally  industrious. 
Livois,  in  Lid.  Aff.  Rept.,  1858,  p.  291.  On  the  coast  range  north  and  east  of 
Mendocino  '  they  are  a  timid  and  generally  inoffensive  race.'  Bailey,  in  Ind. 
Aff.  R^/pL,  1858,  p.  304.  In  Placer  County  they  are  industrious,  honest,  and 
temperate;  the  females  strictly  virtuous.  Brown,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1856,  p. 
243.  Lazy,  trifling,  drunken.  Applegate,  Ib.  In  Tuolumne:  friendly,  gen 
erally  honest,  truthful;  men  lazy,  women  industrious.  Jewett,  Id.,  p.  244. 
In  the  Yosemite  Valley,  '  though  low  in  the  scale  of  man,  they  are  not  the 
abject  creatures  generally  represented;  they  are  mild,  harmless,  and  singu 
larly  honest.  Kneeland's  Wonders  of  Yosemite,  p.  52.  At  Santa  Clara  they 
have  no  ambition,  are  entirely  regardless  of  reputation  and  renown.  Van 
couver's  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  21.  In  stupid  apathy  'they  exceed  every  race  of 
men  I  have  ever  known,  not  excepting  the  degraded  races  of  Terra  del  Fuego 
or  Van  Dieman's  Land.'  Kotze'me's  New  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  97.  At  Santa  Cruz 
'  they  are  so  inclined  to  lying  that  they  almost  always  will  confess  offences 
they  have  not  committed;'  very  lustful  and  inhospitable.  Cornelias,'  Letter,  in 


CENTRAL  CALIFORNIAN  CHARACTER.  399 

Although  nearly  all  travelers  who  have  seen  and  de 
scribed  this  people,  place  them  in  the  lowest  scale  of 
humanity,  yet  there  are  some  who  assert  that  the  char 
acter  of  the  Californian  has  been  maligned.  It  does  not 
follow,  they  say,  that  he  is  indolent  because  he  does  not 
work  when  the  fertility  of  his  native  land  enables  him 
to  live  without  labor ;  or  that  he  is  cowardly  because  he 
is  not  incessantly  at  war,  or  stupid  and  brutal  because 
the  mildness  of  his  climate  renders  clothes  and  dwellings 
superfluous.  But  is  this  sound  reasoning  ?  Surely  a  peo 
ple  assisted  by  nature  should  progress  faster  than  another, 
struggling  with  depressing  difficulties. 

From  the  frozen,  wind-swept  plains  of  Alaska  to 
the  malaria-haunted  swamps  of  Darien,  there  is  not  a 
fairer  land  than  California;  it  is  the  neutral  ground, 
as  it  were,  of  the  elements,  where  hyperboreal  cold, 
stripped  off  its  rugged  aspect,  and  equatorial  heat, 
tamed  to  a  genial  warmth,  meet  as  friends,  inviting, 
all  blusterings  laid  aside.  Yet  if  we  travel  northward 

Col.  Farm°r,  April  5,  1860.  At  Kelsey  River  they  are  ' amiable  and  thievish.' 
Gi'i'ts,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  124.  '  In  general  terms,  the  California 
Indians  are  more  timid,  peaceable,  and  joyous  than  any  of  their  neighbors.' 
Stephens,  in  Pouozrs'  Pomo,  MS.  '  Their  stupidity,  insensibility,  ignorance, 
inconstancy,  slavery  to  appetite,  excessive  sloth  and  laziness,  being  absorbed 
for  the  time  in  the  stir  and  din  of  night-watching  and  battle,  give  them  a 
new  existence.'  Farnham's  Life  in  Col.,  p.  366.  'Faul  und  jeder  Anstren- 
gung  abgeneigt. '  Oa'swil-l,  Calif ornien,  p.  63.  'Stupidity  seemed  to  be  their 
distinctive  character.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  i.,  p.  '239.  'Loose,  lazy,  care 
less,  capricious,  childish  and  fickle.'  Taylor,  in  Cal.  Farmer,  March  2,  1860. 
'They  are  really  the  most  harmless  tribes  on  the  American  continent.'  Ger- 
staecker's  Nar.,  p.  212.  Revengeful,  timid,  treacherous  and  ungrateful.  Kelly's 
Excursion  to  Cal.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  284.  '  Cowardly,  treacherous,  filthy  and  indolent.' 
Johnston,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  223.  '  Dull,  indolent,  phlegmatic, 
timid  and  of  a  gentle,  submissive  temper. '  Hak's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol. 
vi.,  p.  199.  '  In  stature  no  less  than  in  mind  are  certainly  of  a  very  inferior  race 
of  human  beings.'  Lanysdorff' s  Voy.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  168.  '  Pusillanimous.'  Forbes' 
Cal.,  p.  183.  '  Us  sont  egalement  extremes  dans  1'expression  de  la  joie  et  de 
la  colere.'  Rollin,  in  La  Perouse,  Voy.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  58.  'Seemed  to  be  al 
most  of  the  lowest  grade  of  human  beings.'  King's  Rept.,  in  Bayard  Taylor's 
El  Dorado,  Appendix,  vol.  ii.,  p.  210.  'Die  Indianer  von  Califoriiien  sind 
physisch  und  moralish  den  andern  Indianern  untergeordnet.'  Wimmel,  Cali- 
fornkn,  p.  177.  '  Su  estupidez  mas  parece  un  entorpe*cimiento  de  las  poten- 
cias  por  falta  de  accion  y  por  pereza  caracteristica,  qiie  limitacion  absoluta 
de  sus  facultades  intelectuales;  y  asi  quando  se  las  pone  en  movimiento,  y  se 
ies  dan  ideas,  no  clexan  de  discernir  y  de  aprender  lo  que  se  les  ensena.' 
Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  p.  164.  '  I  noticed  that  all  the  Indians  from  South 
ern  to  Northern  California  were  low,  shiftless,  indolent,  and  cowardly." 
Miller's  Life  Amongst  the-  Modocs,  p.  16.  Cowardly  and  treacherous  in  the 
extreme.  Life  of  Gov.  L.  W.  Boggs,  by  his  Son,  MS. 


400  CALIFOBNIANS. 

from  the  Isthmus,  we  must  pass  by  ruined  cities  and 
temples,  traces  of  mighty  peoples,  who  there  flourished  be 
fore  a  foreign  civilization  extirpated  them.  On  the  arid 
deserts  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  is  found  an  incipient 
civilization.  Descending  from  the  Arctic  sea  we  meet 
races  of  hunters  and  traders,  which  can  be  called  neither 
primitive  nor  primordial,  living  after  their  fashion  as 
men,  not  as  brutes.  It  is  not  until  we  reach  the  Golden 
Mean  in  Central  California  that  we  find  whole  tribes 
subsisting  on  roots,  herbs  .and  insects ;  having  no  boats, 
no  clothing,  no  laws,  no  God ;  yielding  submissively  to 
the  first  touch  of  the  invader;  held  in  awe  by  a  few 
priests  and  soldiers.  Men  do  not  civilize  themselves. 
Had  not  the  Greeks  and  the  Egyptians  been  driven  on 
by  an^unseen  hand,  never  would  the  city  of  the  Violet 
Crown  have  graced  the  plains  of  Hellas,  nor  Thebes  nor 
Memphis  have  risen  in  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Nile. 
Why  Greece  is  civilized,  while  California  breeds  a  race 
inferior  to  the  lowest  of  their  neighbors,  save  only  per 
haps  trie  Shoshones  on  their  east,  no  one  yet  can  tell. 

When  Father  Junipero  Serra  established  the  Mission 
of  Dolores  in  1776,  the  shores  of  San  Francisco  Bay 
were  thickly  populated  by  the  Ahwashtees,  Ohlones, 
Altahmos,  Romanons,  Tuolomos,  and  other  tribes.  The 
good  Father  found  the  field  unoccupied,  for,  in  the  vocab 
ulary  of  these  people,  there  is  found  no  word  for  god, 
angel,  or  devil ;  they  held  no  theory  of  origin  or  desti 
ny.  A  rancheria  was  situated  on  the  spot  where  now 
Beach  street  intersects  Hyde  street.  Were  it  there  now, 
as  contrasted  with  the  dwellings  of  San  Francisco,  it 
would  resemble  a  pig-sty  more  than  a  human  habitation. 

On  the  Marin  and  Sonoma  shores  of  the  bay  were  the 
Tomales  and  Camimares,  the  latter  numbering,  in  1824, 
ten  thousand  souls.  Marin,  chief  of  the  Tomales,  was 
for  a  long  time  the  terror  of  the  Spaniards,  and  his  war 
riors  were  ranked  as  among  the  fiercest  of  the  Cali- 
fornians.  He  was  brave,  energetic,  and  possessed  of  no 
ordinary  intelligence.  When  quite  old  he  consented  to 
be  baptized  into  the  Romish  Church. 


YOSEMITE  VALLEY  INDIANS.  401 

It  has  been  suspected  that  the  chief  Marin  was  not  a 
full-bred  Indian,  but  that  he  was  related  to  a  certain 
Spanish  sailor  who  was  cast  ashore  from  a  wrecked  galeon 
on  a  voyage  from  Manila  to  Acapulco  about  the  year 
1750.  The  ship-wrecked  Spaniards,  it  has  been  sur 
mised,  were  kindly  treated  by  the  natives;  they  married 
native  wives,  and  lived  with  the  Tomales  as  of  them, 
and  from  them  descended  many  of  their  chiefs ;  but  of 
this  we  have  no  proof. 

Yosemite  Valley  was  formerly  a  stronghold  to  which 
tribes  in  that  vicinity  resorted  after  committing  their 
depredations  upon  white  settlers.  They  used  to  make 
their  boast  that  their  hiding  place  could  never  be  dis 
covered  by  white  men.  But  during  the  year  1850,  the 
marauders  growing  bold  in  their  fancied  security,  the 
whites  arose  and  drove  them  into  the  mountains.  Fol 
lowing  them  thither  under  the  guidance  of  Tenaya,  an 
old  chief  and  confederate,  the  white  men  were  suddenly 
confronted  by  the  wondrous  beauties  of  the  valley.  The 
Indians,  disheartened  at  the  discovery  of  their  retreat, 
yielded  a  reluctant  obedience,  but  becoming  again  disaf 
fected  they  renewed  their  depredations.  Shortly  after 
ward  the  Yosemite  Indians  made  a  visit  to  the  Monos. 
They  were  hospitably  entertained,  but  upon  leaving,  could 
not  resist  the  temptation*  to  drive  off  a  few  stray  cattle  be 
longing  to  their  friends.  The  Monos,  enraged  at  this  breach 
of  good  faith,  pursued  and  gave  them  battle.  The  warriors 
of  the  valley  were  nearly  exterminated,  scarce  half  a 
dozen  remaining  to  mourn  their  loss.  All  their  women 
and  children  were  carried  away  into  captivity.  These 
Yosemite  Indians  consisted  of  a  mixture  from  various 
tribes,  outlaws  as  it  were  from  the  surrounding  tribes.. 
They  have  left  as  their  legacy  a  name  for  every  cliff  and 
waterfall  within  the  valley.  How  marvelous  would  be 
their  history  could  we  go  back  and  trace  it  from  the 
beginning,  these  millions  of  human  bands,  who  through 
out  the  ages  have  been  coming  and  going,  unknowing 
and  unknown! 


VOL.  I.    26 


402  CALIFOENIANS. 

In  the  SOUTHERN  CALIFORNIANS,  whose  territory  lies 
south  of  the  thirty-fifth  parallel,  there  are  less  tribal 
differences  than  among  any  people  whom  we  have  yet 
encountered,  whose  domain  is  of  equal  extent.  Those 
who  live  in  the  south-eastern  corner  of  the  State  are 
thrown  by  the  Sierra  Nevada  range  of  mountains  into 
the  Shoshone  family,  to  which,  indeed,  by  affinity  they 
belong.  The  chief  tribes  of  this  division  are  the  Ca- 
huittas  and  the  Dieguenos,  the  former  living  around  the 
8an  Bernardino  and  San  Jacinto  mountains,  and  the 
latter  in  the  southern  extremity  of  California.  Around 
^each  mission  were  scores  of  small  bands,  whose  ranche- 
ri'as  were  recorded  in  the  mission  books,  the  natives  as 
.a  whole  being  known  only  by  the  name  of  the  mission. 
When  first  discovered  by  Cabrillo  in  1542,  the  islands 
off  the  coast  were  inhabited  by  a  superior  people,  but 
these  they  were  induced  by  the  padres  to  abandon,  fol 
lowing  which  event  the  people  rapidly  faded  away.  The 
natives  called  the  island  of  Santa  Cruz  Liniooh,  Santa 
Rosa  Hurmal,  San  Miguel  Twocan,  and  San  Nicolas  Gha- 
lashat. 

As  we  approach  the  southern  boundary  of  California 
a  slight  improvement  is  manifest  in  the  aborigines. 
The  men  are  here  well  made,  of  a  stature  quite  up  to 
the  average,  comparatively  fair-complexioned  and  pleas 
ant-featured.  The  children  of  the  islanders  are  described 
.by  the  early  voyagers  as  being  white,  with  light  hair  and 
ruddy  cheeks,  and  the  women  as  having  fine  forms, 
.beautiful  eyes,  and  a  modest  demeanor.144  The  beard  is 

I**  At  Santa  Catalina  '  las  mujeres  son  muy  hermosas  y  honestas,  los  ninos 
•son  blancos  y  rubios  y  muy  risuenos.'  Salmeron,  Eelaciones,  p.  18,  in  Doc.  Hist. 
Mex.,  serie  iii.,  toni.  iv.  See  also  Farnham's  Life  in  CaL,  p.  140;  Torquemada, 
Monarq.  hid.,  torn,  i.,  p.  712.  At  Santa  Barbara,  '  son  mas  altos,  dispuestos,  y 
membrados,  que  otros,  que  antes  se  avian  visto.'  Torquemada,  Monarq.  Ind., 
..torn,  i.,  p.  714.  On  the  coast  from  San  Diego  to  San  Francisco  they  are  '  d'une 
•couleur  foncee,  de  petite  taille,  et  assez  mal  faits.'  Fages,  in  Nouvelles  Annales 
<des  Voy.,  1844,  torn,  ci.,  p.  153;  see  also  Marmier,  Notice,  in  Bryant,  Voy.  en  CaL, 
p.  226.  At  San  Luis  Key,  '  sont  bien  faits  et  d'une  taille  moyenne.'  Id.,  p. 
171;  quoted  in  Marmier,  p.  229.  An  Indian  seen  at  Santa  Inez  Mission 
'  was  about  twenty-seven  years  old,  with  a  black  thick  beard,  iris  of  the  eyes 
light  chocolate-brown,  nose  small  and  round,  lips  not  thick,  face  long  and 
angular.'  CaL  Farmer,  May  4,  I860.  The  Noches  '  aunque  de  buena  disposi- 
cion  son  delgados  y  bastante  delicados  para  andar  a  pie.'  Garces,  ill  Doc.  Hist. 


DRESS  IN  SOUTHERN  CALIFORNIA.  403 

plucked  out  with  a  bivalve  shell,  which  answers  the 
purpose  of  pincers. 

A  short  cloak  of  deer- skin  or  rabbit- skins  sewed  to 
gether,  suffices  the  men  for  clothing;  and  sometimes 
even  this  is  dispensed  with,  for  they  think  it  no  shame 
to  be  naked.145  The  women  and  female  children  wear  a 
petticoat  of  skin,  with  a  heavy  fringe  reaching  down  to 
the  knees;  in  some  districts  they  also  wear  short  capes 
covering  the  breasts.146  On  the  coast  and,  formerly,  on 
the  islands,  seals  furnished  the  material.147  The  more 
industrious  and  wealthy  embroider  their  garments  pro 
fusely  with  small  shells.  Around  Santa  Barbara  rings  of 
bone  or  shell  were  worn  in  the  nose;  at  Los  Angeles 
nasal  ornaments  were  not  the  fashion.  The  women  had 
cylinder-shaped  pieces  of  ivory,  sometimes  as  much  as 
eight  inches  in  length,  attached  to  the  ears  by  a  shell 
ring.  Bracelets  and  necklaces  were  made  of  pieces  of 
ivory  ground  round  and  perforated,  small  pebbles,  and 
shells. 

Paint  of  various  colors  was  used  by  warriors  and 
dancers.  Mr  Hugo  Reid,  who  has  contributed  valu 
able  information  concerning  the  natives  of  Los  Angeles 
County,  states  that  girls  in  love  paint  the  cheeks  spar 
ingly  with  red  ochre,  and  all  the  women,  before  they 
grow  old,  protect  their  complexion  from  the  effects  of 

Mex.,  serie  ii.,  torn,  i.,  p.  295.  '.Well  proportioned  in  figure,  and  of  noble 
appearance.'  Dotnenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  45.  'The  women  (of  the  Die- 
genos)  are  beautifully  developed,  and  superbly  formed,  their  bodies  as 
straight  as  an  arrow.'  Michler,  in  Emory's  U.  S.  and  Mex,,  Hound.  Survey, 
vol.  i  ,  p.  1U7.  The  Cahuillas  'are  a  filthy  and  miserable-looking  set,  and 
great  beggars,  presenting  an  unfavorable  contrast  to  the  Indian  upon  the 
Colorado.'  Whipple,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Kept.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  134. 

145  The  ordinary  cloak  descends  to  the  waist :  '  le  chef  seul  en  a  une  qui 
lui  tombe  jusqu'au  jarret,  et  c'est  la  la  seule  marque  de  distinction.'  Pages, 
in  Nouvelles  Annales  dcs  Voy.,  1844,  torn,  ci.,  p.  172;  see  also  Marnder,  Notice, 
in  Bryant,  Voy.  en  CaL,  p.  229. 

146  These  capes  Father  Crespi  describes  as  being  '  unos  capotillos  hechos 
de  pieles  de  liebres  y  conejos  deque  hacen  tiras  y  tercidas  como  mecate; 
cosen  uno  con  otro  y  las  defienden  del  frio  cubriendolas  por  la  honestidad.' 
Crespi,  in  Doc.  Il'ist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  vi.,  pp.  291-2;  see  also  Id.,  p.  312. 

147  The  lobo  marine  of  the  Spanish  is  the  common  seal  and  sea  calf  of  the 
the  English;  le  veau  marin  and  phoque  commun  of  the  French;  vecchio  ma- 
rino  of  the  Italians;  Meerwolf  and  Meerhund  of  the  Germans;   Zee-Hund 
of  the  Dutch;  Sael-hundof  the  Danes;  Sial  of  the  Swedes;  and  moelrhcn  of 
the  Welsh.  Knight's  Eng.  Encyc.  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  299. 


404  CALIFORNIANS. 

the  sun  by  a  plentiful  application  of  the  same  cosmetic.148 
Vizcaino  saw  natives  on  the  southern  coast  painted  blue 
and  silvered  over  with  some  kind  of  mineral  substance. 
On  his  asking  where  they  obtained  the  silver-like  ma 
terial  they  showed  him  a  kind  of  mineral  ore,  which 
they  said  they  used  for  purposes  of  ornamentation.149 

They  take  much  pride  in  their  hair,  which  they  wear 
long.  It  is  braided,  and  either  wound  round  the  head 
turban-like,150  or  twisted  into  a  top-knot ;  some  tie  it  in  a 
queue  behind.  According  to  Father  Boscana  the  girls 
are  tattooed  in  infancy  on  the  face,  breast,  and  arms. 
The  most  usual  method  was  to  prick  the  flesh  with  a 
thorn  of  the  cactus-plant;  charcoal,  produced  from  the 
maguey  was  then  rubbed  into  the  wounds,  and  an  inef 
faceable  blue  was  the  result.151 

Dwellings,  in  the  greater  part  of  this  region,  differ  but 
little  from  those  of  the  Central  Californians.  In  shape 
they  are  conical  or  semi-globular,  and  usually  consist  of 
a  frame,  formed  by  driving  long  poles  into  the  ground, 
covered  with  rushes  and  earth.152  On  the  coast  of  the 
Santa  Barbara  Channel  there  seems  to  have  been  some 
improvement  in  their  style  of  architecture.  It  was  prob 
ably  here  that  Cabrillo  saw  houses  built  after  the  man 
ner  of  those  in  New  Spain.153  It  is  possible  that  the 

148  Reid,  in  Los  Angeles  Star. 

i«  Salmeron,  Relaciones,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  18. 

150  This  hair  turban  or  coil  '  sirve  de  bolsa  para  guardar  en  la  cabeza  los 
abal orios  y  demas  chucherias  que  se  les  da.''  Palou,  Vida  de  Junipero  Serra, 
p.  215.     The  same  custom  seems  to  prevail  among  the  Cibolos  of  New  Mex 
ico,  as  Marmier,  in  his  additional  chapter  in  the  French  edition  of  Bryant's 
Gal.,  p.  258,  says:  'les  homines  du  peuple  tressent  leurs  cheveux  avec  des 
cordons,  et  y  placent  le  peu  d'objets  qu'ils  possedent,  notamment  la  corne 
qui  renferme  leur  tabac  a  fumer.' 

151  On  the  subject  of  dress  see  also  Navarrete,  Introd.,  in  Sutil  y  Mexicana, 
Viage,  p.  Ixiv. ;  Palou,  Vida  de  Junipero  Serra,  p.  79;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol. 

ii.,  p.  45;  Boscana,  in  Robinson's  Life  in  CaL,  p.  240;  Farnham's  Life  in  Gal., 
p.  138;  Garces,  in  Doc.  Mex.  Hist.,  serie  ii.,  torn,  i.,  p.  294;  Marmier,  Notice,  in 
Bryant,  Voy.  en  CaL,  p.  229. 

ir'2  On  the  Los  Angeles  Coast:  '  La  rancherfa  se  compone  de  veiiite  casas 
hechas  de  zacate  de  forma  esferica  a  modo  de  uno  media  naranja  con  su  res- 
piradero  en  lo  alto  por  donde  les  entra  la  luz  y  tiene  salida  el  humo.'  Crespi, 
in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  314;  Hoffmann,  in  San  Francisco  Med 
ical  Press,  vol.  v.,  p.  149. 

153  'Partieron  de  alii  el  9,  entraron  en  una  enseiiada  espaciosa,  y  siguien- 
do  la  costa  vieron  en  ella  un  pueblo  de  Indios  junto  a  la  mar  con  casas  gran- 
des  a  manera  de  las  de  Nueva-Espana.'  Navarrete  Introd.,  in  Sutil  y  Mexicana, 


DWELLINGS  AND  FOOD.  405 

influences  of  the  southern  civilization  may  have  ex 
tended  as  far  as  this  point.  Father  Boscana's  descrip 
tion  of  the  temples  or  vanquechs  erected  by  the  natives  in 
the  vicinity  of  San  Juan  Capistrano,  in  honor  of  their 
god,  Chinigchinich,  is  thus  translated:  "  They  formed  an 
enclosure  of  about  four  or  five  yards  in  circumference, 
not  exactly  round,  but  inclining  to  an  oval.  This  they 
divided  by  drawing  a  line  through  the  centre,  and  built 
another,  consisting  of  the  branches  of  trees,  and  mats  to 
the  height  of  about  six  feet,  outside  of  which,  in  the 
other  division,  they  formed  another  of  small  stakes  of 
wood  driven  into  the  ground.  This  was  called  the  gate, 
or  entrance,  to  the  vanquech.  Inside  of  this,  and  close 
to  the  larger  stakes,  was  placed  a  figure  of  their  god 
Chinigchinich,  elevated  upon  a  kind  of  hurdle.  This  is 
the  edifice  of  the  vanquech."154 

Almost  every  living  thing  that  they  can  lay  their 
hands  on  serves  as  food.  Coyotes,  skunks,  wild  cats, 
rats,  mice,  crows,  hawks,  owls,  lizards,  frogs,  snakes,  ex 
cepting  him  of  the  rattle,  grasshoppers  and  other  in 
sects,  all  are  devoured  by  the  inland  tribes.  Stranded 
whales,  animals  of  the  seal  genus,  fish,  and  shell-fish, 
form  the  main  support  of  those  inhabiting  the  coast. 
Venison  they  are  of  course  glad  to  eat  when  they  can 
get  it,  but  as  they  are  poor  hunters,  it  is  a  rare  luxury. 
When  they  did  hunt  the  deer  they  resorted  to  the  same 
artifice  as  their  northern  neighbors,  placing  a  deer's 
head  and  horns  on  their  own  head,  and  thus  disguised 
approaching  within  bow-shot.  Bear-meat  the  majority 


Viage,  pp.  xxix.,  xxxi.,  xxxvi.  The  accounts  of  Cabrillo's  voyage  are  so  con 
fused  that  it  is  impossible  to  know  the  exact  locality  in  which  he  saw  the  peo 
ple  he  describes.  On  this  point  compare  Cabritto,  Relation,  in  Col.  Doc.  Hist. 
Florida,  torn,  i.,  p.  173;  Browne's  Lower  Cal.,  pp.  18,  19;  Burney's  Chron.  Hist. 
Discov.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  221-5;  Clavigero,  Storia  delta  Cal.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  154-5;  Hum- 
boldt,  Essai  Pol,  torn,  i.,  p.  329;  Montanus,  Nieuwe  Weereld,  pp.  210-11;  Sal- 
meron,  Relaciones,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  18;  De  Laet,  Novus 
Orbte,  p.  306.  'Nur  urn  die  Meerenge  von  Santa  Barbara  fand  man,  1769, 
die  Bewohiier  ein  wenig  gesittigter.  Sie  bauten  grosse  Hauser  von  pyra- 
midaler  Form,  in  Dorfer  vereint. '  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt.  ii.,  pp. 
454-5. 

tf*  Boscana,  in  Robinson's  Life  in  Cal.,  p.  259;  Bancroft's  Nat.  Races,  vol. 
tti.,  pp.  163-9. 


406  CALIFORNIANS. 

refuse  to  eat  from  superstitious  motives.155  Grasshoppers 
are  eaten  roasted.  Acorns  are  shelled,  dried,  and  pound 
ed  in  stone  mortars  into  flour,  which  is  washed  and 
re  washed  in  hot  and  cold  water  until  the  bitterness  is 
removed,  when  it  is  made  into  gruel  with  cold  water,  or 
baked  into  bread.  Various  kinds  of  grass-seeds,  herbs, 
berries,  and  roots,  are  also  eaten,  both  roasted  and  raw. 
Wild  fowl  are  caught  in  nets  made  of  tules,  spread 
over  channels  cut  through  the  rushes  in  places  fre 
quented  by  the  fowl,  at  a  sufficient  height  above  the 
water  to  allow  the  birds  to  swim  easily  beneath  them. 
The  game  is  gently  driven  or  decoyed  under  the  nets, 
when  at  a  given  signal,  a  great  noise  is  made,  and  the 
terrified  fowl,  rising  suddenly,  become  hopelessly  en 
tangled  in  the  meshes,  and  fall  an  easy  prey.  Or  select 
ing  a  spot  containing  clear  water  about  two  feet  deep, 
they  fasten  a  net  midway  between  the  surface  and  the 
bottom,  and  strewing  the  place  with  berries,  which  sink 
to  the  bottom  under  the  net,  they  retire.  The  fowl 
approach  and  dive  for  the  berries.  The  meshes  of  the 
net  readily  admit  the  head,  but  hold  the  prisoner  tight 
upon  attempting  to  withdraw  it.  And  what  is  more, 
their  position  prevents  them  from  making  a  noise,  and 
they  serve  also  as  a  decoy  for  others.  Fish  are  taken  in 
seines  made  from  the  tough  bark  of  the  tioiie-tree.  They 
are  also  killed  with  spears  having  a  movable  bone  head, 
attached  to  a  long  line,  so  that  when  a  fish  is  struck  the 
barb  becomes  loosened;  line  is  then  paid  out  until  the 
fish  is  exhausted  with  running,  when  it  is  drawn  in. 
Many  of  the  inland  tribes  come  down  to  the  coast  in  the 
fishing  season,  and  remain  there  until  the  shoals  leave, 
when  they  return  to  the  interior.  Food  is  either  boiled 
by  dropping  hot  stones  into  water-baskets,  or,  more  fre 
quently,  in  vessels  made  of  soap-stone.156 

155  <  One  of  their  most  remarkable  superstitions  is  found  in  the  fact  of 
their  not  eating  the  flesh  of  large  game.     This  arises  from  their  belief  that 
in  the  bodies  of  all  large  animals  the  souls  of  certain  generations,  long  since 
past,  have  entered  ...  A  term  of  reproach  from  a  wild  tribe  to  those  more 
tamed  is,  "they  eat  venison."  '  SchoolcrafVs  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  pp.  215-6;  see 
also  Reid,  in  Los  Angeles  Star. 

156  '  All  their  food  was  either  cold  or  nearly  so Salt  was  used  very  spar- 


WEAPONS  AND  WAK.  407 

In  their  cooking,  as  in  other  respects,  they  are  excess 
ively  unclean.  They  bathe  frequently,  it  is  true,  but 
when  not  in  the  water  they  are  wallowing  in  filth.  Their 
dwellings  are  full  of  offal  and  other  impurities,  and  ver-* 
min  abound  on  their  persons. 

Bows  and  arrows,  and  clubs,  are  as  usual  the  weapons 
most  in  use.  Sabres  of  hard  wood,  with  edges  that  cut 
like  steel,  are  mentioned  by  Father  Junipero  Serra.157 
War  is  a  mere  pretext  for  plunder ;  the  slightest  wrong, 
real  or  imaginary,  being  sufficient  cause  for  a  strong  tribe 
to  attack  a  weaker  one.  The  smaller  bands  form  tem 
porary  alliances ;  the  women  and  children  accompanying 
the  men  on  a  raid,  carrying  provisions  for  the  march, 
and  during  an  engagement  they  pick  up  the  fallen  arrows 
of  the  enemy  and  so  keep  their  own  warriors  supplied. 
Boscana  says  that  no  male  prisoners  are  taken,  and  no 
quarter  given ;  and  Hugo  lleid  affirms  of  the  natives  of 
Los  Angeles  County  that  all  prisoners  of  war,  after  be 
ing  tormented  in  the  most  cruel  manner,  are  invariably 
put  to  death.  The  dead  are  decapitated  and  scalped. 
Female  prisoners  are  either  sold  or  retained  as  slaves. 
Scalps,  highly  prized  as  trophies,  and  publicly  exhibited 
at  feasts,  may  be  ransomed,  but  no  consideration  would 
induce  them  to  part  with  their  living  captives.158 

Among  the  few  articles  they  manufacture  are  fish 
hooks,  needles,  and  awls,  made  of  bone  or  shell ;  mortars 
and  pestles  of  granite,  and  soap-stone  cooking  vessels, 
and  water-tight  baskets.159  The  clay  vessels  which  are 

ingly  in  their  food,  from  an  idea  that  it  had  a  tendency  to  turn  their  hair 
gray.'  Reid,  in  Los  Angeles  Star.  'I  have  seen  many  instances  of  their  tak 
ing  a  rabbit,  and  sucking  its  blood  with  eagerness,  previous  to  consuming 
the  flesh  in  a  crude  state.'  .Boscana,  in  Robinson's  Life  in  CaL,  p.  239.  '  Viven 
muy  regalados  con  varias  semillas,  y  con  la  pesca  que  hacen  en  sus  balsas  de 
tule  .  .y  querieiidoles  dar  cosa  de  comida,  solian  decir,  que  de  aquello  no, 
que  lo  que  querian  era  ropa;  y  solo  con  cosa  de  este  genero,  eran  los  camba- 
laches  que  hacian  de  su  pescado  con  los  Soldados  y  Arrieros.'  Palou,  Vida  de 
Junipero  Serra,  p.  79.  See  also  Torquemada,  Monarq.  Ind.,  torn,  i.,  p.  712; 
Farnham's  Life  in  CaL,  p.  139;  Stanley,  in  Ind.  A/.  Rept.,  1866,  p.  102;  Id.,  1869, 
pp.  194-5;  Walker,  h*  Id.,  1872,  p.  67;  BartleWs  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  125; 
Hoffmann,  in  San  Fran-isco  Medical  Press,  vol.  v.,  p.  149;  Mollhausen,  Reisen 
in  die  Felsengeb.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  82-3. 

157  Palou,  Vida  de  Junipero  Serra,  pp.  83-4.- 

158  Boscana,  in  Robinson's  Life  in  CaL,  pp.  306-9. 

159  The  baskets,  though  water-proof,  '  were  used  only  for  dry  purposes. 


408  CALIFOBNIANS. 

frequently  found  among  them  now,  were  not  made  by 
them  before  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards.  The  stone 
implements,  however,  are  of  aboriginal  manufacture,  and 
are  well  made.  The  former  are  said  to  have  been  pro 
cured  mostly  by  the  tribes  of  the  mainland  from  the  Santa 
Rosa  islanders.160  The  instruments  which  they  used  in 
their  manufactures  were  flint  knives  and  awls ;  the  latter 
Fages  describes  as  being  made  from  the  small  bone  of  a 
deer's  fore-foot.  The  knife  is  double-edged,  made  of  a 
flint,  and  has  a  wooden  haft,  inlaid  with  mother  of 
pearl.161 

On  this  coast  we  again  meet  with  wooden  canoes,  al 
though  the  balsa,  or  tule  raft,  is  also  in  use.  These  boats 
are  made  of  planks  neatly  fastened  together  and  paid 
with  bitumen  ;162  prow  and  stern,  both  equally  sharp,  are 
elevated  above  the  centre,  which  made  them  appear  to 
Yizcaino  "como  barquillos"  when  seen  beside  his  own 
junk-like  craft.  The  paddles  were  long  and  double- 
bladed,  and  their  boats,  though  generally  manned  by 
three  or  four  men,  were  sometimes  large  enough  to  carry 
twenty.  Canoes  dug  out  of  a  single  log,  scraped  smooth 
on  the  outside,  with  both  ends  shaped  alike,  were  some 
times,  though  more  rarely,  used.163  The  circulating 

The  vessels  in  use  for  liquids  were  roughly  made  of  rushes  and  plastered 
outside  and  in  with  bitumen  or  pitch,  called  by  them  sanot.'  Reid,  in  Los 
Angeles  Star;  Muhlenpj'ordt,  Mejico,  vol.  ii.,  pt.  ii.,  pp.  454-5;  and  Mollhausen, 
Reisen  in  die  Felsengeb\,  vol.  i.,  p.  82. 

160  '  Leurs  mortiers  de  pierre  et  divers  autres  uctensiles  sont  incrustes  avec 
beaucoup  d'art  de  morceaux  de  nacre  de  perle.'  Fages,  in  Nouvellcs  Annales 
desVoy.,  1844,  torn,  ci.,  p.  319.  'Mortars  and  pestles  were  made  of  granite, 
about  sixteen  inches  wide  at  the  top,  ten  at  the  bottom,  ten  inches  high  and 
two  thick.'  Soapstone  pots  were  '  about  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  procured 
from  the  Indians  of  Santa  Catalina;  the  cover  used  was  of  the  same  material.' 
Reid,  in  Los  Angeles  Star.  On  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  San  Bernardino 
Mountains,  blankets  are  made  which  will  easily  hold  water.  Taylor,  in  San 
Francisco  Bulletin,  1862,  also  quoted  in  Shuck's  Cal.  Scrap  Book,  p.  405.  '  To- 
das  sus  obras  son  primorosas  y  bien  acabadas.'  Crespi,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex., 
serie  iv.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  315. 

lei  Fayes,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  desVoy.,  1844,  torn,  ci.,  pp.  319-20. 

162  '  The  planks  were  bent  and  joined  by  the  heat  of  fire,  and  then  payed 
with  asphaltum,  called  by  them  chapapote.'  Taylor,  in  Cal.  Farmer,  June  1, 
1860. 

163  At  Santa  Catalina  Vizcaino  saw  '  vnas  Canoguelas,  que  ellos  vsan,  de 
Tablas  bien  hechas,  como  Barquillos,  con  las  Popas,  y  Proas  levantadas,  y  mas 
altas.  que  el  Cuerpo  de  la  Barca,  6  Canoa.'  Torquemdda,  Monarq.  Ind.,  torn,  i., 
p. 712;  see  also  Salmerony  Relaciones,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  18. 


GOVEKNMENT  AND  PUNISHMENTS.  409 

medium  consisted  of  small  round  pieces  of  the  white 
mussel-shell.  These  were  perforated  and  arranged  on 
strings,  the  value  of  which  depended  upon  their  length.164 
I  have  said  before  that  this  money  is  supposed  to  have 
been  manufactured  for  the  most  part  on  Santa  Rosa 
Island.  Hence  it  was  distributed  among  the  coast  tribes, 
who  bought  with  it  deer-skins,  seeds,  etc.,  from  the  peo 
ple  of  the  interior. 

Each  tribe  acknowledged  one  head,  whose  province  it 
was  to  settle  disputes.165  levy  war,  make  peace,  appoint 
feasts,  and  give  good  advice.  Beyond  this  he  had  little 
power.166  He  was  assisted  in  his  duties  by  a  council  of 
elders.  The  office  of  chief  was  hereditary,  and  in  the 
absence  of  a  male  heir  devolved  upon  the  female  nearest 
of  kin.  She  could  marry  whom  she  pleased,  but  her 
husband  obtained  no  authority  through  the  alliance,  all 
the  power  remaining  in  his  wife's  hands  until  their  eldest 
boy  attained  his  majority,  when  the  latter  at  once  as 
sumed  the  command. 

A  murderer's  life  was  taken  by  the  relatives  of  his 
victim,  unless  he  should  gain  refuge  in  the  temple,  in 
which  case  his  punishment  was  left  to  their  god.  Yen- 

On  the  coast  of  Los  Angeles  Father  Crespi  saw  'canoas  hechas  de  buenas  tablas 
de  pino,  bien  ligadas  y  de  uua  forma  graeiosa  con  dos  proas . .  Usan  renios 
largos  de  dos  palas  y  vogan  con  indecible  lijeriza  y  velocidad.'  Crespi,  in 
Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  315.  At  San  Diego  Palou  describes 
'  balsas  de  tule,  en  forma  de  Canoas,  con  lo  que  eiitran  nmy  adeiitro  del  mar.' 
Palou,  Vida  de  Juni'pero  Serra,  p.  79;  Boscana,  in  Robinson's  Life  in  CaL, 
p.  240;  Marinier,  Notice,  in  Bryant,  Voy.  en  CaL,  p.  228.  Description  of  bal 
sas,  which  differ  in  no  respect  from  those  used  north. 

1G4  <  The  worth  of  a  rial  was  put  on  a  string  which  passed  twice  and  a-half 
round  the  hand,  i.  e.,  from  end  of  middle  finger  to  wrist.  Eight  of  these 
strings  passed  for  the  value  of  a  silver  dollar.'  CaL  Farmer,  June  1,  1860. 
'  Eight  yards  of  these  beads  made  about  one  dollar  of  our  currency  '  Id., 
Jan.  18,  1861. 

165  'If  a  quarrel  occurred  between  parties  of  distinct  lodges  (villages), 
each  chief  heard  the  witnesses  produced  by  his  own  people;  and  then,  asso 
ciated  with  the  chief  of  the  opposite  side,  they  passed  sentence.     In  case 
they  could  not  agree,  an  impartial  chief  was  called  in,  who  heard  the  state 
ments  made  by  both,  and  he  alone  decided.     There  was  no  appeal  from  his 
decision.'  Reid,  in  Los  Angeles  Star. 

166  '  Pour  tout  ce  qui  'concerne  les   affaires  interieures,  1'influence  des 
dtfvins  est  bien  superieure  a  la  leur.'  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  3^3.     At 
San  Diego  '  Chaque  village  est  soumis  aux  ordres  absolus  d'un  chef."  Fac/<s, 
in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1844,  torn,  ci.,  p.  153;  or  see  Marmier,  Notice, 
in  Bryant,  Voy.  en  CaL,  p.  226.     '  I  have  found  that  the  captains  have  very 
little  authority.'  Stanley,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1869,  p.  194. 


'410  CALIFORNIANS. 

geance  was,  however,  only  deferred ;  the  children  of  the 
murdered  man  invariably  avenged  his  death,  sooner  or 
later,  upon  the  murderer  or  his  descendants.  When 
a  chief  grew  too  old  to  govern  he  abdicated  in  favor 
of  his  son,  on  which  occasion  a  great  feast  was  given. 
When  all  the  people  had  been  called  together  by  criers, 
"the  crown  was  placed  upon  the  head  of  the  chief  elect, 
and  he  was  enrobed  with  the  imperial  vestments,"  as 
Father  Boscana  has  it;  that  is  to  say,  he  was  dressed  in 
a  head-ornament  of  feathers,  and  a  feather  petticoat 
reaching  from  the  waist  half-way  down  to  the  knees, 
and  the  rest  of  his  body  painted  black.  He  then  went 
into  the  temple  and  performed  a  pas  seul  before  the  god 
Chinigchinich.  Here,  in  a  short  time,  he  was  joined  by 
the  other  chiefs,  who,  forming  a  circle,  danced  round 
him,  accompanied  by  the  rattling  of  turtle-shells  filled 
with  small  stones.  When  this  ceremony  was  over  he 
was  publicly  acknowledged  chief. 

As  I  said  before,  the  chief  had  little  actual  authority 
over  individuals;  neither  was  the  real  power  vested  in 
the  heads  of  families;  but  a  system  of  influencing  the 
people  was  adopted  by  the  chief  and  the  elders,  which 
is  somewhat  singular.  Whenever  an  important  step  was 
to  be  taken,  such  as  the  killing  of  a  malefactor,  or  the 
invasion  of  an  enemy's  territory,  the  sympathies  of  the 
people  were  enlisted  by  means  of  criers,  who  were  sent 
round  to  proclaim  aloud  the  crime  and  the  criminal,  or 
to  dilate  upon  the  wrongs  suffered  at  the  hands  of  the 
hostile  tribe ;  and  their  eloquence  seldom  failed  to  attain 
the  desired  object.167 

The  chief  could  have  a  plurality  of  wives,  but  the 
common  people  were  only  allowed  one.168  The  form  of 

167  Boscana,  in  Robinson's  Life  in  CaL,  pp.  262-9. 

168  Dr.  Hoffman  states  that  in  the  vicinity  of  San  Diego  'their  laws  allow 
them  to  keep  as  many  wives  as  they  can  support.'  San  Francisco  Medical 
Press,  vol.  vi.,  p.  150.     Fages,  speaking  of  the  Indians  on  the  coast  from 
San  Diego  to  San  Francisco,  says:  '  Ces  Indiens  n'ont  qu'une  seule  femme 
a  la  fois,  mais  ils  en  changent  aussi  souvent  que  cela  leur  convient.'  Nouvelles 
Annales  des  Voy.,  1844,  torn,  ci.,  p.  153.     Of  those  in  the  vicinity  of  San  Luis 
Bey  the  same  author  says :  '  Les  chefs  de  ce  district  ont  le  privilege  de  prendre 
deux  ou  trois  femmes,  de  les  repudier  ou  de  les  changer  aussi  souvent  qu'ils 


MARRIAGE  IN  SOUTHERN  CALIFORNIA.  411 

contracting  a  marriage  varied.  In  Los  Angeles  County, 
according  to  Mr  Reid,  the  matter  was  arranged  by  a 
preliminary  interchange  of  presents  between  the  male 
relatives  of  the  bridegroom  and  the  female  relatives  of 
the  bride.  The  former  proceeded  in  a  body  to  the  dwell 
ing  of  the  girl,  and  distributed  small  sums  in  shell 
money  among  her  female  kinsfolk,  who  were  collected 
there  for  the  occasion.  These  afterward  returned  the 
compliment  by  visiting  the  man  and  giving  baskets  of 
meal  to  his  people.  A  time  was  then  fixed  for  the  final 
ceremony.  On  the  appointed  day  the  girl,  decked  in  all 
her  finery,  and  accompanied  by  her  family  and  relations, 
was  carried  in  the  arms  of  one  of  her  kinsfolk  toward 
the  house  of  her  lover;  edible  seeds  and  berries  were 
scattered  before  her  on  the  way,  which  were  scrambled 
for  by  the  spectators.  The  party  was  met  half-way  by 
a  deputation  from  the  bridegroom,  one  of  whom  now 
took  the  young  woman  in  his  arms  and  carried  her  to 
the  house  of  her  husband,  who  waited  expectantly. 
She  was  then  placed  by  his  side,  and  the  guests,  after 
scattering  more  seeds,  left  the  couple  alone.  A  great 
feast  followed,  of  which  the  most  prominent  feature  was 
a  character-dance.  The  young  men  took  part  in  this 
dance  in  the  rules  of  hunters  and  warriors,  and  were 
assisted  by  the  old  women,  who  feigned  to  carry  oil'  game, 
or  dispatch  wounded  enemies,  as  the  case  might  be. 
The  spectators  sat  in  a  circle  and  chanted  an  accompani 
ment. 

According  to  another  form  of  marriage  the  man  either 
asked  the  girl's  parents  for  permission  to  marry  their 
daughter,  or  commissioned  one  of  his  friends  to  do  so. 
If  the  parents  approved,  their  future  son-in-law  took  up 
his  abode  with  them,  on  condition  that  he  should  provide 
a  certain  quantity  of  food  every  day.  This  was  done  to 
afford  him  an  opportunity  to  judge  of  the  domestic  qual 
ities  of  his  future  wife.  If  satisfied,  he  appointed  a  day 
for  the  marriage,  and  the  ceremony  was  conducted  much 

le  veulent;  mais  les  autres  habitants  n'en  ont  qu'une  seule  et  ne  peuvent  les 
repudier  qu'en  cas  d'adultere.'  Id.,  p.  173. 


412  CALIFOBNIANS. 

in  the  same  manner  as  that  last  described,  except  that 
he  received  the  girl  in  a  temporary  shelter  erected  in 
front  of  his  hut,  and  that  she  was  disrobed  before  being 
placed  by  his  side. 

Children  were  often  betrothed  in  infancy,  kept  con 
tinually  in  each  other's  society  until  they  grew  up,  and 
the  contract  wras  scarcely  ever  broken.  Many  obtained 
their  wives  by  abduction,  and  this  was  the  cause  of 
many  of  the  inter-tribal  quarrels  in  which  they  were  so 
constantly  engaged. 

If  a  man  ill-treated  his  wife,  her  relations  took  her 
away,  after  paying  back  the  value  of  her  wedding  pres 
ents,  and  then  married  her  to  another.  Little  difficulty 
was  experienced  in  obtaining  a  divorce  on  any  ground ; 
indeed,  in  many  of  the  tribes  the  parties  separated  when 
ever  they  grew  tired  of  each  other.  Adultery  was  se 
verely  punished.  If  a  husband  caught  his  wife  in  the 
act,  he  was  justified  in  killing  her,  or,  he  could  give  her 
up  to  her  seducer  and  appropriate  the  spouse  of  the  latter 
to  himself. 

At  the  time  of  child-birth  many  singular  observ 
ances  obtained ;  for  instance,  the  old  women  washed  the 
child  as  soon  as  it  was  born,  and  drank  of  the  water; 
the  unhappy  infant  was  forced  to  take  a  draught  of 
urine  medicinally,  and  although  the  husband  did  not 
affect  the  sufferings  of  labor,  his  conduct  was  supposed 
in  some  manner  to  affect  the  unborn  child,  and  he  was 
consequently  laid  under  certain  restrictions,  such  as  not 
being  allowed  to  leave  the  house,  or  to  eat  fish  and  meat. 
The  women  as  usual  suffer  little  from  child-bearing. 
One  writer  thus  describes  the  accouchement  of  a  woman 
in  the  vicinity  of  San  Diego:  li  A  few  hours  before  the 
time  arrives  she  gets  up  and  quietly  walks  off  alone,  as 
if  nothing  extraordinary  was  about  to  occur.  In  this 
manner  she  deceives  all,  even  her  husband,  and  hides 
herself  away  in  some  secluded  nook,  near  a  stream  or 
hole  of  water.  At  the  foot  of  a  small  tree,  which  she  can 
easily  grasp  with  both  hands,  she  prepares  her  '  lying- 
in-couch/  on  which  she  lies  down  as  soon  as  the  labor 


CHILD-BIRTH.  413 

pains  come  on.  When  the  pain  is  on,  she  grasps  the  tree 
with  both  hands,  thrown  up  backward  over  her  head,  and 
pulls  and  strains  with  all  her  might,  thus  assisting  each 
pain,  until  her  accouchement  is  over.  As  soon  as  the 
child  is  born,  the  mother  herself  ties  the  navel-cord  with 
a  bit  of  buck-skin  string,  severing  it  with  a  pair  of  sharp 
scissors,  prepared  for  the  occasion,  after  which  the  end 
is  burned  with  a  coal  of  fire ;  the  child  is  then  thrown 
into  the  water;  if  it  rises  to  the  surface  and  cries,  it  is 
taken  out  and  cared  for;  if  it  sinks,  there  it  remains, 
and  is  not  even  awarded  an  Indian  burial.  The  affair 
being  all  over,  she  returns  to  her  usual  duties,  just  as  if 
nothing  had  happened,  so  matter  of  fact  are  they  in  such 
matters."  Purification  at  child-birth  lasted  for  three 
days,  during  which  time  the  mother  was  allowed  no 
food,  and  no  drink  but  warm  water.  The  ceremony,  in 
which  mother  and  child  participated,  was -as  follows  :i  In 
the  centre  of  the  hut  a  pit  was  filled  with  heated  stones, 
upon  which  herbs  were  placed,  and  the  whole  covered 
with  earth,  except  a  small  aperture  through  which  water 
was  introduced.  The  mother  and  child,  wrapped  in 
blankets,  stood  over  the  pit  and  were  soon  in  a  violent 
perspiration.  When  they  became  exhausted  from  the 
effect  of  the  steam  and  the  heated  air,  they  lay  upon 
the  ground  and  were  covered  with  earth,  after  which 
they  again  took  to  the  heated  stones  and  steam.  The 
mother  was  allowed  to  eat  no  meat  for  two  moons,  after 
which  pills  made  of  meat  and  wild  tobacco  were  given 
her.  In  some  tribes  she  could  hold  no  intercourse  with 
her  husband  until  the  child  was  weaned. 

Children,  until  they  arrived  at  the  age  of  puberty, 
remained  under  the  control  of  their  parents,  afterward 
they  were  subject  only  to  the  chief.  Like  the  Spartan 
youth,  the}7  were  taught  that  abstinence,  and  indifference 
to  hardship  and  privations,  constitute  the  only  true 
manhood.  To  render  them  hardy  much  unnecessary 

169  '  Les  veufs  des  deux  sexes,  qui  veulent  se  remarier,  ne  peuvent  le  faire 
qu'avec  d'autres  veufs.'  Pages,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  dcs  Voy.,  1844,  tcm.  ci., 
p.  173;  see  also  Marmier,  Notice,  in  Bryant,  Voy.  en  CaL,  p.  23U/ 


414  CALIFORNIANS. 

pain  was  inflicted.  They  were  forbidden  to  approach 
the  fire  to  warm  themselves,  or  to  eat  certain  seeds  and 
berries  which  were  considered  luxuries. 

A  youth,  to  become  a  warrior,  must  first  undergo  a 
severe  ordeal;  his  naked  body  was  beaten  with  stinging 
nettles  until  he  was  literally  unable  to  move ;  then  he 
was  placed  upon  the  nest  of  a  species  of  virulent  ant, 
while  his  friends  irritated  the  insects  by  stirring  them 
up  with  sticks.  The  infuriated  ants  swarmed  over 
every  part  of  the  sufferer's  body,  into  his  eyes,  his  ears, 
his  mouth,  his  nose,  causing  indescribable  pain. 

Boscana  states  that  the  young  were  instructed  to  love 
truth,  to  do  good,  and  to  venerate  old  age.170  At  an 
early  age  they  were  placed  under  the  protection  of  a 
tutelar  divinity,  which  was  supposed  to  take  the  form  of 
some  animal.  To  discover  the  particular  beast  which 
was  to  guide  his  future  destinies,  the  child  was  intoxi 
cated,171  and  for  three  or  four  days  kept  without  food  of 
any  kind.  During  this  period  he  was  continually  ha 
rassed  and  questioned,  until,  weak  from  want  of  food, 
crazed  with  drink  and  importunity,  and  knowing  that 
the  persecution  would  not  cease  until  he  yielded,  he 
confessed  to  seeing  his  divinity,  and  described  what 
kind  of  brute  it  was.  The  outline  of  the  figure  was 
then  molded  in  a  paste  made  of  crushed  herbs,  on  the 
breast  and  arms  of  the  novitiate.  This  was  ignited  and 
allowed  to  burn  until  entirely  consumed,  and  thus  the 
figure  of  the  divinity  remained  indelibly  delineated  in 
the  flesh.  Hunters,  before  starting  on  an  expedition, 
would  beat  their  faces  with  nettles  to  render  them  clear 
sighted.  A  girl,  on  arriving  at  the  age  of  puberty,  was 
laid  upon  a  bed  of  branches  placed  over  a  hole,  which 

no  «  The  perverse  child,  invariably,  was  destroyed,  and  the  parents  of  such 
remained  dishonored.'  Boscana,  in  Robinson's  Life  in  CaL,  p.  270.  'Ilsne 
pensent  pas. a  dormer  d'autre  education  a  leurs  enfants  qu'a  enseigner  aux 
tils  exactement  ce  que  faisait  leur  pere;  quant  aux  filles,  elles  out  le  droit  de 
choisir  1'occupatioii  qui  leur  convient  le  mieux.'  Pages,  in  Nouvelles  Annales 
des  Voy.,  1814,  torn,  ci.,  p.  153. 

171  The  intoxicating  liquor  was  '  made  from  a  plant  called  Pibat,  which 
"was  reduced  to  a  powder,  and  mixed  with  other  intoxicating  ingredients.' 
Boscana,  in  liobinson's  Life  in  CaL,  p.  271. 


AMUSEMENTS.  415 

had  been  previously  heated,  where  she  was  kept  with 
very  little  food  for  two  or  three  days.  Old  women 
chanted  songs,  and  young  women  danced  round  her  at 
intervals  during  her  purification.  In  the  vicinity  of 
San  Diego  the  girl  is  buried  all  but  her  head,  and  the 
ground  above  her  is  beaten  until  she  is  in  a  profuse 
perspiration.  This  is  continued  for  twenty-four .  hours, 
the  patient  being  at  intervals  during  this  time  taken  out 
and  washed,  and  then  reimbedded.  A  feast  and  dance 
follow.172 

When  the  missionaries  first  arrived  in  this  region, 
they  found  men  dressed  as  women  and  performing 
women's  duties,  who  were  kept  for  unnatural  purposes. 
From  their  youth  up  they  were  treated,  instructed,  and 
used  as  females,  and  were  even  frequently  publicly  mar 
ried  to  the  chiefs  or  great  men.173 

Gambling  and  dancing  formed,  as  usual,  their  princi 
pal  means  of  recreation.  Their  games  of  chance  differed 
little  from  those  played  farther  north.  That  of  guess 
ing  in  which  hand  a  piece  of  wood  was  held,  before  de 
scribed,  was  played  by  eight,  four  on  a  side,  instead  of 
four.  Another  game  was  played  by  two.  Fifty  small 
pieces  of  wood,  placed  upright  in  a  row  in  the  ground, 
at  distances  of  two  inches  apart,  formed  the  score.  The 
players  were  provided  with  a  number  of  pieces  of  split 
reed,  blackened  on  one  side;  these  were  thrown,  points 

172  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  215.     For  other  descriptions  of  ceremony 
observed  at  age  of  puberty,  see:  Hoffman,  in  San  Francisco  Medical  Press, 
vol.  vi.,  pp.  150-1;  McKinstry,  in  San.  Francisco  Herald,  June,  1853. 

173  '  Pero  en  la  Mision  de  S.  Antonio  se  pudo  algo  averiguar,  pues  avi- 
sando  a  los  Padres,  que  en  uiia  de  las  casas  de  los  Neofitos  se  habiaii  metido 
dos  Gentiles,  el  uno  con  el  traje  natural  de  ellos,  y  el  otro  con  el  trage  de 
muger,  expresandolo  con  el  nombre  de  Joya  (que  dicen  llamarlos  asi  en  su 
lengua  nativa)  fue  luego  el  P.  Misionero  con  el  Cabo  y  un  Soldado  a  la  casa 
a  ver  lo  que  buscaban,  y  los  hallaron  en  el  acto  de  pecado  iiefando.     Casti- 
garonlos.  aunque  no  coii  la  pena  inerecida,  y  afearonles  el  hecko  tan  enorme; 
y  respondi  o  el  Gentil,  que  aqueila  Joya  era  su  muger. . .  .Solo  en  el  traino  de 
la  Canal  de  Santa  Barbara,  se  hallan  muchos  Joyas,  pues  raro  es  el  Pueblo 
donde  no  se  vean  dos  6  tres.'  Palou,  Vida  de  Juntpero  Serra,  p.  222.     '  Asi  en 
esta  ranchen'a  como  eii  otros  de  la  canal,  hemos  visto  algunos  gentiles  con 
traje  de  muger  con  sus  nagiiitas  de  gamusa,  y  niuy  engruesadasy  limpias;  no 
hemos  podido  entender  lo  que  sigm'fica,  ni  a  que  fin.'  Crespi,  in  Doc.  Hist. 
3/oB.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  3.5.     See  also  Boscana,  in  Robinson's  Life  in  CaL, 
pp.  283-4;  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  371;  Torquemada,  Monarq.Ind.,  torn, 
ii.,  pp.  427;  Pages,  in  Nouvellcs  Annales  desVoy.,  1844,  torn,  ci.,  p.  173. 


416  CALIFOKNIANS. 

down,  on  the  ground,  and  the  thrower  counted  one  for 
every  piece  that  remained  white  side  uppermost;  if  he 
gained  eight  he  was  entitled  to  another  throw.  If  the 
pieces  all  fell  with  the  blackened  side  up  they  counted 
also.  Small  pieces  of  wood  placed  against  the  upright 
pegs,  marked  the  game.  They  reckoned  from  opposite 
ends  of  the  row,  and  if  one  of  the  players  threw  just  so 
many  as  to  make  his  score  exactly  meet  that  of  his  oppo 
nent,  the  former  had  to  commence  again.  Throwing 
lances  of  reed  through  a  rolling  hoop  was  another  source 
of  amusement.  Professional  singers  were  employed  to 
furnish  music  to  a  party  of  gamblers.  An  umpire  was 
engaged,  whose  duty  it  was  to  hold  the  stakes,  count  the 
game,  prevent  cheating,  and  act  as  referee;  he  was  also 
expected  to  supply  wood  for  the  fire. 

When  they  were  not  eating,  sleeping,  or  gambling, 
they  were  generally  dancing;  indeed,  says  Father  Bosca- 
na,  "  such  was  the  delight  with  which  they  took  part 
in  their  festivities,  that  they  often  continued  dancing  day 
and  night,  and  sometimes  entire  weeks."  They  danced 
at  a  birth,  at  a  marriage,  at  a  burial;  they  danced  to 
propitiate  the  divinity,  and  they  thanked  the  divinity 
for  being  propitiated  by  dancing.  They  decorated  them 
selves  with  shells  and  beads,  and  painted  their  bodies  with 
divers  colors.  Sometimes  head-dresses  and  petticoats 
of  feathers  were  worn,  at  other  times  they  danced  naked. 
The  women  painted  the  upper  part  of  their  bodies  brown. 
They  frequently  danced  at  the  same  time  as  the  men,  but 
seldom  with  them.  Time  was  kept  by  singers,  and  the 
rattling  of  turtle-shells  filled  with  pebbles.  They  were 
good  actors,  and  some  of  their  character-dances  were  well 
executed;  the  step,  however,  like  their  chanting,  was 
monotonous  and  unvarying.  Many  of  their  dances  were 
extremely  licentious,  and  were  accompanied  with  ob 
scenities  too  disgusting  to  bear  recital.  Most  of  them 
were  connected  in  some  way  with  their  superstitions  and 
religious  rites.174 

"«  'In  some  tribes  the  men  and  the  women  unite  in  the  dance;  in  others 
the  men  alone  trip  to  the  music  of  the  women,  whose  songs  are  by  no  means 


CUSTOMS  AND  SUPERSTITIONS.  417 

These  people  never  wandered  far  from  their  own  terri 
tory,  and  knew  little  or  nothing  of  the  nations  lying  be 
yond  their  immediate  neighbors.  Mr  Reid  relates  that 
one  who  traveled  some  distance  beyond  the  limits  of  his 
own  domain,  returned  with  the  report  that  he  had  seen 
men  whose  ears  descended  to  their  hips;  then  he  had 
met  with  a  race  of  Lilliputians ;  and  finally  had  reached 
a  people  so  subtly  constituted  that  they  "  would  take  a 
rabbit,  or  other  animal,  and  merely  with  the  breath,  in 
hale  the  essence;  throwing  the  rest  away,  which  on  ex 
amination  proved  to  be  excrement." 

They  had  a  great  number  of  traditions,  legends,  and 
fables.  Some  of  these  give  evidence  of  a  powerful  imagi 
nation  ;  a  few  are  pointed  with  a  moral ;  but  the  majority 
are  puerile,  meaningless,  to  us  at  least,  and  filled  with 
obscenities.  It  is  said  that,  in  some  parts,  the  Southern 
Californians  are  great  snake-charmers,  and  that  they 
allow  the  reptiles  to  wind  themselves  about  their  bodies 
and  bite  them,  with  impunity. 

Feuds  between  families  are  nursed  for  generations; 
the  war  is  seldom  more  than  one  of  words,  however,  un 
less  a  murder  is  to  be  avenged,  and  consists  of  mutual 
vituperations,  and  singing  obscene  songs  about  each  other. 
Friends  salute  by  inquiries  after  each  other's  health.  On 
parting  one  says  1 1  am  going,'  the  other  answers  '  go.' 

They  are  very  superstitious,  and  believe  in  all  sorts  of 
omens  and  auguries.  An  eclipse  frightens  them  beyond 
measure,  and  shooting  stars  cause  them  to  fall  down  in 
the  dust  and  cover  their  heads  in  abject  terror.  Many 
of  them  believe  that,  should  a  hunter  eat  meat  or  fish 
which  he  himself  had  procured,  his  luck  would  leave 

unpleasant  to  the  ear.'  McKinstry,  in  8.  Francisco  Herald,  June  1853.  'In 
their  religious  ceremonial  dances  they  differ  much.  While,  in  some  tribes, 
all  unite  to  celebrate  them,  in  others,  men  alone  are  allowed  to  dance,  while 
the  women  assist  in  singing.'  Schoolcrqft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  214-15. 

173  '  La  danse  est  executee  par  deux  couples  au  son  d'une  espece  de  flute, 
les  autres  restent  simples  spectateurs  et  se  contentent  d'augmenter  le  bruit 
en  frappant  des  roseaux  sees.'  Pages,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  desVoy.,  1844,  torn, 
ci.,  p.  176;  Boscana,  in  Robinson's  Life  in  Cal.,  pp.  289-95;  Schooler aft's 
Arch.,  vol.  v.,  pp.  214-15;  McKinstry,  in  8.  Francisco  Herald,  June  1853; 
Reid,  in  Los  Angeles  Star;  Crespi,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Hex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  322. 
VOL.  I.  27 


413  CALIFORNIANS. 

him.  For  this  reason  they  generally  hunt  or  fish  in 
pairs,  and  when  the  day's  sport  is  over,  each  takes  what 
the  other  has  killed.  Living  as  they  do  from  hand  to 
mouth,  content  to  eat,  sleep,  and  dance  away  their  exis 
tence,  we  cannot  expect  to  find  much  glimmering  of  the 
simpler  arts  or  sciences  among  them. 

Their  year  begins  at  the  winter  solstice,  and  they  count 
by  lunar  months,  so  that  to  complete  their  year  they  are 
obliged  to  add  several  supplementary  days.  All  these 
months  have  symbolic  names.  Thus  December  and 
January  are  called  the  month  of  cold ;  February  and 
March,  the  rain;  March  and  April,  the  first  grass ;  April 
.and  May,  the  rise  of  waters;  May  and  June,  the  month 
•of  roots;  June  and  July,  of  salmon  fishing;  July  and 
August,  of  heat ;  August  and  September,  of  wild  fruits ; 
iSepternber  and  October,  of  bulbous  roots;  October  and 
November,  of  acorns  and  nuts;  November  and  Decem 
ber,  of  bear  and  other  hunting. 

Sorcerers  are  numerous,,  and  as  unbounded  confidence 
is  placed  in  their  power  to  work  both  good  and  evil, 
their  influence  is  great.  As  astrologers  and  soothsayers, 
they  can  tell  by  the  appearance  of  the  moon  the  most 
propitious  day  and  hour  in  which  to  celebrate  a  feast, 
or  attack  an  enemy.  Sorcerers  also  serve  as  almanacs  for 
the  people,  as  it  is  their  duty  to  note  by  the  aspect  of 
the  moon  the  time  of  the  decease  of  a  chief  or  prominent 
man,  and  to  give  notice  of  the  anniversary  when  it  comes 
round,  in  order  that  it  may  be  duly  celebrated.  They 
•extort  black-mail  from  individuals  by  threatening  them 
with  evil.  The  charm  which  they  use  is  a  ball  made  of 
mescal  mixed  with  wild  honey ;  this  is  carried  under  the 
left  arm,  in  a  small  leather  bag, — and  the  spell  is  effected 
iby  simply  lay  ing  the  right  hand  upon  this  bag  Neither 
•does  their  power  end  here;  they  hold  intercourse  with 
supernatural  beings,  metamorphose  themselves  at  will, 
see  into  the  future,  and  even  con  trol  the  elements.  They 
are  potent  to  cure  as  well  as  to  kill.  For  all  complaints, 
as  usual,  they  '  put  forth  the  charm  of  woven  paces  and 
of  waving  hands/  and  in  some  cases  add  other  reme- 


MEDICAL  TREATMENT.  419 

dies.  For  internal  complaints  they  prescribe  cold  baths ; 
wounds  and  sores  are  treated  with  lotions  and  poultices 
of  crushed  herbs,  such  as  sage  and  rosemary,  and  of  a 
kind  of  black  oily  resin,  extracted  from  certain  seeds. 
Other  maladies  they  affirm  to  be  caused  by  small  pieces 
of  wood,  stone,  or  other  hard  substance,  which  by  some 
means  have  entered  the  flesh,  and  which  they  pretend  to 
extract  by  sucking  the  affected  part.  In  a  case  of  paraly 
sis  the  stricken  parts  were  whipped  with  nettles. 
Blisters  are  raised  by  means  of  dry  paste  made  from 
nettle-stalks,  placed  on  the  bare  flesh  of  the  patient,  set 
on  fire,  and  allowed  to  burn  out.  Cold  water  or  an 
emetic  is  used  for  fever  and  like  diseases,  or,  sometimes, 
the  sufferer  is  placed  naked  upon  dry  sand  or  ashes,  with 
a  fire  close  to  his  feet,  and  a  bowl  of  water  or  gruel  at 
his  head,  and  there  left  for  nature  to  take  its  course, 
while  his  friends  and  relatives  sit  round  and  howl  him 
into  life  or  into  eternity.  Snake-bites  are  cured  by  an 
internal  dose  of  ashes,  or  the  dust  found  at  the  bottom 
of  ants'  nests,  and  an  external  application  of  herbs.176 
The  medicine-men  fare  better  here  than  their  northern 
brethren,  as,  in  the  event  of  the  non-recovery  of  their 
patient,  the  death  of  the  latter  is  attributed  to  the  just 
anger  of  their  god,  and  consequently  the  physician  is 
not  held  responsible.  To  avert  the  displeasure  of  the 
divinity,  and  to  counteract  the  evil  influence  of  the  sor 
cerers,  regular  dances  of  propitiation  or  deprecation  are 
held,  in  which  the  whole  tribe  join.177 

The  temescal,  or  sweat-house,  is  the  same  here  as  else 
where,  which  renders  a  description  unnecessary.178  The 

170  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  380.  '  When  the  new  year  begun,  no 
thought  was  given  to  the  past;  and  on  this  account,  even  amongst  the  most 
intelligent,  they  could  not  -tell  the  number  of  years  which  had  transpired, 
when  desirous  of  giving  an  idea  of  any  remote  event.'  Boscana,  in  Robinson's 
Life  in  Cal,  p.  303. 

177  '  For  Gonorrhoea  they  used  a  strong  decoction  of  an  herb  that  grows 
very  plentifully  here,  and  is  called  by  the  Spanish  "  chancel  agua,"  and  wild 
pigeon  manure,  rolled  up  into  pills.    The  decoction  is  a  very  bitter  astringent, 
and  may  cure  some  sores,  but  that  it  fails  in  many,  I  have  undeniable  proof. 
In  syphilis  they  use  the  actual  cautery,  a  living  coal  of  fire  applied  to  the 
chaiicer,  and  a  decoction  of  an  herb,  said  to  be  something  like  sarsaparilla, 
called  rosia.'  Hoffman,  in  San  Francisco  Medical  Press,  vol.  v.  p.  152-3. 

178  I  am  indebted  for  the  only  information  of  value  relating  to  the  medi 
cal  usages  of  the  southern  California  tribes,  to  Boscana' s  MS.,  literally  trans- 


420  CALIFOKNIANS. 

dead  were  either  burned  or  buried.  Father  Boscana 
says  that  no  particular  ceremonies  were  observed  during 
the  burning  of  the  corpse.  The  body  was  allowed  to  lie 
untouched  some  days  after  death,  in  order  to  be  certain 
that  no  spark  of  life  remained.  It  was  then  borne  out 
and  laid  upon  the  funeral  pyre,  which  was  ignited  by  a 
person  specially  appointed  for  that  purpose.  Everything 
belonging  to  the  deceased  was  burned  with  him.  When 
all  was  over  the  mourners  betook  themselves  to  the  out 
skirts  of  the  village,  and  there  gave  vent  to  their  lamen 
tation  for  the  space  of  three  days  and  nights.  During 
this  period  songs  were  sung,  in  which  the  cause  of  the 
late  death  was  related,  and  even  the  progress  of  the 
disease  which  brought  him  to  his  grave  minutely  de 
scribed  in  all  its  stages.  As  an  emblem  of  grief  the 
hair  was  cut  short  in  proportion  to  nearness  of  relation 
to  or  affection  for  the  deceased,  but  laceration  was  not 
resorted  to.180  Mr  Taylor  relates  that  the  Santa  Inez 
Indians  buried  their  dead  in  regular  cemeteries.  The 
body  was  placed  in  a  sitting  posture  in  a  box  made  of 
slabs  of  claystone,  and  interred  with  all  the  effects  of 
the  dead  person.181  According  to  Reid,  the  natives  of  Los 
Angeles  County  waited  until  the  body  began  to  show 
signs  of  decay  and  then  bound  it  together  in  the  shape  of  a 
ball,  and  buried  it  in  a  place  set  apart  for  that  purpose,  with 
offerings  of  seeds  contributed  by  the  family.  At  the  first 
news  of  his  death  all  the  relatives  of  the  deceased  gath 
ered  together,  and  mourned  his  departure  with  groans, 
each  having  a  groan  peculiar  to  himself.  The  dirge  was 
presently  changed  to  a  song,  in  which  all  united,  while 
an  accompaniment  was  whistled  through  a  deer's  leg- 
bone.  The  dancing  consisted  merely  in  a  monotonous 

lated  by  Kobinson  in  his  Life  in  Col.,  pp.  310-14,  and  also  given  in  substance 
in  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  378-9,  and  to  Eeid's  papers  on  the  Indians  of 
Los  Angeles  County,  in  the  Los  Angeles  Star,  also  quoted  in  Gal.  Farmer,  Jen, . 
11,  1861. 

179  See  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  377-8,  and  plate,  p.  248,  and  Hof,'- 
mann,  in  San' Francisco  Medical  Press,  vol.  v.,  p.  152. 

iso  « The  same  custom  is  now  in  use,  but  not  only  applied  to  deaths,  but 
to  their  disappointments  and  adversities  in  life,  thus  making  public  demon 
stration  of  their  sorrow.'  Boscana,  in  Robinson's  Life  in  Cal,  pp.  314-15. 

isi  California  Farmer,  May  22,  1863. 


DEATH  AND  BURIAL.  421 

shuffling  of  the  feet.182  Pedro  Fages  thus  describes  a 
burial  ceremony  at  the  place  named  by  him  Sitio  de  los 
Pedernales.183  Immediately  after  an  Indian  has  breathed 
his  last,  the  corpse  is  borne  out  and  placed  before  the 
idol  which  stands  in  the  village,  there  it  is  watched  by 
persons  who  pass  the  night  round  a  large  fire  built  for 
the  purpose;  the  following  morning  all  the  inhabitants 
of  the  place  gather  about  the  idol  and  the  ceremony 
commences.  At  the  head  of  the  procession  marches  one 
smoking  gravely  from  a  large  stone  pipe;  followed  by 
three  others,  he  three  times  walks  round  the  idol  and 
the  corpse;  each  time  the  head  of  the  deceased  is  passed 
the  coverings  are  lifted,  and  he  who  holds  the  pipe  blows 
three  puffs  of  smoke  upon  the  body.  When  the  feet  are 
reached,  a  kind  of  prayer  is  chanted  in  chorus,  and  the 
parents  and  relatives  of  the  defunct  advance  in  succes 
sion  and  offer  to  the  priest  a  string  of  threaded  seeds, 
about  a  fathom  long;  all  present  then  unite  in  loud  cries 
and  groans,  while  the  four,  taking  the  corpse  upon  their 
shoulders,  proceed  with  it  to  the  place  of  interment. 
Care  is  taken  to  place  near  the  body  articles  which  have 
been  manufactured  by  the  deceased  during  his  life-time. 
A  spear  or  javelin,  painted  in  various  vivid  colors,  is 
planted  erect  over  the  tomb,  and  articles  indicating  the 
occupation  of  the  dead  are  placed  at  his  foot;  if  the  de 
ceased  be  a  woman,  baskets  or  mats  of  her  manufacture 
are  hung  on  the  javelin.184 

Death  they  believed  to  be  a  real  though  invisible  be 
ing,  who  gratified  his  own  anger  and  malice  by  slowly 
taking  away  the  breath  of  his  victim  until  finally  life 
was  extinguished.  The  future  abode  of  good  spirits  re 
sembled  the  Scandinavian  Yalhalla;  there,  in  the  dwell 
ing-place  of  their  god,  they  would  live  for  ever  and  ever, 
eating,  and  drinking,  and  dancing,  and  having  wives  in 
abundance.  As  their  ideas  of  reward  in  the  next  world 
were  matter-of-fact  and  material,  so  were  their  fears  of 

182  Reid,  in  Los  Angeles  Star. 
H  The  latitude  of  which  he  fixes  at  34°  33'. 

184  Fages,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  desVoy.,  1844,  torn,  ci.,  pp.  173-^4.  Quoted 
almost  literally  by  Marmier,  Notice,  in  Bryant,  Voy.  en  CaL,  p.  230. 


422  CALIFOKNIANS. 

punishment  in  this  life;  all  accidents,  such  as  broken 
limbs  or  bereavement  by  death,  were  attributed  to  the 
direct  vengeance  of  their  god,  for  crimes  which  they 
had  committed.185 

Though  good-natured  and  inordinately  fond  of  amuse 
ment,  they  are  treacherous  and  unreliable.  Under  a 
grave  and  composed  exterior  they  conceal  their  thoughts 
and  character  so  well  as  to  defy  interpretation.  And 
this  is  why  we  find  men,  who  have  lived  among  them 
for  years,  unable  to  foretell  their  probable  action  under 
any  given  circumstances. 

THE  SHOSHONE  FAMILY,  which  forms  the  fourth  and 
last  division  of  the  Californian  group,  may  be  said  to 
consist  of  two  great  nations,  the  Snakes,  or  Shoshones 
proper,  and  the  Utahs.  The  former  inhabit  south-east 
ern  Oregon,  Idaho,  western  Montana,  and  the  northern 
portions  of  Utah  and  Nevada,  are  subdivided  into 
several  small  tribes,  and  include  the  more  considerable 
nation  of  the  Bannacks.  The  Utahs  occupy  nearly  the 
whole  of  Utah  and  Nevada,  and  extend  into  Arizona 
and  California,  on  each  side  of  the  Colorado.  Among 
the  many  tribes  into  which  the  Utahs  are  divided  may 
be  mentioned  the  Utahs  proper,  whose  territory  covers 
a  great  part  of  Utah  and  eastern  Nevada ;  the  Washoes 
along  the  eastern  base  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  between 
Honey  Lake  and  the  west  fork  of  Walker  River;  the 
Pah  Utes,  or,  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  Piutes,  in 
western  and  central  Nevada,  stretching  into  Arizona 
and  south-eastern  California ;  the  Pah  Vants  in  the  vicin 
ity  of  Sevier  Lake,  the  Pi  Edes  south  of  them,  and  the 
.Gosh  Uies,  a  mixed  tribe  of  Snakes  and  Utahs,  dwelling 
in  the  vicinity  of  Gosh  Ute  Lake  and  Mountains. 

The  Shoshones186  are  below  the  medium  stature;  the 

*85  Boscana,  in  Robinson's  Life  in  Cal,  p,  317. 

186  In  spelling  the  word  Shoshone,  I  have  followed  the  most  common 
orthography.  Many,  however,  write  it  Shoshonee,  others,  Shoshonie,  either 
of  which  would  perhaps  give  a  better  idea  of  the  pronunciation  of  the  word, 
as  the  accent  falls  on  the  final  e.  The  word  means  '  Snake  Indian,'  accord 
ing  to  Stuart,  Montana,  p.  80;  and  'inland,'  according  to  Ross,  Fur  Hunters, 


THE  SHOSHONE  FAMILY.  423 

Utahs,  though  more  powerfully  built  than  the  Snakes, 
are  coarser-featured  and  less  agile.  All  are  of  a  dark 
bronze-color  when  free  from  paint  and  dirt,  and,  as  usual, 
beardless.  The  women  are  clumsily  made,  although 
some  of  them  have  good  hands  and  feet.187 

On  the  barren  plains  of  Nevada,  where  there  is  no 
large  game,  the  rabbit  furnishes  nearly  the  only  clothing. 
The  skins  are  sewn  together  in  the  form  of  a  cloak,  which 
is  thrown  over  the  shoulders,  or  tied  about  the  body  with 

vol.  i.,  p.  249.  I  apply  the  name  Shoshones  to  the  whole  of  this  family;  the 
Shoshones  proper,  including  the  Bannacks,  I  call  the  Snakes;  the  remaining 
tribes  I  iiame  collectively  Utahs. 

W  See  Ross'  Far  Hunters,  vol.  i.,  p.  249;  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  pp. 
228-9;  Renty  and  Brenchly's  Journey,  vol.  i.,  p.  124;  Chandless'  Visit,  p.  118; 
Farnham's  Life  in  Cat.,  p.  377;  Carvalho's  Jncid.  of  Trav.,  p.  200;  Graves, 
in  Ind.  Aff.  'Rept.,  1854,  p.  178;  Beckicith,  in  Pac.  R  R.  Rept.,  vol.  ii., 
p.  42;  Farley's  Sanitary  Rept.,  in  San  Francisco  Medical  Press,  vol.  iii.,  p. 
154;  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  298;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  i.,  p.  88;  Hespe 
rian  Magazine,  vol.  x.,  p.  255;  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  197;  Prince, 
quoted  in  Col.  Farmer,  Oct.  18,  1861;  Townsend's  Nar.,  pp.  125,  133;  Bryant, 
Voy.  en  Cal.,  pp.  152,  194;  Coke's  Roc  Icy  Mountains,  p.  276;  Fremont's  Ex 
plor.  Ex..  pp.  148,  267;  Leicis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  p.  312;  Figuier's  Human 
Race,  p.  484;  Burton's  City  of  the  Saints,  p.  585.  Mention  is  made  by  Sal- 
meron  of  a  people  living  south  of  Utah  Lake,  who  were  '  blancas,  y  rosadas 
las  mejillas  como  los  franceses.'  Doc.  Hist.  Mex  ,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  101. 
Escalante,  speaking  of  Indians  seen  in  the  same  region,  lat.  39^  34'  37",  says: 
'  Eraii  estos  de  los  barbones,  y  narices  agnjeradas,  y  en  su  idioma  se  nom- 
bran  Tirangapui,  Tian  los  ciuco,  que  con  su  capitaii  venieron  primero,  tan 
crecida  la  barbs,  que  parecian  padres  capuchinos  o  belemitas.'  Doc.  Hist. 
Mex.,  serie  ii.,  torn,  i.,  p.  476.  Wilkes  writes.  'Southwest  of  the  Youta 
Lake  live  a  tribe  who  are  known  by  the  name  of  the  Monkey  Indians;  a 
term  which  is  not  a  mark  of  contempt,  but  is  supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of 
their  name. . .  .They  are  reported  to  live  in  fastnesses  among  high  mountains; 
to  have  good  clothing  and  houses;  to  manufacture  blankets,  shoes,  and  vari 
ous  other  articles,  which  they  sell  to  the  neighboring  tribes.  Their  colour  is 
as  light  as  that  of  the  Spaniards;  and  the  women  in  particular  are  very  beau 
tiful,  with  delicate  features,  and  long  flowing  hair.  . .  .Some  have  attempted 
to  connect  these  with  an  account  of  an  ancient  Welsh  colony,  which  others 
had  thought  they  discovered  among  the  Mandans  of  the  Missouri;  while 
others  were  disposed  to  believe  they  might  still  exist  in  the  Monkeys  of  the 
Western  Mountains.  There  is  another  account  which  speaks  of  the  Monquoi 
Indians,  who  formerly  inhabited  Lower  California,  and  were  partially  civil 
ized  by  the  Spanish  missionaries,  but  wrho  have  left  that  country,  and  of 
whom  all  traces  have  long  since  been  lost.'  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex., 
vol.  iv.,  pp.  502-3.  'On  the  southern  boundary  of  Utah  exists  a  peculiar 
race,  of  whom  little  is  known.  They  are  said  to  be  fair-skinned,  and  are 
called  the  "White  Indians;"  have  blue  eyes  and  straight  hair,  and  speak  a 
kind  of  Spanish  language  differing  from  other  tribes.'  San  Francisco  Evening 
Bulletin,  May  15,  1863.  Taylor  has  a  note  on  the  subject,  in  which  he  says 
that  these  fair  Indians  were  doubtless  the  Moquis  of  Western  New  Mexico. 
Cal.  Farmer,  «7une26,  1863.  Although  it  is  evident  that  this  mysterious  and 
probably  mythic  people  belong  in  no  way  to  the  Shoshone  family,  yet  as 
they  are  mentioned  by  several  writers  as  dwelling  in  a  region  which  is  sur 
rounded  on  all  sides  by  Shoshones,  I  have  given  this  note,  wherefrom  the 
reader  can  draw  his  own  conclusions. 


4:24  CALIFORNIANS. 

thongs  of  the  same.  In  warm  weather,  or  when  they 
cannot  obtain  rabbit-skins,  men,  women  and  children 
are,  for  the  most  part,  in  a  state  of  nudity.  The  hair 
is  generally  allowed  to  grow  long,  and  to  flow  loosely 
over  the  shoulders;  sometimes  it  is  cut  straight  over  the 
forehead,  and  among  the  Utahs  of  New  Mexico  it  is 
plaited  into  two  long  queues  by  the  men,  and  worn  short 
by  the  women.  Ornaments  are  rare;  I  find  mention  in 
two  instances188  of  a  nose-ornament,  worn  by  the  Pah 
Utes,  consisting  of  a  slender  piece  of  bone,  several 
inches  in  length,  thrust  through  the  septum  of  the  nose. 
Tattooing  is  not  practiced  but  paint  of  all  colors  is  used 
unsparingly.189 

The  Snakes  are  better  dressed  than  the  Utahs,  their 
clothing  being  made  from  the  skins  of  larger  game,  and 
ornamented  with  beads,  shells,  fringes,  feathers,  and, 
since  their  acquaintance  with  the  wrhites,  with  pieces  of 
brilliant-colored  cloth.  A  common  costume  is  a  shirt, 
leggins,  and  moccasins,  all  of  buck-skin,  over  which  is 
thrown,  in  cold  wreather,  a  heavy  robe,  generally  of  buf 
falo-skin,  but  sometimes  of  wolf,  deer,  elk.  or  beaver. 
The  dress  of  the  women  differs  but  little  from  that  of  the 
men,  except  that  it  is  less  ornamented  and  the  shirt  is 
longer.190 

188  Beckwith,  in  Pac.  R.  E.  Kept.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  42;  Heap's  Cent.  Eoute,  p.  102. 

189  Speaking  of  women:  'their  breasts  and  stomachs  were  covered  with 
red  mastic,  made  from  an  earth  peculiar  to  these  rocks,  which  rendered  them 
hideous.     Their  only  covering  was  a  pair  of  drawers  of  hare-skin,  badly  sewn 
together,  and  in  holes.'  Eenty  and  Brenchley's  Journ.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  386;  see  also 
vol.  i.,  p.  127,  and  vol.  ii.,  pp.  389,  404,  407.    '  The  women  often  dress  in  skirts 
made  of  entrails,  dressed  and  sewed  together  in  a  substantial  way.'  Prince, 
in  Cal.  Farmer,  Oct.  18,  1861.     Hareskins  'they  cut  into  cords  with  the  fur 
adhering;  and  braid  them  together  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  cloak  with  a  hole 
in  the  middle,  through  which  they  thrust  their  heads.'  Farnham's  Life  and 
Adven.,  p.  376.     The  remaining  authorities  describe  them   as  naked,    or 
slightly  and  miserably  dressed;  see  Stansbury's  Rept.,  pp.  8:2,  202-3;  Chand- 
less'  Visit,  p.  291;  Heap's  Cent.  Eoute,  p.  100;  Irving' s  Bonneville's  Adven.,  p. 
255;  Bryant's  CoL,  p.  194;  Forney,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1859,  p.  365;  Dodge, 

Tt  or*  A     r~        TT-     j_         •„      TJI        -i  o/*rk     „      ir»r\o .     /~r ..  ._     T,7       -iocr^      iTO.      /».,.,. 


Golden  Gate,  p.  251;  Scenes  in  the  Eocky  Mts.,  p.  197;  Brownell's  Ind.  Eaces 
p.  539;  Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  331. 

wo  Townsend's  Nar.,  pp.  125,  133;  De  Smet,  Voy.,  p.  25;  Dunn's  Oregon,  p. 
325;  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  pp.  228-30,  308-9;  Eoss'  Fur  Hunters,  vol.  i.,  pp. 
249-50,  257-8,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  22-3;  Chandless'  Visit,  p.  118;  Carvalho's  Incid.  of 


DKESS  OF  THE  SNAKES.  425 

The  dress  of  the  Snakes  seen  by  captains  Lewis  and 
Clarke  was  richer  than  is  usually  worn  by  them  now ;  it 
was  composed  of  a  robe,  short  cloak,  shirt,  long  leggins. 
and  moccasins. 

The  robe  was  of  buffalo  or  smaller  skins,  dressed  with 
th3  hair  on;  the  collar  of  the  cloak,  a  strip  of  skin  from 
the  back  of  the  otter,  the  head  being  at  one  end  and  the 
tail  at  the  other.  From  this  collar  were  suspended  from 
one  hundred  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  ermine-skins,191  or 
rather  strips  from  the  back  of  the  ermine,  including  the 
head  and  tail ;  each  of  these  strips  was  sewn  round  a  cord  of 
twisted  silk-grass,  which  tapered  in  thickness  toward  the 
tail.  The  seams  were  concealed  with  a  fringe  of  ermine- 
skin  ;  little  tassels  of  white  fur  were  also  attached  to  each 
tail,  to  show  off  its  blackness  to  advantage.  The  collar 
was  further  ornamented  with  shells  of  the  pearl-oyster; 
the  shirt,  made  of  the  dressed  hides  of  various  kinds  of 
deer,  was  loose  and  reached  half-way  down  the  thigh; 
the  sleeves  were  open  on  the  under  side  as  low  as  the 
elbow, — the  edges  being  cut  into  a  fringe  from  the  elbow 
to  the  wrist, — and  they  fitted  close  to  the  arm.  The  col 
lar  was  square,  and  cut  into  fringe,  or  adorned  with  the 
tails  of  the  animals  which  furnished  the  hide ;  the  shirt 
was  garnished  with  fringes  and  stained  porcupine-quills ; 
the  leggins  were  made  each  from  nearly  an  entire  ante 
lope-skin,  and  reached  from  the  ankle  to  the  upper  part 
of  the  thigh.  The  hind  legs  of  the  skin  were  \vorn  upper 
most,  and  tucked  into  the  girdle ;  the  neck,  highly  orna 
mented  with  fringes  and  quills,  trailed  on  the  ground 
behind  the  heel  of  the  wearer;  the  side  seams  were 
fringed,  and  for  this  purpose  the  scalps  of  fallen  ene 
mies  were  frequently  used. 

The  moccasins  were  also  of  dressed  hide,  without 
the  hair,  except  in  wdnter,  when  buffalo-hide,  with  the 
hair  inside,  answered  the  purpose.  They  were  made 
with  a  single  seam  on  the  outside  edge,  and  were 

Trav.,  p.  200;  White's  Ogn.,  p.  377;  Lord's  Nat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  298;  Domenech's 
Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  244,  281. 

191  '  The  ermine  is  the  fur  known  to  the  north-west  traders  by  the  name  of 
the  white  weasel,  but  is  the  genuine  ermine.'  Lewis  and  Clarice's  Trav.,  p.  313. 


426  ,       CALIFOKNIANS. 

embellished  with  quills;  sometimes  they  were  covered 
with  the  skin  of  a  polecat,  the  tail  of  which  dragged  be 
hind  on  the  ground.  Ear-ornaments  of  beads,  neck 
laces  of  shells,  twisted -grass,  elk-tushes,  round  bones, 
like  joints  of  a  fish's  back-bone,  and  the  claws  of  the 
brown  bear,  were  all  worn.  Eagles'  feathers  stuck  in 
the  hair,  or  a  strip  of  otter-skin  tied  round  the  head, 
seem  to  have  been  the  only  head-dresses  in  use.192  This, 
or  something  similar,  was  the  dress  only  of  the  wealthy 
and  prosperous  tribes.  Like  the  Utahs,  the  Snakes  paint 
extensively,  especially  when  intent  upon  war.193 

The  Snakes  also  build  better  dwellings  than  the  Utahs. 
Long  poles  are  leaned  against  each  other  in  a  circle,  and 
are  then  covered  with  skins,  thus  forming  a  conical  tent. 
A  hole  in  the  top,  which  can  be  closed  in  bad  weather, 
serves  as  chimney,  and  an  opening  at  the  bottom  three 
or  four  feet  high,  admits  the  occupants  on  pushing  aside 
a  piece  of  hide  stretched  on  a  stick,  which  hangs  over 
the  aperture  as  a  door.  These  skin  tents,  as  is  necessary 
to  a  nomadic  people,  are  struck  and  pitched  with  very 
little  labor.  When  being  moved  from  one  place  to  an 
other,  the  skins  are  folded  and  packed  on  the  ponies, 
and  the  poles  are  hitched  to  each  side  of  the  animal  by 
one  end,  while  the  other  drags.  The  habitations  of  the 
people  of  Nevada  and  the  greater  part  of  Utah  are  very 
primitive  and  consist  of  heaps  of  brush,  under  which 
they  crawl,  or  even  of  a  mere  shelter  of  bushes,  semi 
circular  in  shape,  roofless,  arid  three  or  four  feet  high, 
which  serves  only  to  break  the  force  of  the  wind.  Some 
of  them  build  absolutely  no  dwellings,  but  live  in  caves 
and  among  the  rocks,  while  others  burrow  like  reptiles 
in  the  ground.  Farnham  gives  us  a  very  doleful  picture 
of  their  condition;  he  says:  "  When  the  lizard,  and  snail, 
and  wild  roots  are  buried  in  the  snows  of  winter,  they 

192  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  312-15. 

193  <  On  y  rencontre  aussi  des  terres  metalliques  de  differentes  couleurs, 
telles  que  vertes,  bleues,  jaunes,  noires,  blanches,  et  deux  sortes  d'ocres, 
1'une  pale,  1'autre  d'un  rouge  brillant  comme  du  vermillion.     Les  Indiens 
en  font  tres-grand  cas;  ils  s'en  servent  pour  se  peindre  le  corps  et  le  visage.' 
Stuart,  in .Nouvellcs  Annales  desVoy.,  1821,  torn,  xii.,  p.  83. 


DWELLINGS  AND  FOOD  OF  THE  SHOSHONES.  427 

are  said  to  retire  to  the  vicinity  of  timber,  dig  holes  in 
the  form  of  ovens  in  the  steep  sides  of  the  sand-hills, 
and,  having  heated  them  to  a  certain  degree,  deposit 
themselves  in  them,  and  sleep  and  fast  till  the  weather 
permits  them  to  go  abroad  again  for  food.  Persons  who 
have  visited  their  haunts  after  a  severe  winter,  have 
found  the  ground  around  these  family  ovens  strewn  with 
the  unburied  bodies  of  the  dead,  and  others  crawling 
among  them,  who  had  various  degrees  of  strength,  from 
a  bare  sufficiency  to  gasp  in  death,  to  those  that  crawled 
upon  their  hands  and  feet,  eating  grass  like  cattle."194 
Naturally  pusilanimous,  weak  in  development,  sunk  be 
low  the  common  baser  passions  of  the  savage,  more  im 
provident  than  birds,  more  beastly  than  beasts,  it  may 
be  possible  to  conceive  of  a  lower  phase  of  humanity,  but 
I  confess  my  inability  to  do  so. 

Pine-nuts,  roots,  berries,  reptiles,  insects,  rats,  mice, 
and  occasionally  rabbits  are  the  only  food  of  the  poorer 
Shoshone  tribes.  Those  living  in  the  vicinity  of  streams 
or  lakes  depend  more  or  less  for  their  subsistence  upon 
fish.  The  Snakes  of  Idaho  and  Oregon,  and  the  tribes 
occupying  the  more  fertile  parts  of  Utah,  having  abun 
dance  of  fish  and  game,  live  well  the  year  round,  but 
the  miserable  root-eating  people,  partly  owing  to  their 
inherent  improvidence,  partly  to  the  scantiness  of  their 

194  <  They  remain  in  a  semi-dormant,  inactive  state  the  entire  winter,  leav 
ing  their  lowly  retreats  only  now  and  then,  at  the  urgent  calls  of  nature,  or 
to  warm  their  burrows ....  In  the  spring  they  creep  from  their  holes ....  poor 
and  emaciated,  with  barely  flesh  enough  to  hide  their  bones,  and  so  ener 
vated  from  hard  fare  and  frequent  abstinence,  that  they  can  scarcely  move.' 
Scenes  in  Rocky  Mts.,  p.  179.  Stansbury  mentions  lodges  in  Utah,  east  of 
of  Salt  Lake,  which  were  constructed  of  '  cedar  poles  and  logs  of  a  consid 
erable  size,  thatched  with  bark  and  branches,  and  were  quite  warm  and  com 
fortable.'  Stansbury's  Kept.,  p.  Ill;  Stevens,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Kept.,  vol.  i.,  p. 
334;  Irviny's  Bonneville's  Adven.,  p.  255;  Remy  and  Brenchley'sJourn.,  vol.  i., 
pp.  80-1,  129,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  362,  373;  Salmeron,  Relaciones,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex., 
serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  101;  Farley,  in  San  Francisco  Medical  Press,  vol.  iii.,  p. 
154;  Farnham's  Life  in  Cal.,  p.  378;  Broicnell's  Ind.  Races,  p.  538;  Heap's 
Cent.  Route,  pp.  98-9;  De  Smet,  Voy.,  p.  28;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  i.,  p.  247, 
vol.  ii.,  pp.  256-7;  Coke's  Rocky  Mountains,  p.  257;  Ross'  Fur  Hunters,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  117;  White's  Ogn.,  p.  376;  Irvine's  Astoria,  pp.  257,  290;  Lewis  and 
Clarke's  Trav.,  p.  305;  Fremont's  Explor.  Ex.,  1842-3,  pp.  142,  212,  218; 
Townsend's  Nar.,  p.  136;  Dunn's  Oregon,  pp.  325,  331-2,  337-8;  Bullfinch's 
Oregon,  p.  J79;  Farnham's  Trav.,  pp.  58,  61-2;  Simpson's  Route  to  Cal.,  p. 
51;'  Burton's  City  of  the  Saints,  p.  573;  Knight's  Pioneer  Life,  MS. 


428  CALIFORNIANS. 

food-supply,  never  store  sufficient  provision  for  the  win 
ter,  and  consequently  before  the  arrival  of  spring  they 
are  invariably  reduced  to  extreme  destitution.  To  avoid 
starvation  they  will  eat  dead  bodies,  and  even  kill  their 
children  for  food.194  A  rat  or  a  rabbit  is  prepared  for  eat 
ing  by  singeing  the  hair,  pressing  the  oftal  from  the  en 
trails  and  cooking  body  and  intestines  together.  Lizards, 
snakes, "grasshoppers,  and  ants  are  thrown  alive  into  a  dish 
containing  hot  embers,  and  are  tossed  about  until  roasted ; 
they  are  then  eaten  dry  or  used  to  thicken  soup.  Grass 
hoppers,  seeds,  and  roots,  are  also  gathered  and  cooked  in 
the  same  manner  as  by  the  nations  already  described. 
The  Gosh  Utes  take  rabbits  in  nets  made  of  flax-twine, 
about  three  feet  wide  and  of  considerable  length.  A 
fence  of  sage-brush  is  erected  across  the  rabbit-paths,  and 
on  this  the  net  is  hung.  The  rabbits  in  running  quickly 
along  the  trail  become  entangled  in  the  meshes  and  are 
taken  before  they  can  escape.  Lizards  are  dragged  from 
their  holes  by  means  of  a  hooked  stick.  To  catch  ants 
a  piece  of  fresh  hide  or  bark  is  placed  upon  the  ant-hill ; 
this  is  soon  covered  by  vast  swarms  of  the  insects,  which 
are  then  brushed  off  into  a  bag  and  kept  there  until  dead, 
when  they  are  dried  for  future  use.  Among  the  hunt 
ing  tribes  antelope  are  gradually  closed  in  upon  by  a 
circle  of  horsemen  and  beaten  to  death  with  clubs.  They 
are  also  stalked  after  the  fashion  of  the  Californians  pro 
per,  the  hunter  placing  the  head  and  horns  of  an  ante 
lope  or  deer  upon  his  own  head  and  thus  disguised  ap 
proaching  within  shooting  distance. 

Fish  are  killed  with  spears  having  movable  heads, 
which  become  detatched  when  the  game  is  struck,  and 
are  also  taken  in  nets  made  of  rushes  or  twigs.  In  the 
latter  case  a  place  is  chosen  where  the  river  is  crossed 
by  a, bar,  the  net  is  then  floated  down  the  stream  and 
on  reaching  the  bar  both  ends  are  drawn  together.  The 
fish  thus  enclosed  are  taken  from  the  circle  by  hand, 
and  the  Shoshone  as  he  takes  each  one,  puts  its  head  in 

is*  Coke's  Rocky  Mts.,  p.  275;  De  Smet,  Voy.,  p.  29;  Dennison,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
liept.,  1854,  p.  375;  Saint- Amant,  Voyages,  p.  325. 


NATIVE  FISH-WEIR.  429 

his  mouth  and  kills  it  with  his  teeth.  Captain  Clarke 
describes  an  ingeniously  constructed  weir  on  Snake  River, 
where  it  was  divided  into  four  channels  by  three  small 
islands.  Three  of  these  channels  were  narrow  "and 
stopped  by  means  of  trees  which  were  stretched  across, 
and  supported  by  willow  stakes,  sufficiently  near  to  pre 
vent  the  passage  of  the  fish.  About  the  centre  of  each 
was  placed  a  basket  formed  of  willows,  eighteen  or  twenty 
feet  in  length,  of  a  cylindrical  form,  and  terminating  in 
a  conic  shape  at  its  lower  extremity;  this  was  situated 
with  its  mouth  upwards,  opposite  to  an  aperture  in  the 
weir.  The  main  channel  of  the  water  was  then  con 
ducted  to  this  weir,  and  as  the  fish  entered  it  they  were 
so  entangled  with  each  other,  that  they  could  not  move, 
and  were  taken  out  by  emptying  the  small  end  of  the 
willow  basket.  The  weir  in  the  main  channel  was 
formed  in  a  manner  somewhat  different ;  there  were,  in 
fact  two  distinct  weirs  formed  of  poles  and  willow  sticks 
quite  across  the  river,  approaching  each  other  obliquely 
with  an  aperture  in  each  side  of  the  angle.  This  is 
made  by  tying  a  number  of  poles  together  at  the  top,  in 
parcels  of  three,  which  were  then  set  up  in  a  triangular 
form  at  the  base,  two  of  the  poles  being  in  the  range  de 
sired  for  the  weir,  and  the  third  down  the  stream.  To 
these  poles  two  ranges  of  other  poles  are  next  lashed 
horizontally,  with  willow  bark  and  withes,  and  willow 
sticks  joined  in  with  these  crosswise,  so  as  to  form  a 
kind  of  wicker-work  from  the  bottom  of  the  river  to  the 
height  of  three  or  four  feet  above  the  surface  of  the 
water.  This  is  so  thick  as  to  prevent  the  fish  from  pass 
ing,  and  even  in  some  parts  with  the  help  of  a  little 
gravel  and  some  stone  enables  them  to  give  any  direc 
tion  which  they  wish  to  the  water.  These  two  weirs 
being  placed  near  to  each  other,  one  for  the  purpose  of 
catching  the  fish  as  they  ascend,  the  other  as  they  go 
down  the  river,  are  provided  with  two  baskets  made  in 
the  form  already  described,  and  which  are  placed  at  the 
apertures  of  the  weir." 

For  present  consumption  the  fish  are  boiled  in  water- 


430  CALIFOKNIANS. 

tight  baskets  by  means  of  red-hot  stones,  or  are  broiled 
on  the  embers ;  sometimes  the  bones  are  removed  before 
the  fish  is  cooked ;  great  quantities  are  also  dried  for 
winter.  Some  few  of  the  Utahs  cultivate  a  little  maize, 
vegetables,  and  tobacco,  and  raise  stock,  but  efforts  at 
agriculture  are  not  general.  The  Snakes  sometimes 
accompany  the  more  northern  tribes  into  the  country  of 
the  Blackfeet,  for  the  purpose  of  killing  buffalo.195 

In  their  persons,  dwellings  and  habits,  the  Utahs  are 
filthy   beyond   description.     Their   bodies  swarm  with 

195  <  They  eat  the  seed  of  two  species  of  Conifers,  one  about  the  size  of  a 
hazel-nut,  the  other  much  smaller.  They  also  eat  a  small  stone-fruit,  some 
what  red,  or  black  in  colour,  and  rather  insipid;  different  berries,  among 
others,  those  of  Vaccinium.  They  collect  the  seed  of  the  Atriplex  and  Cheno- 
podium,  and  occasionally  some  grasses.  Among  roots,  they  highly  value 
that  of  a  bushy,  yellowish  and  tolerably  large  broomrape,  which  they  cook 
or  dry  with  the  base,  or  root-stock,  which  is  enlarged,  and  constitutes  the 
most  nutritious  part.  They  also  gather  the  napiform  root  of  a  Cirsium  acaule, 
which  they  eat  raw  or  cooked ;  when  cooked,  it  becomes  quite  black,  resinous 
as  pitch  and  rather  succulent;  when  raw,  it  is  whitish,  soft,  and  of  a  pleasant 
flavour. '  Rerny  and  Brenchley's  Journey,  vol.  i. ,  p.  129.  The  Shoshones  of  Utah, 
and  Nevada  '  eat  certain  roots,  which  in  their  native  state  are  rank  poison, 
called  Tobacco  root,  but  when  put  in  a  hole  in  the  ground,  and  a  large  fire 
burned  over  them,  become  wholesome  diet.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  vi.,  p. 
G97.  '  Of  the  roots  used. . .  .the  pap-pa,  or  wild  potatoe,  is  abundant.'  Id., 
vol.  iv.,  p.  222;  see  also,  Id.,  vol.  v.,  pp.  199-20U.  At  Bear  River,  'every 
living  animal,  thing,  insect,  or  worm  they  eat.'  Fremont's  Explor.  Exp., 
p.  142,  see  also  pp.  148,  160,  173-4,  212,  218-19,  267,  273.  Inland  savages  are 
passionately  fond  of  salt;  those  living  near  the  sea  detest  it.  Stuart,  in  Nou- 
vellcs  Annales  des  Voy.,  1821,  torn,  xii.,  p.  85.  The  Utahs  eat  'the  cactus 
leaf,  piiion-nut,  and  various  barks;  the  seed  of  the  bunch-grass,  and  of  the 
wheat,  or  yellow  grass,  somewhat  resembling  rye,  the  rabbit-bush  twigs, 
which  are  chewed,  and  various  roots  and  tubers;  the  soft  sego  bulb,  the  root 
let  of  the  cat-tail  flag,  and  of  the  tule,  which  when  sun-dried  and  powdered 
to  flour,  keeps  through  the  winter  and  is  palatable  even  to  white  men.'  Bur 
ton's  City  of  the  Saints,  p.  581,  see  also  pp.  573,  577.  The  Pi-Edes  •  live 
principally  on  lizards,  swifts,  and  horned  toads.'  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1865,  p. 
145;  see  also  Id.,  1854,  p.  229;  1856,  p.  234;  1861,  p.  112;  1859,  p.  365;  1866, 
pp.  114,  1869;  pp.  203,  216;  1870,  pp.  95,  114;  1872,  p.  59.  The  Snakes  eat  a 
white-fleshed  kind  of  beaver,  which  lives  on  poisonous  roots,  whose  flesh 
affects  white  people  badly,  though  the  Indians  roast  and  eat  it  with  impunity. 
Ross'  Fur  Hunters,  vol.  ii.,  p.  117,  see  also  vol.  i.,  p.  269-72;  Broicnell's  Ind. 
Races,  p.  539;  Farnham's  Life  and  Adven.,  pp.  371.  376-8;  Irving' s  Bonne- 
viUe's  Adven.,  pp.  255,  257,  4*01-2;  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.v.,  p. 
501;  Hale's  Etfmog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  219;  Bryant's  Cal,  p.  202; 


vol.  i.,  pp.  242,  270,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  19,  60,  61,  64,  244,  311;  Hutching*'  Cal.  Mag., 
vol.  ii.,  p.  531;  Simpson's  Route  to  Pac.,  pp.  51-2;  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.t 
pp.  270,  288-9,  298-9;  Bigkr's  Early  Days  in  Utah  and  Nevada,  MS. 


WEAPONS  OF  THE  SHOSHONES.  431' 

vermin  which  they  catch  and  eat  with  relish.  Some  of 
the  Snakes  are  of  a  more  cleanly  disposition,  but,  gene 
rally  speaking,  the  whole  Shoshone  family  is  a  remark 
ably  dirty  one.196 

The  bow  and  arrow  are  universally  used  by  the  Sho- 
shones,  excepting  only  some  of  the  most  degraded  root- 
eaters,  who  are  said  to  have  no  weapon,  offensive  or  de 
fensive,  save  the  club.  The  bow  is  made  of  cedar,  pine, 
or  other  wood,  backed  with  sinew  after  the  manner 
already  described,  or,  more  rarely,  of  a  piece  of  elk-horn. 
The  string  is  of  sinew.  The  length  of  the  bow  varies. 
According  to  Farnharn,  that  used  by  the  Pi  Utes  is  six 
feet  long,  while  that  of  the  Shoshones  seen  by  Lewis  and 
Clark  was  only  two  and  a  half  feet  in  length.  The  ar 
rows  are  from  two  to  four  feet,  and  are  pointed  with 
obsidian,  flint,  or,  among  the  lowrer  tribes,  by  merely 
hardening  the  tip  with  lire.  Thirty  or  forty  are  usually 
carried  in  a  skin  quiver,  and  two  in  the  hand  ready  for 
immediate  use.  Lances,  which  are  used  in  some  locali 
ties,  are  pointed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  arrows  when 
no  iron  can  be  procured.  The  Snakes  have  a  kind  of 
mace  or  club,  which  they  call  a  poygamoyyon.  It  con 
sists  of  a  heavy  stone,  sometimes  wrapped  in  leather,  at 
tached  by  a  sinew  thong  about  two  inches  in  length,  to 
the  end  of  a  stout  leather-covered  handle,  measuring 
nearly  two  feet.  A  loop  fastened  to  the  end  held  in  the 
hand  prevents  the  warrior  from  losing  the  weapon  in  the 
fight,  and  allows  him  to  hold  the  club  in  readiness  while 
he  uses  the  bow  and  arrow.197  They  also  have  a  circular 

196  The  Wararereeks  are  '  dirty  in  their  camps,  in  their  dress,  and  in  their 
persons.'  Ross'  Fur  Hunters,  vol.  i.,  p.  250.  The  persons  of  the  Piutes  are 
'  more  disgusting  than  those  of  the  Hottentots.  Their  heads  are  white  with 
the  germs  of  crawling  filth.'  Farnham's  Trav.,  p.  58.  '  A  filthy  tribe — the 
prey  of  idleness  and  vermin.'  Farnham's  Life  and  Adven.,  p.  325.  Bry 
ant  says,  of  the  Utahs  between  Salt  Lake  and  Ogden's  Hole,  'I  noticed 
the  females  hunting  for  the  vermin  in  the  heads  and  on  the  bodies  of  their 
children;  finding  which  they  ate  the  animals  with  an  apparent  relish.'  Bry- 


Snakes  are  rather  cleanly  in  their  persons.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  61. 


197  '  A.  weapon  called  by  the  Chippeways,  by  whom  it  was  formerly  used, 
the  poggamoggon.'  Lewis  and  Clarice's  Trav..  p.  309.  Bulfinch,  Oregon,  p. 
126,  says  the  stone  weighs  about  two  pounds.  Salmeron  also  mentions  a 


432  CALIFOBNIAN3. 

shield  about  two  and  a  half  feet  in  diameter,  which  is 
considered  a  very  important  part  of  a  warrior's  equip 
ment,  not  so  much  from  the  fact  that  it  is  arrow-proof,  as 
from  the  peculiar  virtues  supposed  to  be  given  it  by  the 
medicine-men.  The  manufacture  of  a  shield  is  a  season 
of  great  rejoicing.  It  must  be  made  from  the  entire 
fresh  hide  of  a  male  two-year-old  buffalo,  and  the  process 
is  as  follows.  A  hole  is  dug  in  the  ground  and  filled 
with  red-hot  stones;  upon  these  water  is  poured  until  a 
thick  steam  arises.  The  hide  is  then  stretched,  by  as 
many  as  can  take  hold  of  it,  over  the  hole,  until  the  hair 
can  be  removed  with  the  hands  and  it  shrinks  to  the 
required  size.  It  is  then  placed  upon  a  prepared  hide, 
and  pounded  by  the  bare  feet  of  all  present,  until 
the  ceremony  is  concluded.  When  the  shield  is  com 
pleted,  it  is  supposed  to  render  the  bearer  invulner 
able.  Lewis  and  Clarke  also  make  mention  of  a 
species  of  defensive  armor  a  something  like  a  coat  of 
mail,  which  is  formed  by  a  great  many  folds  of  dressed 
antelope  skins,  united  by  means  of  a  mixture  of  glue  and 
sand.  With  this  they  cover  their  own  bodies  and  those 
of  their  horses,  and  find  it  impervious  to  the  arrow." 
I  find  mention  in  one  instance  only,  of  a  shield  being 
used  by  the  Utahs.  In  that  case  it  was  small,  circular, 
and  worn  suspended  from  the  neck.  The  fishing  spear 
I  have  already  described  as  being  a  long  pole  with  an 
elk-horn  point.  When  a  fish  is  struck  the  shaft  is 
loosened  from  its  socket  in  the  head,  but  remains  con 
nected  with  the  latter  by  a  cord.198  Arrows  are  occasion- 


similar  weapon  used  by  the  people  living  south  of  Utah  Lake;  concerning 
whom  see  note  187,  p.  423. 

198  The  Utahs  '  no  usan  mas  armas  que  las  flechas  y  algunas  lanzas  de  per- 
dernal,  ni  tienen  otro  peto,  morrion  ni  espaldar  que  el  que  sacaron  del  vie  litre 
de  susmadres.'  Escalante,  quoted  in  Salmeron,  EelacAones,  in  Doc.  Hisi.  Mts., 
ser.  iii.,  part  iv.,  p.  126.  '  Bows  made  of  the  horns  of  the  bighorn. . .  are 
formed  by  cementing  with  glue  flat  pieces  of  the  horn  together,  covering  the 
back  with  sinewes  and  glue,  and  loading  the  whole  with  an  unusual  quantity 
of  ornaments.'  Lewis  and  Clark's  Trav.,  p.  309.  At  Ogden  River,  in  Utah, 
they  work  obsidian  splinters  '  into  the  most  beautiful  and  deadly  points, 
with  which  they  arm  the  end  of  their  arrows.'  Thornton's  Ogn.  and  Cal.,  vol. 
>.,  p.  343.  'Pour  toute  arrne,  un  arc,  des  fleches  et  un  baton  pointu.'  De 
Smet,  Voy.,  p.  28.  'Bows  and  arrows  are  their  (Banattees)  only  weapons  of 
defence.''  Ross1  Fur  Hunters,  vol.  i.,  p,  251,  The  arrows  of  the  Pa-Utes  '  are 


MANNER  OF  MAKING  WAK.  433 

ally  poisoned  by  plunging  them  into  a  liver  which  has 
been  previously  bitten  by  a  rattlesnake.199 

The  tribes  that  possess  horses  always  fight  mounted , 
and  manage  their  animals  with  considerable  address. 
In  war  they  place  their  reliance  upon  strategy  and  sur 
prise;  fires  upon  the  hills  give  warning  of  an  enemy's 
approach.  Prisoners  of  war  are  killed  writh  great  tortures, 
especially  female  captives,  \vho  are  given  over  to  the 
women  of  the  victorious  tribe  and  by  them  done  to  death 
most  cruelly;  it  is  said,  however,  that  male  prisoners 
who  have  distinguished  themselves  by  their  prowess  in 
battle,  are  frequently  dismissed  unhurt.  Scalps  are  taken, 
and  sometimes  portions  of  the  flesh  of  a  brave  fallen 
enemy  are  eaten  that  the  eater  may  become  endued  with 
the  valor  of  the  slain.  He  who  takes  the  most  scalps 
gains  the  most  glory.  Whether  the  warriors  who  fur 
nished  the  trophies  fell  by  the  hand  of  the  accumulator 
or  not,  is  immaterial ;  he  has  but  to  show  the  spoils  and 
his  fame  is  established.  The  Snakes  are  said  to  be  pe 
culiarly  skillful  in  eluding  pursuit.  When  on  foot, 
they  will  crouch  down  in  the  long  grass  and  remain 
motionless  while  the  pursuer  passes  within  a  few  feet 
of  them,  or  when  caught  sight  of  they  wall  double 
and  twist  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  catch  them.  The 
custom  of  ratifying  a  peace  treaty  by  a  grand  smoke, 
common  to  so  many  of  the  North  American  aborigines,. 

barbed  with  a  very  clear  translucent  stone,  a  species  of  opal,  nearly  as. 
hard  as  the  diamond;  and,  shot  from  their  long  bow,  are  almost  as  effective 
as  a  gunshot.'  Fremont's  Expl.  Ex.,  p.  267.  The  Pi-Utes  and  Pitches 
'  have  no  weapon  of  defence  except  the  club,  and  in  the  use  of  that  they  are 
very  unskilful.'  Farnharn's  Trav.,  p.  58.  Southwest  of  Great  Salt  Lake,, 
'their  arms  are  clubs,  with  small  bows  and  arrows  made  of  reeds/  Scenes  in 
the  Rocky  Mts.,  p.  180.  The  Pi-Utes  '  make  some  weapons  of  defence,  as  bows 
and  arrows.  The  bows  are  about  six  feet  long;  made  of  the  savine  (Juniperus . 
sabina).'  Farnham's  Life  and  Adven.,  p.  378;  see  farther,  Remy  and  Brench- 
leys  Journ.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  291,  261;  Stansbury's  Kept.,  p.  232;  Schoolcraft's  Arch., 
vol.  v.,  p.  198;  Heap's  Cent,  Route,  pp.  56,  72,  77,  84,  99;  Palmer's  Jour. 
p.  134;  Bulfinch's  Oregon,  p.  129;  Irving's  Bonneville's  Adven.,  pp.  146,  255, 
400;  Hale's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  219;  Parker's  Explor.  Tour., 
pp.  228-9,  233;  Irving's  Astoria,  p.  279;  Stuart,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy  , 
1822,  torn,  xiii.,  p.  50;  Bigler's  Early  Days  in  Utah  and  Nevada,  MS.;  Knight's. 
Pioneer  Life,  MS. 

199  Remy  and  Brenchley's  Jour.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  407;    Heap's  Cent.  Route,  p. 
99;  Thornton's  Ogn.  and  Cal.,  vol.  i.,  p.  171. 
VOL.  I.    28 


434  CALIFORNIANS. 

is  observed  by  the  Shoshones.200  The  pipe,  the  bowl  of 
which  is  usually  of  red  stone,  painted  or  carved  with 
various  figures  and  adorned  with  feathers,  is  solemnly 
passed  from  mouth  to  mouth,  each  smoker  blowing  the 
smoke  in  certain  directions  and  muttering  vows  at  the 
same  time. 

The  only  tools  used  before  iron  and  steel  were  intro 
duced  by  the  whites  were  of  flint,  bone,  or  horn.  The 
flint  knife  had  no  regular  form,  and  had  a  sharp  edge 
.about  three  or  four  inches  long,  which  was  renewed  when 
it  became  dull.  Elk-horn  hatchets,  or  rather  wedges, 
were  used  to  fell  trees.  They  made  water-proof  baskets 
•of  plaited  grass,  and  others  of  wicker-work  covered  with 
hide.  The  Snakes  and  some  of  the  Utahs  were  versed 
in  the  art  of  pottery,  and  made  very  good  vessels  from 
baked  clay.  These  were  not  merely  open  dishes,  but 
•often  took  the  form  of  jars  with  narrow  necks,  having 
stoppers.201 

200  '  Taking  an  enemy's  scalp  is  an  honour  quite  independent  of  the  act  of 
vanquishing  him.     To  kill  your  adversary  is  of  no  importance  unless  the 
rscalp  is  brought  from  the  field  of  battle,  and  were  a  warrior   to  slay  any 

number  of  his  enemies  in  action,  and  others  were  to  obtain  the  scalps  or 
first  touch  the  dead,  they  would  have  all  the  honours,  since  they  have  borne 

•  off  the  trophy.'  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  p.  309;  see  also  p.  265.     The  Utahs 
'  will  devour  the  heart  of  a  brave  man  to  increase  their  courage,  or  chop  it 
up,  boil  it  in  soup,  engorge  a  ladleful,  and  boast  they  have  drunk  the  ene 
my's  blood.'  Burton's  City  of  the  Saints,  p.  581;  see  also  p.  140.     The  Utahs 
never  carry  arrows  when  they  intend  to  fight  on  horseback.   Heap's  Cent. 
Route,  p.  77;  see  also  p.  100;  Remy  and  Brenchley's  Joum.,  pp.  97,  99;  Stans- 
fury's  Rept.,  p.  81;  De  Srnet,  Voy,,  pp.  28-9;  Ross'  Fur  Hunters,  vol.  i.,  p. 
'275,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  93-6;  Bulfinch's  Oregon,  p.  129;  Farnham's  Trav.,  p.  36. 

201  The  pipe  of  the  chief  '  was  made  of  a  dense  transparent  green  stone, 
very  highly  polished,  about  two  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  of  an  oval  figure, 
the  bowl  being  in  the  same  situation  with  the  stem.     A  small  piece  of  burnt 

•  clay  is  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  bowl  to  separate  the  tobacco  from  the  end 
of  the  stem.'  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  p.  267.     Pots  made  of  'a  stone  found 

:in  the  hills.  . .  .which,  though  soft  and  white  in  its  natural  state,  becomes 
very  hard  and  black  after  exposure  to  the  fire.'  Id.,  p.  312.  'These  vessels, 
.although  rude  and  without  gloss,  are  nevertheless  strong,  and  reflect  much 
credit  on  Indian  ingenuity.'  Ross'  Far  Hunters,  vol.  i.,  p.  274.  Pipe-stems 
'  resemble  a  walking-stick  more  than  anything  else,  and  they  are  generally 
of  ash,  and  from  two-and-a-half  to  three  feet  long.'  Id.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  109. 
4  Cooking  vessels  very  much  resembling  reversed  bee-hives,  made  of  basket 
work  covered  with  buffalo  skins.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  244.  Stans- 
bury  discovered  pieces  of  broken  Indian  pottery  and  obsidian  about  Salt 
Lake.  Stansbury's  Rept.,  p.  182.  The  material  of  baskets  '  was  mostly  willow 
twig,  with  a  layer  of  gum,  probably  from  the  pine  tree.'  Burton's  City  of  the 
Saints,  p.  573.  The  Utahs  'manufacture  very  beautiful  and  serviceable 
blankets.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  200.  'Considering  that  they  have 
nothing  but  stone  hammers  and  flint  knives  it  is  truly  wonderful  to  see  the 


LAWS  AND  GOVERNMENT.  435 

Boats,  as  a  rule,  the  Shoshones  have  none.  They 
usually  cross  rivers  by  fording;  otherwise  they  swim,  or 
pass  over  on  a  clumsy  and  dangerous  raft  made  of 
branches  and  rushes.202  By  way  of  compensation  they 
all,  except  the  poorest,  have  horses,  and  these  constitute 
their  wealth.  They  have  no  regular  currency,  but  use 
for  purposes  of  barter  their  stock  of  dried  fish,  their 
horses,  or  whatever  skins  and  furs  they  may  possess. 
They  are  very  deliberate  traders,  and  a  solemn  smoke 
must  invariably  precede  a  bargain.203  Although  each 
tribe  has  an  ostensible  chief,  his  power  is  limited  to  giv 
ing  advice,  and  although  his  opinion  may  influence  the 
tribe,  yet  he  cannot  compel  obedience  to  his  wishes. 
Every  man  does  as  he  likes.  Private  revenge,  of  course, 
occasionally  overtakes  the  murderer,  or,  if  the  sympa 
thies  of  the  tribe  be  with  the  murdered  man,  he  may 
possibly  be  publicly  executed,  but  there  are  no  fixed 
laws  for  such  cases.  Chieftainship  is  hereditary  in  some 
tribes ;  in  others  it  is  derived  from  prestige.204 

The  Utahs  do  not  hesitate  to  sell  their  wives  and  chil- 

exquisite  finish  and  neatness  of  their  implements  of  war  and  hunting,  as 
well  as  their  ear-rings  and  waist-bands,  made  of  an  amalgam  of  silver  and 
lead.'  Prince,  in  Cal.  Farmer,  Oct.  18,  1861.  'Les  Indiens  en  font  des  jarres, 
des  pots,  des  plats  de  diverses  formes.  Ces  vaisseaux  communiquent  line 
odeur  et  une  saveur  tres-agreables  a  tout  ce  qu'ils  renferment;  ce  qui  pro- 
vient  sans  doute  de  la  dissolution  de  quelque  substance,  bitumineuse  contenue 
dans  1'argile.'  Stuart,  in  Nouvelles  Annaiesdes  Voy.,  1821.  torn,  xii.,  p.  83.  '  The 
pipes  of  these  Indians  are  either  made  of  wood  or  of  red  earth;  sometimes 
these  earthen  pipes  are  exceedingly  valuable,  and  Indians  have  been  known 
to  give  a  horse  in  exchange  for  one  of  them.'  Remy  and  Brenchley's  Journ., 
vol.  i.,  p.  a  30;  Parker's  Explor.  Tour,  pp.  128-32,  228-9,  234. 

202  Ross'  Fur  Hunters,  vol.  i.,  p.  274. 

203  Among  the  Snakes  in  Idaho  garments  of  four  to  five  beaver-skins  were 
sold  for  a  knife  or  an  awl,  and  other  articles  of  fur  in  proportion.     Horses 
were  purchased  for  an  axe  each.     A  ship  of  seventy-four  guns  might  have 
been  loaded  with  provision,  such  as  dried  buffalo,  bought  with  buttons  and 
rings.     Articles  of  real  value  they  thus  disposed  of  cheaply,  while  articles 
of  comparatively  no  value,  such  as  Indian  head-dress  and  other  curiosities, 
were  held  high.     A  beaver-skin  could  thus  be  had  for  a  brass-ring,  while  a 
necklace  of  bears'  claws  could  not  be  purchased  for  a  dozen  of  the  same 
rings.     Axes,  knives,  ammunition,  beads,  buttons  and  rings,  were  most  in 
demand.     Clothing  was  of  no  value:  a  knife  sold  for  as  much  as  a  blanket; 
and  an  ounce  of  vermilion  was  of  more  value  than  a  yard  of  fine  cloth.  Ross' 
Fur  Hunters,  vol.  i.,  pp.  257-9.     See  further,  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  p.  316; 
Townsend's  Nar.,  pp.  133,  138;  Prince,  in  Cal.  Farmer,  Oct.  18,  1861;  Farn- 
ham's  Trav.,  p.  61. 

204  «  They  inflict  no  penalties  for  minor  offences,  except  loss  of  character 
and  disfellowship.'  Prince,  in  Cal.  Farmer,  Oct.  18,  1861;  Lewis  and  Clarke's 
Trav.,  pp.  306-7;  Eemy  and  Brenchley's  Journ.,  vol.  i.,  p.  128. 


436  CALIFOENIANS. 

dren  into  slavery  for  a  few  trinkets.  Great  numbers  of 
these  unfortunates  are  sold  to  the  Navajos  for  blankets. 
An  act  which  passed  the  legislature  of  Utah  in  1852, 
legalizing  slavery,  sets  forth  that  from  time  immemorial 
slavery  has  been  a  customary  traffic  among  the  Indians; 
that  it  was  a  common  practice  among  them  to  gamble 
away  their  wives  and  children  into  slavery,  to  sell  them 
into  slavery  to  other  nations,  and  that  slaves  thus  ob 
tained  were  most  barbarously  treated  by  their  masters; 
that  they  were  packed  from  place  to  place  on  mules; 
that  these  unfortunate  humans  were  staked  out  to  grass 
and  roots  like  cattle,  their  limbs  mutilated  and  swollen 
from  being  bound  with  thongs;  that  they  were  frozen, 
starved,  and  killed  by  their  inhuman  owners ;  that  fam 
ilies  and  tribes  living  at  peace  would  steal  each  other's 
wives  and  children,  and  sell  them  as  slaves.  In  view 
of  these  abuses  it  was  made  lawful  for  a  probate  judge, 
or  selectmen,  to  bind  out  native  captive  women  and  chil 
dren  to  suitable  white  persons  for  a  term  not  to  exceed 
twenty  years.205 

Polygamy,  though  common,  is  not  universal;  a  wife 
is  generally  bought  of  her  parents  ;206  girls  are  frequently 
betrothed  in  infancy ;  a  husband  will  prostitute  his  wife 
to  a  stranger  for  a  trifling  present,  but  should  she  be 
unfaithful  without  his  consent,  her  life  must  pay  the 
forfeit.  The  women,  as  usual,  suffer  very  little  from  the 
pains  of  child-bearing.  When  the  time  of  a  Shoshone 
woman's  confinement  draws  near,  she  retires  to  some 
secluded  place,  brings  forth  unassisted,  and  remains  there 

205  '  It  is  virtuous  to  seize  and  ravish  the  women  of  tribes  with  whom  they 
are  at  war,  often  among  themselves,  and  to  retain  or  sell  them  and  their 
children  as  slaves.'  Drews'  Oicyhee  Rec6n.,  p.  17.  The  Pi-Edes  'barter  their 
children  to  the  Utes  proper,  for  a  few  trinkets  or  bits  of  clothing,  by  whom 
they  are  again  sold  to  the  Navajos  for  blankets.'  Simpson's  Route  to  CaL,  p. 
45.  '  Some  of  the  minor  tribes  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Territory  (Utah), 
near  New  Mexico,  can  scarcely  show  a  single  squaw,  having  traded  them  off 
for  horses  and  arms.'  Burton's  City  of  the  Saints,  p.  582.  '  Viennent  trouver 
les  blancs,  et  leur  vendent  leurs  enfants  pour  des  bagatelles.'  De  Smet,  Voy., 
p.  29;  Knight's  Pioneer  Life,  MS.;  Utah,  Acts,  Resolutions,  etc.,  p.  87. 

soe  'A  refusal  in  these  lands  is  often  a  serious  business;  the  warrior  col 
lects  his  friends,  carries  off  the  recusant  fair,  and  after  subjecting  her  to  the 
insults  of  all  his  companions  espouses  her.'  Burton's  City  of  the  Saints, 
p.  582. 


GAMBLING  AND  DUINKING.  437 

for  about  a  month,  alone,  and  procuring  her  subsistence 
as  best  she  can.  When  the  appointed  time  has  elapsed 
she  is  considered  purified  and  allowed  to  join  her  friends 
again.  The  weaker  sex  of  course  do  the  hardest  labor, 
and  receive  more  blows  than  kind  words  for  their  pains. 
These  people,  in  common  with  most  nomadic  nations, 
have  the  barbarous  custom  of  abandoning  the  old  and 
infirm  the  moment  they  find  them  an  incumbrance. 
Lewis  and  Clarke  state  that  children  are  never  flogged, 
as  it  is  thought  to  break  their  spirit.207 

The  games  of  hazard  played  by  the  Shoshones  differ 
little  from  those  of  their  neighbors;  the  principal  one 
appears  to  be  the  odd-and-even  game  so  often  mentioned ; 
but  of  late  years  they  have  nearly  abandoned  these,  and 
have  taken  to  '  poker,'  which  they  are  said  to  play  with 
such  adroitness  as  to  beat  a  white  man.  With  the  voice 
they  imitate  with  great  exactness  the  cries  of  birds  and 
beasts,  and  their  concerts  of  this  description,  which  gen 
erally  take  place  at  midnight,  are  discordant  beyond 
measure.  Though  they  manufacture  no  intoxicating 
liquor  themselves,  they  will  drink  the  whisky  of  the 
whites  whenever  opportunity  offers.  They  smoke  the 
kinikkinik  leaf  when  no  tobacco  can  be  procured  from 
the  traders.208  In  connection  with  their  smoking  they 

207  «  The  women  are  exceedingly  virtuous they  are  a  kind  of  mercan 
tile  commodity  in  the  hands  of  their  masters.     Polygamy  prevails  among 
the  chiefs,  but  the  number  of  wives  is  not  unlimited.'  Remy  and  Brenchly's 
Journ.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  123-8.     They  are  given  to  sensual  excesses,  and  other 
immoralities.   FarnJiam's   Trav.,  p.  62;  see  also  p.  60.      'Prostitution  and 
illegitimacy  are  unknown ....  they  are  not  permitted  to  marry  until  eighteen 
or  twenty  years  old. . .  .it  is  a  capital  offence  to  marry  any  of  another  nation 
without  special  sanction  from  their  council  and  head  chief.    They  allow  but 
»ne  wife.'  Prince,  in  Cal.  Farmer,  Oct.  18,  1861.     At  the  time  of  their  con 
finement  the  women  '  sit  apart;  they  never  touch  a  cooking  utensil,  although 
it  is  not  held  impure  to  address  them,  and  they  return  only  when  the  signs 
of  wrath  have  passed  away.'  Burton's  City  of  the  Saints,  p.  573.     'Infidelity 
of  the  wife,  or  prostitution  of  an  unmarried  female,  is  punishable  by  death.' 
Davies,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1861,  p.  133.     'Our  Pi-Ute  has  a  peculiar  way  of 
getting  a  foretaste  of  connubial  bliss,  cohabiting  experimentally  with  his  in 
tended  for  two  or  three  days  previous  to  the  nuptial  ceremony,  at  the  end  of 
which  time,  either  party  can  stay  further  proceedings,  to  indulge  other  trials 
until  a  companion  more  congenial  is  found.'  Farley,  in  San  Francisco  Medical 
Press,  vol.  iii.,  p.  155;  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  307-8,  315;  De  Smet, 

Voy.,  p.  27. 

208  The  Snakes  '  ont  une  sorte  de  tabac  sauvage  qui  croit  dans  les  plaines 
contigues  aux  montagues  du  Spanish-River,  il  a  les  feuilles  plus  etroites  que 


438  CALIFOENIANS. 

have  many  strange  observances.  When  the  pipe  is 
passed  round  at  the  solemnization  of  a  treaty,  or  the 
confirmation  of  a  bargain,  each  smoker,  on  receiving  it 
from  his  neighbor,  makes  different  motions  with  it;  one 
turns  the  pipe  round  before  placing  the  stem  to  his  lips ; 
another  describes  a  semicircle  with  it;  a  third  smokes 
with  the  bowl  in  the  air;  a  fourth  with  the  bowl  on  the 
ground,  and  so  on  through  the  whole  company.  All 
this  is  done  with  a  most  grave  and  serious  countenance, 
which  makes  it  the  more  ludicrous  to  the  looker-on. 
The  Snakes,  before  smoking  with  a  stranger,  always  draw 
off  their  moccasins  as  a  mark  of  respect.  Any  great 
feat  performed  by  a  warrior,  which  adds  to  his  reputa 
tion  and  renown,  such  as  scalping  an  enemy,  or  success 
fully  stealing  his  horses,  is  celebrated  by  a  change  of 
name.  Killing  a  grizzly  bear  also  entitles  him  to  this 
honor,  for  it  is  considered  a  great  feat  to  slay  one  of 
these  formidable  animals,  and  only  he  who  has  performed 
it  is  allowed  to  wear  their  highest  insignia  of  glory,  the 
feet  or  claws  of  the  victim.  To  bestow  his  name  upon 
a  friend  is  the  highest  compliment  that  one  man  can 
offer  another. 

The  Snakes,  and  some  of  the  Utahs,  are  skillful  riders, 
and  possess  good  horses.  Their  horse-furniture  is  sim 
ple.  A  horse-hair  or  raw-hide  lariat  is  fastened  round 
the  animal's  neck;  the  bight  is  passed  with  a  single  half- 
hitch  round  his  lower  jaw,  and  the  other  end  is  held  in 
the  rider's  hand;  this  serves  as  a  bridle.  When  the 
horse  is  turned  loose,  the  lariat  is  loosened  from  his  jaw 
and  allowed  to  trail  from  his  neck.  The  old  men  and 


le  notre,  il  est  plus  agreable  a  fumer,  ses  effets  etant  bien  moins  violens.' 
Stuart,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  182 1 ,  torn.  xii. ,  pp.  82-3.  The  Kinik-kinik 
'  they  obtain  from  three  different  plants.  One  is  a  Cornus,  resembling  our 
Cornus  sanguima;  after  having  detached  the  epidermic  cuticle,  they  scrape 
the  bark  and  dry  it,  when  it  is  ready  for  use.  Another  is  a  Vacciiiium  with 
red  berries;  they  gather  the  leaves  to  smoke  them  when  dry;  the  third  is  a 
email  shrub,  the  fruit  and  flower  of  which  I  have  never  seen,  but  resembles 
certain  species  of  Daphnads  (particularly  that  of  Kauai),  the  leaves  of  which 
are  in  like  manner  smoked.'  Remy  and  Brenchley's  Journ  ,  vol.  i.,  p.  130;  see 
also  p.  132;  Ross'  Fur  Hunters,  vol.  i.,  p.  250,  Lewis  and  Clarice's  Trav.,  p. 
306;  Fremont's  Explor.  Ex.,  p.  174;  De  Smet,  Voy.,  pp.  25-6.  Parker's  Explor. 
Tour,  pp.  228-9,  237,  242-3. 


DISEASES  AND  BUKIAL.  439 

the  women  have  saddles  similar  to  those  used  for  pack 
ing  by  the  whites;  they  are  a  wooden  frame  made  of 
two  pieces  of  thin  board  fitting  close  to  the  sides  of  the 
horse,  and  held  together  by  two  cross-pieces,  in  shape 
like  the  legs  of  an  isosceles  triangle.  A  piece  of  hide 
is  placed  between  this  and  the  horse's  back,  and  a  robe 
is  thrown  over  the  seat  when  it  is  ridden  on,  The 
younger  men  use  no  saddle,  except  a  small  pad,  girthed 
on  with  a  leather  thong.  When  traveling  they  greatly 
overload  their  horses.  All  the  household  goods  and  pro 
visions  are  packed  upon  the  poor  animal's  back,  and  then 
the  women  and  children  seat  themselves  upon  the  pile, 
sometimes  as  many  as  four  or  five  on  one  horse.209 

The  poorer  Utahs  are  very  subject  to  various  diseases, 
owing  to  exposure  in  winter.  They  have  few,  if  any, 
efficient  remedies.  They  dress  wounds  with  pine-gum, 
after  squeezing  out  the  blood.  The  Snakes  are  much 
affected  by  rheumatism  and  consumption,  caused  chiefly 
by  their  being  almost  constantly  in  the  water  fishing, 
and  by  exposure.  Syphilis  has,  of  course,  been  ex 
tensively  introduced  among  all  the  tribes.  A  few  plants 
and  herbs  are  used  for  medicinal  purposes,  and  the  medi 
cine-men  practice  their  wonted  mummeries,  but  what 
particular  means  of  cure  they  adopt  is  not  stated  by  the 
authorities.  I  find  no  mention  of  their  having  sweat- 
houses.210 

Concerning  the  disposal  of  the  dead  usage  differs.  In 
some  parts  the  body  is  burned,  in  others  it  is  buried. 
In  either  case  the  property  of  the  deceased  is  destroyed 
at  his  burial.  His  favorite  horse,  and,  in  some  instances, 

209  « En  deux  occasions  diverses,  je  comptai  cinq  personnes  ainsi  mon- 
tees,  dont  deux,  certes,  paraissaient  aussi  capables,  chacune  a  elle  seule,  de 
porter  la  pauvre  bete,  que  le  cheval  etait  a  meme  de  supporter  leurs  poids.' 
De  Smet,  Voy.,  p.  127;  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  pp.  266,  309-11,  316;  Graves, 
in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1854,  p.  178. 

210  '  With  strong  constitutions  generally,  they  either  die  at  once  or  readily 
recover.'  Burton's  City  of  the  Saints,  p.  581.     '  There  is  no  lack  of  pulmonary 
difficulties  among  them.'  Farley,  in  San  Francisco  Medical  Press,  vol.  lii.,  p. 
155.     Syphilis  usually  kills  them.  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  p.  316.  'The 
convollaria  stellata.  . .  .is  the  best  remedial  plant  known  among  those  Indians.' 
Fremont'* Explor.  Ex.,  p.  273;  Davies,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1861.  p.  132;  Prince, 
in  Col.  Farmer,  Oct.  18,  1861;  Coke's  Rocky  Ms.,  p.  276;  Parker's  Explor. 
Tour.,  pp.  228-9,  240-2. 


440  CALIFORNIANS. 

his  favorite  wife,  are  killed  over  his  grave,  that  he  may 
not  be  alone  in  the  spirit  land.  Laceration  in  token  of 
grief  is  universal,  and  the  lamentations  of  the  dead  per 
son's  relatives  are  heard  for  weeks  after  his  death,  and 
are  renewed  at  intervals  for  many  months.  Child-like 
in  this,  they  rush  into  extremes,  and  when  not  actually 
engaged  in  shrieking  and  tearing  their  flesh,  they  appear 
perfectly  indifferent  to  their  loss.211 

The  character  of  the  better  Shoshone  tribes  is  not 
much  worse  than  that  of  the  surrounding  nations;  they 
are  thieving,  treacherous,  cunning,  moderately  brave 
after  their  fashion,  fierce  when  fierceness  will  avail  them 
anything,  and  exceedingly  cruel.  Of  the  miserable  root 
and  grass  eating  Shoshones,  howrever,  even  this  much 
cannot  be  said.  Those  who  have  seen  them  unani 
mously  agree  that  they  of  all  men  are  lowest.  Lying 
in  a  state  of  semi-torpor  in  holes  in  the  ground  during 
the  winter,  and  in  spring  crawling  forth  and  eating  grass 
on  their  hands  and  knees,  until  able  to  regain  their  feet ; 
having  no  clothes,  scarcely  any  cooked  food,  in  many 
instances  no  weapons,  with  merely  a  few  vague  imagin 
ings  for  religion,  living  in  the  utmost  squalor  and  filth, 
putting  no  bridle  on  their  passions,  there  is  surely  room 
for  no  missing  link  between  them  and  brutes.212  Yet  as 

211  '  The  Yutas  make  their  graves  high  up  the  kanyons,  usually  in  clefts 
of  rock.'  Burton's  City  of  the  Saints,  p.  150.     At  the  obsequies  of  a  chief  of 
the  Timpenaguchya  tribe  '  two  squaws,  two  Pa  Yuta  children,  and  fifteen  of 
his  best  horses  composed  the  "customs."'  Id.,  p.  577.     'When  a  death 
takes  place,  they  wrap  the  body  in  a  skin  or  hide,  and  drag  it  by  the  leg  to  a 
grave,  which  is  heaped  up  with  stones,  as  a  protection  against  wild  beasts.' 
Id.,  p.  582;  Remy  and  Brenchley's  Journ.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  131,  345;  De  Smet,  Voy., 
p.  28;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  iL,  pp.  359,  363. 

212  The  Shoshones  of  Carson  Valley  'are  very  rigid  in  their  morals.  'Re- 
my  and  Brenchley's  Journ.,  vol.  i.,  p.  85.     At  Haw's  Ranch,  '  honest  and  trust 
worthy,  but  lazy  and  dirty.'  Id.,  p.  123.     These  Kusi-Utahs  '  were  very  inof 
fensive  and  seemed  perfectly  guileless.'  Id.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  412.     The  Pai-uches 
are  considered  as  mere  dogs,  the  refiise  of  the  lowest  order  of  humanity. 
Farnham's  Life  and  Adven.,  p.  376.     The  Timpanigos  Yutas  '  are  a  noble  race 
. . .  .brave  and  hospitable.'  Id.,  p.  371.     The  Pi-utes  are  '  the  most  degraded 
and  least  intellectual  Indians  known  to  the  trappers.'  Farnham's  Trav.,  p. 
58.     '  The  Snakes  are  a  very  intelligent  race.'  Id.,  p.  62.     The  Bannacks  are 
'a  treacherous  and  dangerous  race.'  Id.,  p.  76.     The  Pi-Edes  are  'timid  and 
dejected;'  the  Snakes  are  'fierce  and  warlike;'  the  Tosawitches  'very  treach 
erous;'  the  Bannacks  'treacherous;'  the  Washoes  'peacable,  but  indolent.' 
Simpson's  Route  to  Cal.,  p.  45-9.     The  Utahs  'are  brave,  impudent,  and  war 
like.  . .  .of  a  revengeful  disposition.'  Graves,  in  Ind  Aff.  Kept.,  1854,  p.  178. 


SHOSHONE  CHARACTER.  441 

in  all  men  there  stands  out  some  prominent  good,  so 
in  these,  the  lowest  of  humanity,  there  is  one  virtue: 
they  are  lovers  of  their  country ;  lovers,  not  of  fair  hills 
and  fertile  valleys,  but  of  inhospitable  mountains  and 
barren  plains ;  these  reptile-like  humans  love  their  mis 
erable  burro  wing- places  better  than  all  the  comforts  of 

4  Industrious.'  Armstrong,  in  Id.,  1856,  p.  233.  '  A  race  of  men  whose  cruelty 
is  scarcely  a  stride  removed  from  that  of  cannibalism.'  Hurt,  in  Id.,  p.  231. 
'  The  Pah-utes  are  undoubtedly  the  most  interesting  and  docile  Indians  on 
the  continent.'  Dodge,  in  Id.,  1859,  p.  374.  The  Utahs  are  'fox-like,  crafty, 
and  cunning.'  Archuleta,  in  Id.,  1865,  p.  167.  The  Pi-Utes  are  'teachable, 
kind,  and  industrious. . . . scrupulously  chaste  in  all  their  intercourse.'  Park 
er,  in  Id.,  I860,  p.  115.  The  Weber-Utes  'are  the  most  worthless  and  indo 
lent  of  any  in  the  Territory.'  Head,  in  /(/.,  p.  123.  The  Bannocks  'seem  to 
be  imbued  with  a  spirit  of  dash  and  bravery  quite  unusual.'  Campbell,  in  Id., 
p.  120.  The  Baimacks  are  '  energetic  and  industrious.'  Danilson,  in  Id.,  1869, 
p.  288.  The  Washoes  are  docile  and  tractable.  Douglas,  in  Id.,  1870,  p.  96. 
The  Pi-utes  are  '  not  warlike,  rather  cowardly,  but  pilfering  and  treacherous.' 
Powell,  in  Id.,  1871,  p.  562.  The  Shoshokoes  'are  extremely  indolent,  but  a 
mild,  inoffensive  race.'  Irvine/' s  Bonnevilk's  Adven.,  p.  257.  The  Snakes  '  are 
a  thoroughly  savage  and  lazy  tribe.'  Franchere's  Nar.,  p.  150.  The  Sho- 
shones  are  'frank  and  communicative.'  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav.,  p.  306. 
The  Snakes  are  'pacific,  hospitable  and  honest.'  Dunn's  Oregon,  p.  325. 
'The  Snakes  are  a  very  intelligent  race.'  Wliite's  Ogn.,  p.  379.  The  Pi-utes 
'  are  as  degraded  a  class  of  humanity  as  can  be  found  upon  the  earth.  The 
male  is  proud,  sullen,  intensely  insolent. . .  .They  will  not  steal.  The  women 
are  chaste,  at  least  toward  their  white  brethren.'  Farley,  in  San  Francisco 
Medical  Jour.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  154.  The  Snakes  have  been  considered  '  as  rather  a 
dull  and  degraded  people  .  .  .weak  in  intellect,  and  wanting  in  courage.  And 
this  opinion  is  very  probable  to  a  casual  observer  at  first  sight,  or  when  seen 
in  small  numbers;  for  their  apparent  timidity,  grave,  and  reserved  habits, 
give  them  an  air  of  stupidity.  An  intimate  knowledge  of  the  Snake  charac 
ter  will,  however,  place  them  on  an  equal  footing  with  that  of  other  kindred 
nations,  either  east  or  west  of  the  mountains,  both  in  respect  to  their  men 
tal  faculties  and  moral  attributes.'  Ross'  Fur  Hunters,  vol.  ii.,  p.  151.  'Les 
Sampectches,  les  Pagouts  et  les  Ampayouts  sont. . .  .un  peuple  plus  misera 
ble,  plus  degrade  et  plus  pauvre.  Les  Francois  les  appellent  commuuement 
les  Dignes-de-pitie,  et  ce  nom  leur  convient  a  merveille.'  DeSmet,  Voy.,  p.  '28. 
The  Utahs  'paraissent  doux  et  affables,  tres-polis  et  hospitaliers  pour  les 
etrangers,  et  charitables  entre  eux.'  Id.,  p.  30.  'The  Indians  of  Utah  are 
the  most  miserable,  if  not  the  most  degraded,  beings  of  all  the  vast  Amer 
ican  wilderness.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  64.  The  Utahs  'possess  a 
capacity  for  improvement  whenever  circumstances  favor  them.'  Scenes  in 
the  Rocky  Mis.,  p.  180.  The  Snakes  are  'la  plus  mauvaise  des  races  des 
Peaux-Kouges  que  j'ai  frequentees.  Us  sont  aussi  paresseux  que  peu  pre- 
voyants.'  Saint-Amant,  Voy.,  p.  325.  The  Shoshones  of  Idaho  are  'highly 
intelligent  and  lively ....  the  most  virtuous  and  unsophisticated  of  all  the 
Indians  of  the  United  States.'  Taylor,  in  Cal.  Farmer,  April  27,  1860.  The 
Washoes  have  '  superior  intelligence  and  aptitude  for  learning.'  Id.,  June  14, 
1861;  see  also  Id.,  June  26,  1863.  The  Nevada  Shoshones  'are  the  most 
pure  and  uncorrupted  aborigines  upon  this  continent ....  they  are  scrupu 
lously  clean  in  their  persons,  and  chaste  in  their  habits ....  though  whole 
families  live  together,  of  all  ages  and  both  sexes,  in  the  same  tent,  im 
morality  and  crime  are  of  rare  occurrence.'  Prince,  in  Id.,  Oct.  18,  1861. 
The  Bannacks  'are  cowardly,  treacherous,  filthy  and  indolent.'  Schooler  a  ft' s 
Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  223.  The  Utahs  are  predatory,  voracious  and  perfidious. 
Plunderers  and  murderers  by  habit.  . .  .when  their  ferocity  is  not  excited, 


442  CALIFORNIANS. 

civilization;  indeed,  in  many  instances,  when  detained 
by  force  among  the  whites,  they  have  been  known  to 
pine  away  and  die. 

their  suspicions  are  so  great  as  to  render  what  they  say  unreliable,  if  they 
do  not  remain  altogether  uncommunicative.'  Id.,  vol.  v.,  pp.  197-8.  The 
Pa-Vants  '  are  as  brave  and  improvable  as  their  neighbours  are  mean  and 
vile.'  Burton's  City  of  the  Saints,  p.  577.  'The  Yuta  is  less  servile,  and  con 
sequently  has  a  higher  ethnic  status  than  the  African  negro;  he  will  not  toil, 
and  he  turns  at  a  kick  or  a  blow.'  Id.,  p,  581.  The  Shoshokoes  '  are  harm 
less  and  exceedingly  timid  and  shy.'  BrownelVs  Ind.  Races,  p.  538. 


TKIBAL      BOUNDARIES. 

To  the  NORTHERN  CALIFORNIAXS,  whose  territory  extends  from  Rogue 
Kiver  on  the  north  to  Eel  Eiver  south,  and  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  the 
Californian  boundary  east,  including  the  Klamath,  and  other  lakes,  are  as 
signed,  according  to  the  authorities,  the  following  tribal  boundaries :  There 
are  '  the  Hoopahs,  and  the  Ukiahs  of  Mendocino ;'  '  the  Umpquas,  Kowooses 
or  Gooses,  Macanootoony's  of  the  Umpqua  river  section,  Nomee  Cults,  and 
Nomee  Lacks  of  Tehama  County;  the  Copahs,  Hanags,  Yatuckets,  Terwars 
and  Tolowas,  of  the  lower  Klamath  river;  the  Wylaks  and  Noobimucks  of 
Trinity  county  mountains  west  from  Sacramento  plains;  the  Modocs  of 
Klamath  Lake,  the  Ylackas  of  Pitt  Kiver,  the  Ukas  and  Shastas  of  Shasta 
county.'  Taylor,  in  Gal.  Farmer,  June  8,  1860. 

'The  Tototins  are  divided  into  twelve  bands;  eight  of  them  are  located 
on  the  coast,  one  on  the  forks  of  the  Coquille,  and  three  on  Rogue  river.' 
'  The  Tototins,  from  whom  is  derived  the  generic  name  of  the  whole  people 
speaking  the  language,  reside  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Tototin  river,  about 
four  miles  from  its  mouth.  Their  country  extends  from  the  eastern  bound 
ary  of  the  Yahshutes,  a  short  distance  below  their  village,  up  the  stream 
about  six  miles,  where  the  fishing-grounds  of  the  Mackanotins  commence.' 
'The  country  of  the  Euquachees  commences  at  the  "Three  Sisters,"  and 
extends  along  the  coast  to  a  point  about  three  miles  to  the  south  of  their 
village,  which  is  on  a  stream  which  bears  their  name.  The  mining  town 
of  Elizabeth  is  about  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Euquachees,  and  is 
called  thirty  miles  from  Port  Orford.  Next  southward  of  the  Euquachees 
are  the  Yahshutes,  whose  villages  occupy  both  banks  of  the  Tototin  or  Rogue 
river,  at  its  mouth.  These  people  claim  but  about  two  and  a  half  miles  back 
from  the  coast,  where  the  Tototin  country  commences.  The  Yahshutes  claim 
the  coast  to  some  remarkable  headlands,  about  six  miles  south  of  Rogue 
river.  South  of  these  headlands  are  the  Chetlessentuns.  Their  village  is 
north  of,  but  near,  the  mouth  of  a  stream  bearing  their  name,  but  better 
known  to  the  whites  as  Pistol  river.  The  Chetlessentuns  claim  but  about 
eight  miles  of  the  coast;  but  as  the  country  east  of  them  is  uninhabited,  like 
others  similarly  situated,  their  lands  are  supposed  to  extend  to  the  summit 
of  the  mountains.  Next  to  the  Chetlessentuns  on  the  south  are  the  Wish- 
tenatins,  whose  village  is  at  the  mouth  of  a  small  creek  bearing  their  name. 


NORTHERN  CALIFORNIANS.  443 

They  claim  the  country  to  a  small  trading-post  known  as  the  Whale's  Head, 
about  twenty-seven  miles  south  of  the  mouth  of  Rogue  River.  Next  in 
order  are  the  Cheattee  or  Chitco  band,  whose  villages  were  situated  on  each 
side  of  the  mouth,  and  about  six  miles  up  a  small  river  bearing  their  name 
.The  lands  of  these  people  extend  from  Whale's  Head  to  the  California 
line,  and  back  from  the  coast  indefinitely. .  .The  Mackanotin  village  is  about 
seven  miles  above  that  of  the  Tototins,  and  is  on  the  same  side  of  the  river. 
They  claim  about  twelve  miles  of  stream.  The  Shistakoostees  succeed  them 
(the  Mackanotins) .  Their  village  is  on  the  north  bank  of  Rogue  river,  nearly 
opposite  the  confluence  of  the  Illinois.  These  are  the  most  easterly  band 
within  my  district  in  the  South.'  Parrish,  in  Ind.  A/.  Kept.,  1854,  pp.  288-9. 
'  Dr.  Hubbard,  in  his  notes  (1856)  on  the  Indians  of  Rogue  River  and  South 
Oregon,  on  the  ocean,  before  alluded  to,  gives  the  following  list  of  names  of 
Rancherias  and  clans  of  the  Lototen  or  Tutatamys  tribe.  Masonah  Band, 
location,  Coquille  river;  Chockrelatan  Band,  location,  Coquille  forks;  Qua- 
tomah  Band,  location,  Flore's  creek;  Laguaacha  Band,  location,  Elk  river; 
Cosulhenten  Band,  location,  Port  Orford;  Yuquache  Band,  location,  Yugua 
creek;  Chetlessenten  Band,  location,  Pistol  river;  Yah  Shutes  Band,  loca 
tion,  Rogue  river;  Wishtanatan  Band,  location,  Whale's  head;  Cheahtoc 
Band,  location,  Chetko;  Tototen  Band,  location,  six  miles  above  the  mouth 
of  Rogue  river;.  Sisticoosta  Band,  location,  above  Big  Bend,  of  Rogue  river; 
Maquelnoteer  Band,  location,  fourteen  miles  above  the  mouth  of  Rogue 
river.'  Cat.  Farmer,  June  18,  1860.  The  Tutotens  were  a  large  tribe,  num 
bering  thirteen  clans,  inhabiting  the  southern  coast  of  Oregon.  Golden  Era, 
March,  1856.  '  Toutounis  ou  Coquins,  sur  la  riviere  de  ce  nom  et  dans  1'in- 
terieur  des  terres.'  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  335.  'On  the  lower  part  of 
the  Clamet  River  are  the  Totutune,  known  by  the  unfavorable  soubriquet  of 
the  Rogue,  or  Rascal  Indians.'  Hale's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p. 
221.  The  bands  of  the  Tootooton  tribe  '  are  scattered  over  a  great  extent  of 
country — along  the  coast  and  on  the  streams  from  the  California  line  to 
twenty  miles  north  of  the  Coquille,  and  from  the  ocean  to  the  summit  of  the 
coast  range  of  mountains.'  Palmer,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1854,  p.  259.  Taylor 
places  the  Tutunahs  in  the  northwest  corner  of  Del  Norte  County.  MS.  Map. 

The  Hunas  live  in  California  a  little  south  of  Rogue  River,  on  the  way 
north  from  Crescent  City.  P/e'iffer's  Second  Journ.,  p.  314. 

Modoc,  by  some  Moddoc,  is  a  word  which  originated  with  the  Shasteecas, 
who  applied  it  indefinitely  to  all  wild  Indians  or  enemies.  '  Their  proper 
habitat  is  on  the  southern  shore  of  Lower  Klamath  Lake,  on  Hot  Creek, 
around  Clear  Lake,  and  along  Lost  River  in  Oregon.5  Powers,  in  Overland 
Monthly,  vol.  x.,  p.  535.  They  own  the  Klamath  River  from  the  lake  'to 
where  it  breaks  through  the  Siskiyou  range  to  the  westward.'  Id.,  vol.  xi., 
p.  21.  In  the  northern  part  of  Siskiyou  County.  MS.  Map.  'The  Modocs 
of  the  Klamath  Lake  were  also  called  Moahtockna.'  Cal.  Farmer,  June  22, 
1860.  East  of  the  Klamaths,  whose  eastern  boundary  is  twenty-five  or  thirty 
miles  east  of  the  Cascade  Range,  along  the  southern  boundaiy  of  Oregon, 
'  and  extending  some  distance  into  California,  is  a  tribe  known  as  the  Mo- 
docks.  East  of  these  again,  but  extending  further  south,  are  the  Moetwas.' 
1  The  country  round  Ancoose  and  Modoc  lakes,  is  claimed  and  occupied  by 


444  TEIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

the  Modoc  Indians.'  Palmer,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1854,  pp.  262-3.  'The  Mo- 
docs  (or  Moadoc,  as  the  word  is  pronounced)  known  in  their  language  as 
the  Okkowish,  inhabit  the  Goose  lake  country,  and  are  mostly  within  the 

State  of  California The  word  Modoc  is  a  Shasta  Indian  word,  and  means 

all  distant,  stranger,  or  hostile  Indians,  and  became  applied  to  these  Indians 
by  white  men  in  early  days  from  hearing  the  Shastas  speak  of  them.'  See 
Steele,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1864,  p.  121. 

The  Oukskenalis,  in  the  north-western  part  of  Siskiyou  County.  MS.  Map. 

The  KlamatJis  or  Lutuami — '  Lutuami,  or  Tlamatl,  or  Clamet  Indians. 
The  first  of  these  names  is  the  proper  designation  of  the  people  in  their 
own  language.  The  second  is  that  by  which  they  are  known  to  the  Chi- 
nooks,  and  through  them  to  the  whites.  They  live  011  the  head  waters 
of  the  river  and  about  the  lake,  which  have  both  received  from  foreigners 
the  name  of  Clamet.'  Hale's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  218. 
That  portion  of  the  eastern  base  of  the  Cascade  Range,  south  of  the  forty- 
fourth  parallel,  '  extending  twenty-five  or  thirty  miles  east,  and  south  to 
the  California  line,  is  the  country  of  the  Klamath  Indians.'  Palmer,  in  Ind. 
Aff.  Kept.,  1854,  p.  262.  The  Tlameths  'inhabit  the  country  along  the  east 
ern  base  of  the  Cascade  and  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  and  south  to  the 
Great  Klameth  Lake.'  Thompson,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1854,  p.  283.  The 
Clamets  inhabit  'Roquas  River,  near  the  south  boundary'  (of  Oregon). 
Warre  and  Vavaseur,  in  Martin's  Hudson's  Bay,  p.  81.  'Lutuami,  Clamets; 
also  Tlamatl — Indians  of  southwestern  Oregon,  near  the  Clamet  Lake.' 
Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  100.  'Klamacs,  sur  la  riviere  de  ce  noni  et  dans 
1'interieur  des  terres.'  De  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  335.  Clamet:  on  the 
upper  part  of  the  river,  and  sixty  miles  below  the  lake  so  named.  Framboise, 
in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  255.  '  Next  east  of  the  Shastas  are  the 
Klamath  Lake  Indians,  known  in  their  language  as  the  Okshee,  who  inhabit 
the  country  about  the  Klamath  lakes,  and  east  about  half  way  to  the  Goose 
Lake,  to  Wright  Lake,  and  south  to  a  line  running  about  due  east  from 
Shasta  Butte.'  Steele,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1864,  pp.  120-1.  'The  name  of 
Klamath  or  Tlamath,  belonging  to  the  tribes  on  the  lake  where  the  river 

rises,  is  not  known  among  those  farther  down Thus,  at  the  forks,  the 

Weitspeks  call  the  river  below  Pohlik,  signifying  down;  and  that  above 
Pehtsik,  or  up;  giving,  moreover,  the  same  name  to  the  population  in 
speaking  of  them  collectively.  Three  distinct  tribes,  speaking  different 
languages,  occupy  its  banks  between  the  sea  and  the  mouth  of  the  Shaste, 
of  which  the  lowest  extends  up  to  Bluff  Creek,  a  few  miles  above  the  forks. 
Of  these  there  are,  according  to  our  information,  in  all,  thirty-two  villages 

The  names  of  the  principal  villages. . .  are  the  Weitspek  (at  the  forks), 

Wahsherr,  Kaipetl,  Moraiuh,  Nohtscho,  Mehteh,  Schvegon,  Yauterrh,  Pec- 
quan,  Kauweh,  Wauhtecq,  Scheperrh,  Oiyotl,  Naiagutl,  Schaitl,  Hopaiuh, 
Rekqua,  and  Weht'lqua,  the  two  last  at  the  mouth  of  the  river.'  Gibbs,  in 
Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  138. 

The  Eurocs  inhabit  '  the  lower  Klamath  from  Weitspeck  down,  and  along 
the  coast  for  about  twenty  miles.'  Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  viii.,  p. 
530.  The  Eurocs  '  inhabit  the  banks  of  the  Klamatb  from  the  junction  of 


THE  TKINITY  RIVER  TRIBES.  445 

the  Trinity  to  the  mouth,  and  the  sea-coast  from  Gold  Bluff  up  to  a  point 
about  six  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Klamath.'  Powers'  Porno,  MS. 

The  Cahrocs  live  between  the  Eurocs  and  the  foot  of  the  Klamath  Mount 
ains,  also  a  short  distance  up  Salmon  River.  '  On  the  Klamath  River  there 
live  three  distinct  tribes,  called  the  Eurocs,  Cahrocs,  and  Modocs;  which 
names  mean  respectively,  ''down  the  river,"  "up  the  river,"  and  "head 
of  the  river."  '  Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  viii.,  p.  328.  Speaking  of 
Indians  at  the  junction  of  Salmon  and  Klamath  Rivers,  Mr.  Gibbs  says: 
'  they  do  not  seem  to  have  any  generic  appellation  for  themselves,  but  apply 
the  terms  "Kahruk,"  up,  and  "Youruk, "  down,  to  all  who  live  above  or 
below  themselves,  without  discrimination,  in  the  same  manner  that  the 
others  (at  the  junction  of  the  Trinity)  do  ;'  Pehtsik,"  and  "  Pohlik."  School- 
craft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  151. 

The  Tolewahs  are  the  first  tribe  on  the  coast  north  of  Klamath  River. 
Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  139.  The  Tahlewahs  are  a  'tribe 
on  the  Klamath  River.'  Lydewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  179.  '  In  the  vicinity  of  Cres 
cent  City  and  Smith's  River  there  are  the. . .  .Lopas,  Talawas,  and  Lagoons.' 
Heintzelman,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1857,  pp.  391-2.  'In  Del  Norte  County 
. . .  .the  Haynaggis  live  along  Smith  River,  the  Tolowas  on  the  Lagoon,  and 
the  Tahatens  around  Crescent  City.'  Powers*  Porno,  MS.  The  Cops,  Hanags, 
Yantuckets,  and  Tolawas,  are  '  Indian  tribes  living  near  the  Oregon  and  Cal 
ifornia  coast  frontiers.'  Crescent  City  Herald,  Aug.  1857.  The  Tolowas  at  the 
meeting  point  of  Trinity,  Humboldt,  and  Klamath  counties.  MS.  Map. 

The  Terwars,  north-west  of  the  Tolowas.  MS.  Map. 

The  Weitspeks  are  the  '  principal  band  on  the  Klamath,  at  the  junction  of 
the  Trinity.'  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  422;  Ludeicig's  Ab. 
Lang.,  p.  200. 

The  Oppegachs  are  a  tribe  at  Red-Cap's  Bar,  on  the  Klamath  River.  Gibbs, 
in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  148. 

The  Hoopahs  live  '  am  unteren  Rio  de  la  Trinidad,  oder  Trinity  River. ' 
Buschmann,  Das  Apache  als  eine  Athhapask.  Spr.,  p.  218.  '  Indian  tribe  on  the 
lower  part  of  the  Trinity  River.'  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  82.  The  Hoopas 
live  'in  Hoopa  Valley,  on  the  lower  Trinity  River.'  Power's  Porno,  MS.,  p. 
85.  '  The  lower  Trinity  tribe  is,  as  well  as  the  river  itself,  known  to  the 
Klamaths  by  the  name  of  Hoopah.'  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p. 
139;  see  also  p.  422.  In  the  northern  part  of  Klamath  County.  MS.  Map. 

1  Upon  the  Trinity,  or  Hoopah,  below  the  entrance  of  the  south  fork  or 
Otahweiaket,  there  are  said  to  be  eleven  ranches,  the  Okenoke,  Agaraits, 

Uplegoh,  Olleppauh'lkahtehtl  and  Pephtsoh; and  the  Haslintah,  Ahel- 

tah,  Sokeakeit,  Tashhuanta,  and  Witspuk  above  it;  A  twelfth,  the  Meyem- 
ma,  now  burnt,  was  situated  just  above  "New"  or  "Arkansas"  River. 
Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  139. 

The  Copahs,  in  the  extreme  north  of  Klamath  county,  north  of  the 
Hoopahs.  MS.  Map.  The  Cops  are  mentioned  as  '  living  near  the  Oregon 
and  California  coast  frontiers,'  in  the  Cresent  City  Herald,  Aug.,  1857. 

The  EaUtas  live  on  the  south  fork  of  Trinity  River.  Powers'  Porno,  MS. 

The  Pataways  occupy  the  banks  of  the  Trinity,  from  the  vicinity  of  Big 
Bar  to  South  Fork.'  Powers'  Porno,  MS. 


446  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

The  Chimalquays  lived  on  New  Kiver,  a  tributary  of  the  Trinity.  Powers' 
Porno,  MS. 

The  Siahs  *  occupied  the  tongue  of  land  jutting  down  between  Eel  River, 
and  Van  Dusen's  Fork.'  Powers'  Porno,  MS.  The  Sians  or  Siahs  lived  on 
the  headwaters  of  Smith  River.  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  139. 

The  Ehneks,  Eenahs,  or  Eenaghs,  lived  above  the  Tolewas  on  Smith 
River.  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  139.'  Ehnek  was  the  name  of 
a  band  at  the  niouth  of  the  Salmon  or  Quoratem  River.'  Id.,  p.  422;  Lude- 
wi(fs  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  67. 

Wishosk  'is  the  name  given  to  the  Bay  (Humboldt)  and  Mad  River  Indi 
ans  by  those  of  Eel  River.'  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  422; 
Ludewg's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  201. 

The  Weeyots  are  '  a  band  on  the  niouth  of  Eel  River  and  near  Humboldt 
Bay.'  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  200.  The  Humboldt  Bay  Indians  call  them 
selves  Wishosk;  and  those  of  the  hills  Teokawilk;  'but  the  tribes  to  the 
northward  denominate  both  those  of  the  Bay  and  Eel  River,  Weyot,  or  Walla- 
walloo.'  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  133. 

'  The  Patawats  live  on  the  lower  waters  of  Mad  River,  and  around  Hum 
boldt  Bay,  as  far  south  as  Arcata,  perhaps  originally  as  far  down  as  Eureka.' 
Powers'  Porno,  MS. 

Ossegon  is  the  name  given  to  the  Indians  of  Gold  Bluff,  between  Trinidad 
and  the  Klamath.  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  133. 

'  The  Lassies  formerly  dwelt  in  Mad  River  Valley,  from  the  head  waters 
down  to  Low  Gap,  or  thereabout,  where  they  borrowed  on  the  Wheelcuttas. ' 
Powers'  Porno,  MS. 

Chori  was  the  name  given  to  the  Indians  of  Trinidad  by  the  Weeyots. 
Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  133. 

The  Chillulahs  l  occupied  the  banks  of  Redwood  Creek,  from  the  coast 
up  about  twenty  miles.'  Powers'  Porno,  MS.  The  Oruk,  Tchololah,  or  Bald 
Hill  Indians,  lived  on  Redwood  Creek.  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii., 
p.  139. 

The  Watties  occupy  the  sandy  country  north  of  Humboldt  Bay.  Overland 
Monthly,  vol.  ii.,  p.  536. 

'  The  Wheelcuttas  had  their  place  on  the  Upper  Redwood  Creek,  from  the 
land  of  the  Chillulahs  up  to  the  mountains.  They  ranged  across  southward 
by  the  foot  of  the  Bald  Hills,  which  appear  to  have  marked  the  boundary 
between  them  and  the  Chillulahs  in  that  direction;  and  penetrated  to  Van 
Dusen's  Fork,  anent  the  Siahs  and  Lassies,  with  whom  they  occasionally 
came  in  bloody  collision.'  Powers'  Porno,  MS. 

The  Veeards  'live  around  lower  Humboldt  Bay,  and  up  Eel  River  to 
Eagle  Prairie.'  Powers'  Porno,  MS. 

The  Shastas  live  to  the  south-west  of  the  Lutuamis  or  Klamaths.  Hale's 
Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  218.  «  Saste's,  dans  1'interieur  au  Nord 
dela  Californie.'  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  335.  'The  Shasta  Indians, 
known  in  their  language  as  Weohow — it  meaning  stone  house,  from  the  large 
cave  in  their  country — occupy  the  land  east  of  Shasta  river,  and  south  of  the 
Siskiyou  mountains,  and  west  of  the  lower  Klamath  lake.'  Steele,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
Rept.,  1864,  p.  120.  The  Shastas  occupy  the  centre  of  the  county  of  that 


THE  CENTRAL  CALIFORNIANS.  447 

name.  3/5.  Map.  '  Indians  of  south-western  Oregon,  on  the  northern  fron 
tiers  of  Upper  California.'  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  168.  Watsahewah  is  the 
name  '  of  one  of  the  Scott  River  bands  of  the  Shasta  family.'  Gibbs,  in  School- 
craft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  422.  The  name  is  spelled  variously  as  Shasty, 
Shaste,  Saste,  &c. 

The  Palcdks  live  to  the  southeast  of  the  Lutuamis  or  Klamaths.  Hole's 
Ethnog.,  in  U.  8.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  218.  '  Indians  of  south-western  Oregon, 
on  the  northern  frontiers  of  Upper  California.'  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  145. 

On  the  Klarnath  are  the  Odeeilahs;  in  Shasta  Valley  the  Ikarucks,  Kose- 
tahs,  and  Idakariukes;  and  in  Scott's  Valley  the  Watsahewas  and  Eehs. 
Gibbs,  in  SchoolcrafVs  Arch,.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  171. 

'  The  Hamburg  Indians,  known  in  their  language  as  the  Tka,  inhabit  im 
mediately  at  the  mouth  of  Scott's  river,  known  in  their  language  as  the  Otte- 
tiewa  river.'  Steele,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rtpt.,  1864,  p.  120. 

'  The  ScoWs  Valley  Indians,  known  in  their  language  as  the  Iddoa,  inhabit 
Scott's  Valley  above  the  canon.'  Ib. 

The  Yreka  (a  misnomer  for  Yeka — Shasta  Butte)  Indians,  known  in  their 
language  as  the  Hoteday,  inhabit  that  part  of  the  country  lying  south  of 
Klarnath  river,  and  west  of  Shasta  river.'  16. 

The  Yuka  or  Uka  tribe  '  inhabited  the  Shasta  Mountains  in  the  vicinity 
of  McCloud's  fork  of  Pitt  River.'  Gal.  Farmer,  June  22,  1860.  The  Ukas  are 
directly  south  of  the  Modocs.  3/5.  Map.  '  The  Yukeh,  or  as  the  name  is 
variously  spelt,  Yuka,  Yuques,  and  Uca,  are  the  original  inhabitants  of  tb.3 
Nome-Cult,  or  Round  Valley,  in  Tehania  County. . .  .and  are  not  to  be  con 
founded  with  the  Yukai  Indians  of  Russian  River.'  Gibbs,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol. 
vii.,  p.  123. 

'The  Noser  or  Noza  Indians ....  live  in  the  vicinity  of  Lassen's  Butte.' 
Siskiyou  Chronicle,  May,  1859. 

The  Ylakas  are  to  the  southeast  of  the  Ukas.  3/5.  Map. 

The  CENTRAL  CALIFORNIANS  occupy  the  whole  of  that  portion  of  Cali 
fornia  extending  north  and  south,  from  about  40'J  30'  to  35°,  and  east  and 
west,  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  the  Californian  boundary.  They  are  tribally 
divided  as  follows : 

*  The  Mattoles  have  their  habitat  on  the  creek  which  bears  their  name, 
and  on  the  still  smaller  stream  dignified  with  the  appellation  of  Bear  River. 
From  the  coast  they  range  across  to  Eel  River,  and  by  immemorial  Indian 
usage  and  prescriptive  right,  they  hold  the  western  bank  of  this  river  from 
about  Eagle  Prairie,  where  they  border  upon  the  Veeards,  up  southward  to 
the  mouth  of  South  Fork.'  Powers'  Porno,  MS. 

The  Betumkes  live  on  the  South  Fork  of  Eel  River.  Gibbs,  in  SchoolcrafVs 
Arch.,  vol.  iii,,  p.  634.  In  the  northern  part  of  Mendocino  County.  3/5.  Map. 

The  Chowesliaks  live  on  the  head  of  Eel  river.  Gibbs,  in  SchoolcrafVs  Arch., 
vol.  iii.,  p.  421.  Tribes  living  on  the  Middle  Fork  of  Eel  River,  in  the  valley 
caUed  by  the  Indians  Betumki  were  the  Naboh  Choweshak,  Chawteuh  Ba- 
kowa,  and  Samunda.  Id.,  p.  116.  The  Choweshaks  lived  on  the  head  of  Eel 
River.  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  48. 

'The  Loloncooks  live  on  Bull  Creek  and  the  lower  South  Fork  of  Eel 


448  TEIBAL  BOUNDABIES. 

Biver,  owning  the  territory  between  those  streams  and  the  Pacific.'  Powers' 
Porno,  MS. 

The  Batemdakaiees  live  in  the  valley  of  that  name  on  the  head  of  Eel 
Biver.  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  17. 

The  Pomos  consist  of  '  a  great  number  of  tribes  or  little  bands,  sometimes 
one  in  a  valley,  sometimes  three  or  four,  clustered  in  the  region  where  the 
headwaters  of  Eel  and  Bussian  rivers  interlace,  along  the  estuaries  of  the 
coast  and  around  Clear  Lake.  Beally,  the  Indians  all  along  Bussian  river  to 
its  mouth  are  branches  of  this  great  family,  but  below  Calpello  they  no  longer 
call  themselves  Pomos. . .  .The  broadest  and  most  obvious  division  of  this 
large  family  is,  into  Eel  river  Pomos  and  Bussian  river  Pomos.'  Powers,  in 
Overland  Monthly,  vol.  ix.,  pp.  498-9. 

The  Castel  Pomos  '  live  between  the  forks  of  the  river  extending  as  far 
south  as  Big  Chamise  and  Blue  Bock.'  Id.,  p.  499. 

The  Ki-Pomos  '  dwell  on  the  extreme  headwaters  of  South  Fork,  ranging 
eastward  to  Eel  Biver,  westward  to  the  ocean  and  northward  to  the  Castel 
Pomos.'  Ib.,  MS.  Map. 

1  The  Cahto  Pomos  (Lake  people)  were  so  called  from  a  little  lake  which 
formerly  existed  in  the  valley  now  called  by  their  name.'  Powers,  in  Overland 
Monthly,  vol.  ix.,  p.  500. 

The  Choam  Chadela  Pomos  (Pitch  Pine  People)  live  inBedwood  Valley. 
Id.,  p.  504. 

The  Matomey  Ki  Pomos  (Wooded  Valley  People)  live  about  Little 
Lake.  Ib. 

The  Camalel  Pomos  (Coast  People)  or  Usals  live  on  Usal  Creek.  Ib. 

The  Shebalne  Pomos  (Neighbor  People)  live  in  Sherwood  Valley.  Ib. 

The  Pome  Pomos  (Earth  People)  live  in  Potter  Valley.  Besides  the 
Pome  Pomos  there  are  two  or  three  other  little  rancherias  in  Potter  Valley, 
each  with  a  different  name ;  and  the  whole  body  of  them  are  called  Ballo  Ki 
Pomos  (Oat  Valley  People).  Id. 

The  Camalel  Pomos,  Yonsal  Pomos,  and  Bayma  Pomos  live  on  Ten  Mile, 
and  the  country  just  north  of  it,  in  Mendocino  County.  Tobin,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
Kept.,  1857,  p.  405. 

'  The  Salan  Pomas  are  a  tribe  of  Indians  inhabiting  a  valley  called  Pot 
ter's  Valley.'  Ford,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1856,  p.  257. 

The  Niahbella  Pomos  live  in  the  north-west  of  Mendocino  County.  MS. 
Map. 

The  Ukiahs  live  on  Bussian  Biver  in  the  vicinity  of  Parker's  Banch. 
Gibbs,  in  Schooler  aft' s  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  112,  421.  '  The  Yuka  tribe  are  those 
mostly  within  and  immediately  adjoining  the  mountains.'  Mendocino  Herald, 
March,  1871.  The  Yukai  live  on  Bussian  Biver.  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  205. 
The  Ukias  are  in  the  south-eastern  part  of  Mendocino  County.  MS.  Map. 

The  Soteomellos  or  Sotomieyos  '  lived  in  Bussian  Biver  valley.'  Cal.  Farmer, 
March  30,  1860. 

The  Shumeias  '  lived  on  the  extreme  upper  waters  of  Eel  Biver,  opposite 
Potter  Valley.'  Powers'  Porno,  MS. 

The  Tahtoos  'live  in  the  extreme  upper  end  of  Potter  Valley.'  16. 

The  Yeeaths  live  at  Cape  Mendocino.   Tobin,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1857,  p.  406. 


KUSSIAN  RIVER  AND  COAST  TKIBES.  449 

The  Kushkish  Indians  live  at  Shelter  Cove.  Id.,  p.  405. 

The  Comachos  live  in  Russian  River  Valley,  in  Rancheria  and  Anderson 
Valleys.  Powers'  Porno,  MS. 

The  Kajatschims,  Makomas,  and  Japiams  live  in  the  Russian  River  Valley, 
north  of  Fort  Ross.  Baer,  Stat.  und  Ethno.,  p.  80. 

The  Gallinomeros  occupy  Dry  Creek  Valley  and  Russian  River  Valley  be 
low  Healdsburg.  Powers'  Porno,  MS. 

The  Masalla  Magoons  'live  along  Russian  river  south  of  Cloverdale.'  Id. 

The  Eincons  live  south  of  the  Masalla  Magoons.  Id. 

The  Gualalas  live  on  Gualala  or  Wallalla  Creek.  Id. 

The  Nahlohs,  Carlotsapos,  Chowechaks,  Chedochogs,  Choiteeu,  Misalahs, 
Bacowas,  Samindas,  and  Cachenahs,  Tuwanahs,  lived  in  the  country  between 
Fort  Ross  and  San  Francisco  Bay.  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  634. 

Chwachamaju  (Russian  Severnovskia)  or  Northerners,  is  the  name  of  one 
of  the  tribes  in  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Ross.  Kostromitonow,  in  Baer,  Stat.  und 
Ethno.,  p.  80.  '  Severnovskia,  Severnozer,  or  "Northerners."  Indians  north 
of  Bodega  Bay.  They  call  themselves  Chwachamaja.'  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang., 
p.  170. 

The  Olamentkes  live  at  Bodega.  Kostromitonow,  in  Baer,  Stat.  und  Ethnog., 
p.  80;  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  20. 

The  Kainamares  or  Kainameahs  are  at  Fitch's  Ranch,  extending  as  far 
back  as  Santa  Rosa,  down  Russian  River,  about  three  leagues  to  Cooper's 
Ranch,  and  thence  across  the  coast  at  Fort  Ross,  and  for  twenty-five  miles 
above.  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  102.  'The  Kanimares  had 
rancherias  at  Santa  Rosa,  Petaluma,  or  Pataloma,  and  up  to  Russian  river.' 
Cal.  Farmer,  March  30, 1860.  '  The  proper  name  of  Russian  river  in  Sonoma 
valley  is  Canimairo  after  the  celebrated  Indians  of  those  parts.'  Id.,  June  8,.. 
1860.  The  Indians  of  the  plains  in  vicinity  of  Fort  Ross,  call  themselves 
Kainama.  Kostromitonow,  in  Baer,  Stat.  und  Ethno.,  p.  80.  The  Kyanama- 
ras  '  inhabit  the  section  of  country  between  the  canon  of  Russian  river  and 
its  mouth.'  Ford,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1856,  p.  257. 

The  Tumalehnias  live  on  Bodega  Bay.  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol. 
iii.,  p.  102. 

The  Socoas,  Lamas,  and  Seacos,  live  in  Russian  River  Valley  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  village  of  Sanel.  Powers'  Porno,  MS. 

The  Sonomas,  Sonomis,  or  Sonomellos,  lived  at  the  embarcadero  of  So 
noma.  Cal.  Farmer,  March  30,  1860.  The  Sonomas  lived  in  the  south-eastern 
extremity  of  what  is  now  the  county  of  Sonoma.  MS  Map. 

The  Tchokoyems  lived  in  Sonoma  valley.  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch., 
vol.  iii.,  p.  421.     The  Chocuyens  lived  in  the  region  now  called  Sonoma 
county,  and  from  their  chief  the  county  takes  its  name.  Cronise's  Nat.  Wealth, 
p.  22.    The  word  Sonoma  means  'Valley  of  the  Moon.'  Tuthill's  Hist.  Cal.,.  £- 
p.  301.     The  Tchokoyems  live  in  Sonoma  Valley.  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  184. 

'The  Timbalakees  lived  on  the  west  side  of  Sonoma  valley.'  Cal.  Farmer, 
March  30,  1860. 

The  Guillicas  lived  'northwest  of  Sonoma,'  on  the  old  Wilson  ranch  of 
1846,  Ib.;  MS.  Map. 
VOL.  I.   29 


450  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

The  Kinklas  live  in  39°  14'  north  lat.  and  122°  12'  long.  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in 
U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  v.,  p.  201.  The  Klinkas  are  a  'tribu  fixee  an  nord  du 
Rio  del  Sacramento.'  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  358.  South  of  the  Rogue 
River  Indians  '  the  population  is  very  scanty  lintil  we  arrive  at  the  valley  of 
the  Sacramento,  all  the  tribes  of  which  are  included  by  the  traders  under 
the  general  name  of  Kinkla,  which  is  probably,  like  Tlamatl,  a  term  of  Chi 
nook  origin.'  Hole's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  221. 

The  Talatui  live  '  on  the  Kassima  River,  a  tributary  to  the  Sacramento, 
on  the  eastern  side,  about  eighty  miles  from  its  mouth.'  Hale's  Ethnog.,  in 
17.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  631.  Ludevcig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  180. 

The  Oleepas  live  on  Feather  River,  twenty  miles  above  Marysville.  Delano's 
Life  on  the  Plains,  p.  293. 

'The  Nemshous,  as  stated  by  General  Sutter,  roamed  (prior  to  1846)  be 
tween  the  Bear  and  American  rivers;  across  the  Sacramento  were  the  Yolos 
and  Colusas;  north  of  the  American  Fork  were  the  Bashones.  On  the  banks 
of  the  river  north  of  Fort  Helvetia,  roamed  the  Veshanacks,  the  Touserlem- 
nies  and  Youcoolumriies;  between  the  American  (plain  and  hills)  and  the 
Mokalumne  roamed  the  Walacumnies,  Cosumnies,  Solumnees,  Mokelumnees, 
;Suraminis,  Yosumnis,  Lacomnis,  Kis  Kies  and  Omochumnies.'  Col.  Farmer, 
June  8, 1860.  The  Colusas  live  in  the  north-eastern  corner  of  Colusa  County. 
The  Yolos,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  county  of  that  name.  West  of  them 
the  Olashes.  The  Bushones  in  the  south  of  Yolo  County.  The  Nemshoos 
in  the  eastern  part  of  Placer  County.  The  Yukutneys  north  of  them.  The 
Vesnacks  south-west  of  the  Nemshoos,  and  north  of  the  Pulpenes.  The 
Youcoulumnes  and  Cosumnes  are  in  the  eastern  part  of  Amador  county. 
The  Mokelumnes  south  of  them.  The  Yachachumnes  west  of  the  Mokelum- 
nes.  MS.  Map.  '  Yolo  is  a  corruption  of  the  Indian  Yoloy,  which  signified 
;a  region  thick  with  rushes,  and  was  the  name  of  the  tribe  owning  the  tule 
lands  west  of  the  Sacramento  and  bordering  on  Cache  Creek.'  TuthUl's  Hist. 
•Cal.,  p.  301.  The  following  are  names  of  rancherias  of  tame  Indians  or 
^Neophytes  in  the  Sacramento  Valley;  Sakisimme,  Shonomnes,  Tawalemnes, 
Seywamenes,  Mukelemnes,  Cosumne.  Rancherias  of  wild  Indians  or  Gen- 
•tiles,  are:  Sagayacumne,  Socklumnes,  Olonutchamne,  Newatchumne,  Yu- 
magatock,  Shalachmushumne,  Omatchamne,  Yusumne,  Yuleyumne,  Tam- 
locklock,  Sapototot,  Yalesurnne,  Wapoomne,  Kishey,  Secumne,  Pushune, 
Oioksecumne,  Nemshan,  Palanshan,  Ustu,  Olash,  Yukulme,  Hock,  Sishu, 
Mimal,  Yulu,  Bubu,  Honcut.  Indian  Tribes  of  the  Sacramento  Valley,  MS. 
Tame  Indians  or  Neophites:  Lakisumne,  Shonomne,  Fawalomnes,  Mukeem- 
nes,  Cosumne.  "Wild  Indians  or  Gentiles:  Sagayacumne,  Locklomnee,  Olo 
nutchamne.  Yumagatock,  Shalachmushumne,  Omutchanme,  Yusumne,  Yale- 
^yumne,  Yamlocklock,  Lapototot,  Yalesumne,  Wajuomne,  Kisky,  Secumne, 
Pushune,  Oioksecumne,  Nemshaw,  Palanshawl  Ustu,  Olash,  Yukulme,  Hock, 
Lishu,  Mimal,  Ubu,  Bubu,  Honcut.  gutter's  Estimate  of  Indian  Population, 
1847,  MS.  The  Ochecamnes,  Servushamnes,  Chupumnes,  Omutchumnes, 
Sicumnes,  Walagumnes,  Cosumnes,  Sololumnes,  Turealemnes,  Saywamines, 
Nevichumnes,  Matchemnes,  Sagayayumnes,  Muthelemnes,  and  Lopstatim- 
nes,  lived  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Sacramento.  The  Bushumnes  (or  Pu- 
juni),  (or  Sekomne)  Yasumnes,  Nemshaw,  Kisky,  Yaesumnes,  Huk,  and 


CLEAR  LAKE  TRIBES.  451 

Yucal,  lived  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Sacramento.  Hole's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S. 
Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  pp.  630,  63J. 

The  Yubas  or  Yuvas  lived  on  Yuva  River,  a  tributary  to  the  Sacramento. 
Fremont's  Geog.  Memoir,  p.  22. 

The  Meidoos  and  Neeshenams  are  on  the  Yuba  and  Feather  Rivers.  '  As 
you  travel  south  from  Chico  the  Indians  call  themselves  Meidoo  until  you 
reach  Bear  River;  but  below  that  it  is  Neeshenam,  or  sometimes  mana  or 
maidec,  all  of  which  denote  men  or  Indians.'  Powers'  in  Overland  Monthly, 
vol.  xii.,  p.  21. 

The  Cushnas  live  near  the  south  fork  of  the  Yuba  River.  SchoolcrafVs 
Arch.,  vol.  ii.,  506;  Ludewig's  Ab.  lAing.,  p.  59.  Taylor  also  mentions  the 
Cushnas  south  of  the  Yuba.  Gal.  Farmer,  May,  31,  1861. 

The  Guenocks  and  Locollomillos  lived  between  Clear  Lake  and  Napa.  Col. 
Farmer,  March  30,  1860. 

The  Lopillamillos  or  Lupilomis  lived  on  the  borders  of  Clear  lake.  J6.; 
MS.  Map. 

The  Mayacmas  and  Tyugas  dwell  about  Clear  Lake.  San  Francisco  Herald, 
June,  1858.  The  Mayacmas  and  Tyugas  '  inhabited  the  vicinity  of  Clear 
lake  and  the  mountains  of  Napa  and  Mendocino  counties.'  Col.  Farmer,  June 
22,  1860;  MS.  Map. 

The  Wi-Lackees  '  live  along  the  western  slope  of  the  Shasta  mountains 
from  round  Valley  to  Hay  Fork,  between  those  mountains  on  one  side  and 
Eel  and  Mad  Rivers  on  the  other,  and  extending  down  the  latter  stream  about 
to  Low  Gap.'  Powers'  Porno,  MS.  The  Wye  Lakees,  Nome  Lackees,  Noi- 
mucks,  Noiyucans  and  Noisas,  lived  at  Clear  Lake.  Geiger,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept., 
1859,  p.  438. 

Napobatin,  meaning  'many  houses,'  was  the  collective  name  of  six 
tribes  living  at  Clear  Lake:  their  names  were  Hulanapo,  Habenapo  or  stone 
house,  Dahnohabe,  or  stone  mountain,  Moalkai,  Shekom,  and  Howkuma. 
Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  109. 

The  Shanelkayas  and  Bedahmareks,  or  lower  people,  live  on  the  east  fork 
of  Eel  River.  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  109. 

'  The  Sanels  live  at  Clear  lake.'  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcrafts  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  112. 
'  The  Sanels  occupy  Russian  River  Valley  in  the  vicinity  of  the  American  vil 
lage  of  Sanel.'  Powers'  Porno,  MS. 

The  Bochheafs,  Ubakheas,  Tabahteas,  and  the  Moiyas,  live  between  Clear 
Lake  and  the  coast.  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  112. 

The  Socoas,  Lamas,  and  Seacos,  occupy  Russian  River  Valley  in  the  vicin 
ity  of  the  village  of  Sanel.  Powers'  Porno,  MS. 

The  Napas  '  inhabited  the  Salvador  Vallejo  ranch  of  Entre-Napa — that  is 
the  place  between  Napa  river  and  Napa  creek.'  Hit-tell,  in  Hesperian  Mag.,  vol. 
iv.,  p.  56;  Cal.  Farmer,  June  7,  1861.  'The  Napa  Indians  lived  near  that 
town  and  near  Yount's  ranch.'  Cal.  Farmer,  March  30,  1860. 

1  The  Caymus  tribe  occupied  the  tract  now  owned  by  G.  C.  Yount.'  Hittell, 
in  Hesperian  Mag.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  55. 

'  The  Calajomanas  had  their  home  on  the  land  now  known  as  the  Bale 
ranche.'  Ib. 


452  TKIBAL  BOUNDAKIES. 

The  Mayacomas  dwelt  in  the  vicinity  of  the  hot  springs  in  the  upper  end 
of  Napa  Valley.  Ib. 

The  Ulucas  lived  on  the  east  of  the  river  Napa,  near  the  present  town- 
site.  Id.,  p.  56. 

'  The  Suscols  lived  on  the  ranch  of  that  name,  and  between  Napa  and  Be- 
nicia.'  Cal.  Farmer,  March  30,  1860.  'The  former  domain  of  the  Suscol 
Indians  was  afterwards  known  as  Suscol  ranch.'  Hittdl,  in  Hesperian  Mag., 
vol.  iv.,  p.  56;  MS.  Map. 

The  Tulkays  lived  'below  the  town  of  Napa.'  Cal.  Farmer,  March  30,  1860. 

The'Canaumanos  lived  on  Bayle's  ranch  in  Napa  valley.  Ib. 

The  Mutistuls  live  '  between  the  heads  of  Napa  and  Putos  creeks.'  Gibbs,  in 
Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  111. 

The  Yachimeses  originally  occupied  the  ground  upon  which  the  city  of 
Stockton  now  stands.  Cal.  Farmer,  -Dec%  7,  1860. 

The  Yachichumnes  'formerly  inhabited  the  country  between  Stockton 
and  Mt.  Diablo.'  San  Francisco  Evening  Bulletin,  Sept.  9,  1864. 

The  Suisunes  live  in  Suisun  valley.  Cal.  Farmer,  March  30,  1860.  Solaiio 
County  was  named  from  their  chief.  Cronise's  Nat.  Wealth,  p.  22;  TuthilV* 
Hist.  Cal.,  p.  301. 

The  Uttulatas  'lived  on  the  north  side  of  Suisun  Valley.'  Cal.  Farmer, 
March  30,  1860. 

The  Pulpenes  lived  on  the  eastern  side  of  Suisun  Valley.  Ib. 

The  Tolenos  lived  on  the  north  side  of  Suisun  Valley.  Ib. 

The  Karquines  lived  on  the  straits  of  that  name.  Ib. 

The  Tomales,  Tamales,  Tamallos,  or  Tamalanos,  and  Bollanos,  lived  be 
tween  Bodega  Bay  and  the  north  shore  of  San  Francisco  Bay.  Id.,  March  2, 
1860,  March  30,  1860. 

The  Socoisukas,  Thamiens,  and  Gerguensens  or  Gerzuensens  '  roamed  in 
the  Santa  Clara  valley,  between  the  Coyote  and  Guadalupe  rivers,  and 
the  country  west  of  San  Jose  city  to  the  mountains.'  Id.,  June  22,  1860. 

The  Lecatuit  tribe  occupied  Marin  county,  and  it  is  from  the  name  of 
their  chief  that  the  county  takes  its  name.  Cronise's  Nat.  Wealth,  p.  22. 

'  The  Petalumas  or  the  Yolhios  lived  near  or  around  that  town.'  Cal.  Farmer, 
March  30,  1860. 

The  Tulares,  so  called  by  the  Spaniards,  lived  between  the  northern  shore 
of  the  bay  of  San  Francisco  and  Sail  Rafael.  Gibbs,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch., 
vol.  iii.,  p.  421. 

The  Wapos  inhabited  '  the  country  about  the  Geysers.'  Ford,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
Kept.,  1856,  p.  257. 

The  Yosemites  inhabited  the  valley  of  the  same  name.  The  Tosemiteiz 
are  on  the  headwaters  of  the  Chowchilla.  Lewis,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1857,  p.  399. 

The  Ahwahnachees  are  the  inhabitants  of  Yosemite  Valley.  HitteWs  Yo- 
semite,  p.  42. 

The  following  names  of  rancherias  which  formerly  existed  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Mission  Dolores,  are  taken  from  the  Mission  Books :  Abmoctac,  Amu- 
taja,  Altanui,  Aleytac,  Anchin,  Aleta,  Aramay,  Altajumo,  Aluenchi,  Acnagis, 
Assunta,  Atarpe,  Ananias,  Acyum,  Anamon,  Cachanegtac,  Caprup,  Cazopo, 
Carascan,  Conop,  Chutchin,  Chagunte,  Chapugtac,  Chipisclin,  Chynau, 


TRIBES  NEAR  THE  MISSION  DOLORES.  453 

Chipletac,  Chuchictac,  Chiputca,  Chanigtac,  Churrnutce,  Chayen,  Chupcan, 
Elarroyde,  Flunmuda,  Genau,  Guloismistac,  Gamchines,  Guanlen,  Hunctu, 
Halchis,  Horocroc,  Huimen,  Itaes,  Juniamuc,  Josquigard,  Juchium,  Juris, 
Joquizara,  Luidneg,  Luianeglua,  Lamsim,  Livangelva,  Livangebra,  Liban- 
tone,  Macsinum,  Mitline,  Malvaitac,  Muingpe,  Naig,  Naique,  Napa,  Ompi- 
vromo,  Ousint,  Oturbe,  Olestura,  Otoacte,  Petlenum,  or  Petaluma,  Pruristac, 
Puichon,  Puycone,  Patnetac,  Pructaca,  Purutea,  Proqueu,  Quet,  Sitlintaj, 
Suchni,  Subchiam,  Siplichiquin,  Siscastac,  Ssiti,  Sitintajea,  Ssupichum, 
Sicca,  Soisehme,  Saturaumo,  Satumuo,  Sittintac,  Ssichitca,  Sagunte,  Ssalay- 
me,  Sunchaque,  Ssipudca,  Saraise,  Sipauum,  Sarontac,  Ssogereate,  Sadanes, 
Tuzsint,  Tatquinte,  Titmictac,  Tupuic,  Titiyu,  Timita,  Timsim,  Tubisnste, 
Timigtac,  Torose,  Tupuiute,  Tnca,  Tamalo,  or  Tomales,  Talcan,  Totola,  Ure- 
bure,  Uturpe,  Ussete,  TJchirini,  Vectaca,  Vagerpe,  Yelamii,  Yacmui,  Yaco- 
mui,  Yajumui,  Zomiomi,  Zucigin.  .  .'.Aguasajuchium,  Apuasto,  Aguasto,  Car- 
quin,  (Karquines),  Cuchian,  Chaclan,  Chiguau,  Cotejen,  Chuscan,  Guyl- 
punes,  Huchun,  Habasto,  Junatca,  Jarquin,  Sanchines,  Oljon,  Olpen,  Ole- 
mos,  Olmolococ,  Quemelentus,  Quirogles,  Salzon,  Sichican,  Saucon,  Suchi- 
gin,  Sadan,  Uquitinac,  Volvon  (or  Bolbon).  'The  tribes  of  Indians  upon 
the  Bay  of  San  Francisco,  and  who  were,  after  its  establishment,  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Mission  of  Dolores,  were  five  in  number;  the  Ahwashtees, 
Ohlones  (called  in  Spanish  Costanos,  or  Indians  of  the  Coast),  Altahmos, 
Romanons,  and  Tuolomos.  There  were,  in  addition  to  these,  a  few  small 
tribes,  but  all  upon  the  land  extending  from  the  entrance  to  the  head  of  San 
Francisco  Bay,  spoke  the  same  language.'  Taylor,  in  Cal.  Farmer,  May  31, 
1861.  The  tribes  mentioned  by  Adam  Johnston  in  Schoolcraft,  who  lived 
around  the  Missions  of  Dolores  and  Yerba  Buena,  were  the  '  Ahwashtes, 
Ohlones,  Altahmos,  Romanans,  and  Tulomos.  The  Ohlones  were  likely  the 
same  called  by  the  old  priests,  Sulones,  Solomnies,  the  Sonomis  were  an 
other.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  506.  'The  following  races  of  Califor- 
nians  were  named  to  us  living  within  the  precincts  of  the  Mission -of  San 
Francisco;  Guymen,  Utschim,  Olumpali,  Soclan,  Sonomi,  Chulpun,  Umpin, 
Kosmitas,  Bulbones,  Tchalabones,  Pitem,  Lamam,  Apalamu,  Tcholoones, 
Suysum,  Numpali,  Tamal,  andUlulato.'  Chamisso,  in  Kotzebue's  Voy.,  vol.  iii., 
p.  51.'  On  compte  dans  cette  seul  mission  (San  Francisco)  plus  de  quinze 
differentes  tribus  d'Indiens:  les  Khoulpouni;  les  Oumpini;  les  Kosmiti;  les 
Lamanes;  les  Bolbones;  les  Pitemens;  les  Khalalons;  les  Apatamnes,  ils  par- 
lent  la  meme  langue  et  habitent  le  long  des  bords  du  Rio  Sacramento;  les 
Guimen;  les  Outchioung;  les  Olompalis;  les  Tarnals;  les  Sonons  ils  parlent 
la  meme  langue;  ces  tribus  sont  les  plus  nombreuses  dans  la  mission  de  San 
Francisco;  les  Saklans;  les  Ouloulatines;  les  Noumpolis;  les  Souissouns;  ils 
parlent  des  langues  differentes.'  Choris,  Voy.,  pitt.,  pt.iii.,  pp.  5,  6.  'Cali 
fornia  Indians  on  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco,  and  formerly  under  the  super 
visions  of  the  Mission  Dolores.  There  were  five  tribes:  Ashwashtes,  Ol- 
hones  (called  by  the  Spaniards  Costanos,  or  Indians  of  the  coast),  Altahmos, 
Romonans,  and  Tulomos.  A  few  other  small  tribes  round  the  bay  speak  the 
same  language.'  Ludewig,  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  53.  '  Um  die  Bai  von  San  Francisco 
die  Matalanes,  Salses  und  Quiroles,  deren  Sprachen,  eine  gemeinsame  Quelle 
haben.'  Muhknpfordt,  Mejico,  vol.  ii.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  454.  The  Olchones  '  inhabit 


454:  TKIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

the  seacoast  between  San  Francisco  and  Monterey.'  Beechey's  Voy.,  vol.  ii., 
p.  78.  The  Salsonas,  'viven  unas  seis  leguas  distantes  rumbo  al  Sueste 
(of  San  Francisco  Bay)  por  las  cercanias  del  brazo  de  mar.'  Palou,  Vida  de 
Junipero  Serra,  p.  214. 

.The  Korekins  formerly  lived  at  the  mouth  of  the  San  Joaquin.  Kotzebue's 
New  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  141. 

'  The  rancherias  of  Indians  near  this  Mission,  all  within  eight  or  ten  miles 
of  Santa  Cruz, . . .  were:  Aulintac,  the  rancheria  proper  to  the  Mission;  Cha- 
lurnii,  one  mile  north-west  of  the  Mission;  Hottrochtac,  two  miles  north 
west;  .  ~  . .  Wallanmai ;  Sio  Cotchmin;  Shoremee;  Onbi;  Choromi;  Turami; 
Payanmin;  Shiuguermi;  Hauzaurni.  The  Mission  also  had  neophytes  of 
the  rancherias  of  Tomoy,  Osacalis  (Souquel),  Yeunaba,  Achilla,  Yeunata, 
Tejey,  Nohioalli,  Utalliam,  Locobo,  Yeunator,  Chanech,  Huocom,  Chicutae, 
Aestaca,  Sachuen,  Hualquilme,  Sagin,  Ochoyos,  Huachi,  Apil,  Mallin,  Lu- 
chasmi,  Coot,  and  Agtism,  as  detailed  in  a  letter  from  Friar  Ramon  Olbez 
to  Governor  de  Sola,  in  November,  1819,  in  reply  to  a  circular  from  him,  as 
to  the  native  names,  etc.,  of  the  Indians  of  Santa  Cruz,  and  their  rancherias. ' 
Col.  Farmer,  April  5,  1860. 

The  Mutsunes  are  the  natives  of  the  Mission  of  San  Juan  Baptista.  Cat. 
Farmer,  Nov.  23,  and  June  22,  1860;  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  i.,  p.  205. 

The  Ansaymas  lived  in  the  vicinity  of  San  Juan  Bautista.  Cal.  Farmer, 
June  22, 1860.  '  Four  leagues  (twelve  miles)  southeast  of  the  Mission  (Mon 
terey),  inside  the  hills  eastward,  was  the  rancheria  of  Echilat,  called  fean 
Francisquita.  Eslanagan  was  one  on  the  east  side  of  the  river  and  Ecgeagan 
was  another;  another  was  Ichenta  or  San  Jose;  another  Xaseum  in  the  Sierra, 
ten  leagues  from  Carmelo;  that  of  Pachhepes  was  in  the  vicinity  of  Xaseum, 
among  the  Escellens.  That  of  the  Sargentarukas  was  seven  leagues  south 
and  east  of  the  river  in  a  Canaditta  de  Palo  Colorado.'  Cal.  Farmer,  April  20, 
1860. 

The  Eunsienes  live  near  Monterey.  Cal.  Farmer,  April  20,  1860.  The 
Rumsen  or  Runsienes  are  '  Indians  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Monterey,  Cal 
ifornia.  The  Achastliers  speak  a  dialect  of  the  same  language.'  Ludewig's 
Ab.  Lang.,  p.  163.  'Urn  den  Hafen  von  Monterey  leben  die  Rumsen  oder 
Runsien,  die  Escelen  oder  Eslen,  die  Ecclemaches,  und  Achastlies.'  Muhlen- 
pfordt,  Mejico,  vol.  ii.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  454.  'La  partie  septentrionale  de  la  Nou- 

velle-Californie  est  habitee  par  les  deux  nations  des  Rumsen  et  Escelen 

Elles  forment  la  population  du  preside  et  du  village  de  Monterey.  Dans  la 
baie  de  S.  Francisco,  on  distingue  les  tribus  des  Matalans,  Salsen  et  Quirotes.' 
Hurriboldt,  Essai  Pol.,  p.  321.  'Eslen  y  Runsien  que  ocupan  toda  la  Cali 
fornia  septentrional.'  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Viage,  p.  167.  'Urn  Monterey  woh- 
nen  zwey  Volker. . .  .die  Rumsen,  und  im  Osten  von  diesen  die  Escelen.' 
Vater,  Mithridates,  p.  202.  '  The  Eslenes  clan  roamed  over  the  present  ran 
ches  San  Francisquito,  Tallarcittos,  and  up  and  down  the  Carmelo  Valley .' 
'  The  rancheria  per  se  of  the  Escellens  was  named  by  the  priests,  Santa  Clara; 
Soccorondo  was  across  the  river  a  few  miles.  Their  other  little  clans  or  septs 
were  called  Coyyo,  Yampas,  Fyules,  Nennequi,  Jappayon,  Gilimis,  and  Ya- 
nostas.'  Cal.  Farmer,  April  20,  1860.  The  Eskelens  are  '  California  Indians, 
east  of  Monterey.  The  Ekklemaches  are  said  to  be  a  tribe  of  the  Eskelen, 


KING'S  KIVEE  AND  TULAEE  LAKE  TKIBES.  455 

and  to  speak  the  richest  idiom  of  all  the  California  Indians.'  Ludewitfs  Ab. 
Lang.,  p.  68.  The  country  of  the  Ecclemachs  extends  more  than  twenty 
leagues  east  of  Monterey.  Cal.  Farmer,  Oct.  17,  1862. 

The  Katlendarucas  seem  '  to  have  been  situated  near  the  Esteros  or  La 
goons  about  the  mouth  of  the  Salinas  river,  or  in  the  words  of  the  old  priest, 
"  en  los  Esteros  de  la  entrada  al  mar  del  Bio  de  Monterey,  o  reversa  de  esta 
grande  Ensenada."  Their  rancherias  were  Capanay,  Lucayasta,  Paysim, 
Tiubta,  Culul,  Mustac,  Pytogius,  Animpayamo,  Ymunacam,  and  all  on  the 
Pajaro  river,  or  between  it  and  the  Salinas.'  Cal.  Farmer,  April  20,  1860; 
MS.  Map. 

The  Sakhones  had  rancherias  near  Monterey  '  on  the  ranchos  now  known 
as  Loucitta,  Tarro,  National  Buena  Esperanza,  Buena  Vista,  and  lands  of 
that  vicinity.'  lb.;  MS.  Map. 

'The  Wallalshimmez  live  on  Tuolumne  Biver.'  Lewis,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept., 
1857,  p.  399. 

'The  Potoancies  claim  the  Merced  river  as  their  homes.'  lb.  The  Pota- 
aches  occupy  the  same  region  on  the  MS.  Map. 

'The  Nootchoos. . .  live  on  the  headwaters  of  Chowchilla.'  Lewis,  in  Ind. 
Aff.  Kept.,  1857,  p.  399.  The  Nootchoos  live  on  the  south  fork  of  the  Merced. 
Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  x.,  p.  325. 

'The  Pohoneeches  live  on  the  headwaters  of  Fresno.  Lewis,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
Kept.,  1857,  p.  399.  The  Pohoneeches  live  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Fresno. 
Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  x.,  p.  325. 

The  Pitcatches,  the  Tallenches,  and  the  Coswas,  live  on  the  San  Joaquin. 
Lewis,  in  Ind  Aff.  Kept.,  1857,  p.  399. 

'  The  Wattokes,  a  nation  of  Indians,  consisting  of  the  Wattokes,  Ituchas, 
Chokemnies,  and  Wechummies,  live  high  up  on  King's  river.'  Lewis,  in  Ind. 
Aff.  Kept.,  1857,  p.  399. 

The  Watches,  the  Notonotoos,  and  the  Wemelches,  live  in  the  neighborhood 
of  King's  River  Farm.  lb. 

'  The  Talches  and  Woowells  live  on  Tulare  Lake.'  lb. 
The  Chowchillas,  Choocchancies,  and  Howachez,  are  mentioned  as  living  at 
Fresno  Biver  Farm.  Id.,  p.  399.     The  Chowchillas  inhabit  '  from  the  Kern 
Kiver  of  the  Tulare  deltas  to  the  Feather  river.'   Taylor,  in  Bancroft's  Hand 
Book  Almanac,  1864,  p.  32. 

The  Wattas  live  in  Tuolumne  county.  Patrick,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1856, 
p.  240.  There  has  been  much  discussion  about  the  word  Wallie,  or  Walla. 
Powers  asserts  that  it  is  derived  from  the  word  '  wallim, '  whieh  means  '  down 
below, '  and  was  applied  by  the  Yosemite  Indians  to  all  tribes  living  below 
them.  The  Wallies  live  on  the  Stanislaus  and  Tuolumne.  Powers,  in  Over 
land  Monthly,  vol.  x.,  p.  325. 

The  Mewahs  live  in  Tuolumne  county.  Jewett,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1856, 
p.  244. 

The  Meewoc  nation  '  extended  from  the  snow-line  of  the  Sierra  to  the  San 
Joaquin  Biver,  and  from  the  Cosumnes  to  the  Fresno ....  North  of  the  Stan 
islaus  they  call  themselves  Meewoc  ("Indians);  south  of  it,  to  the  Merced, 
Meewa;  south  of  that  to  the  Fresno,  Meewie.  On  the  upper  Merced  river 
is  Wakalla;  on  the  upper  Tuolumne,  Wakalumy;  on  the  Stanislaus  and 


456  TKIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

Mokelumne,  Wakaiurnytoh ...  As  to  tribal  distribution,  the  Meewocs  north, 
of  the  Stanislaus,  like  the  Neeshenams,  designate  principally  by  the  points 
of  the  compass.  These  are  toomun,  choomuch,  hayzooit,  and  dlowit  (north 
south,  east,  and  west),  from  which  are  formed  various  tribal  names -as 
Toomuns,  Toomedocs,  and  Tamolecas,  Choomuch,  Choomwits,  Choome- 
docs,  or  Chimedocs,  and  Choomteyas;  Olowits,  Oldwedocs,  Oloweeyas, 
etc.  Olowedocs  is  the  name  applied  to  all  Indians  living  on  the  plains,  as 
far  west  as  Stockton.  But  there  are  several  names  which  are  employed  ab 
solutely,  and  without  any  reference  to  direction.  On  the  south  bank  of  the 
Cosumnes  are  the  Cawnees;  on  Sutter  Creek,  the  Yuldnees;  on  the  Stanislaus 
and  Tuolumne  the  extensive  tribe  of  Wallies;  in  Yosemite,  the  Awanees,  on 
the  south  fork  of  Merced,  the  Nootchoos ;  on  the  middle  Merced,  the  Choom 
teyas,  on  the  upper  Chowchilla,  the  Hethtoyas;  on  the  middle  Chowchilla 
the  tribe  that  named  the  stream;  and  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Fresno  the 
Pohoneechees.'  Powers,  in  Overland  Monthly,  vol.  x.,  pp.  322-5;  MS.  Map. 

The  Coiich  tribe  live  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  east  of  the  Vegas  of 
Santa  Clara.  Los  Angeles  Star,  May  18,  1861. 

The  Notonatos  lived  on  King's  river.  Maltby's  MS.  Letter. 

The  Kakweahs  lived  on  Four  Creeks.  Ib. 

The   Yolanchas  lived  on  Tule  river.  Ib. 

The  Pokoninos  lived  on  Deer  creek.  Ib. 

The  Poloyamas  lived  on  Pasey  creek.  Ib. 

The  Polokawynahs  lived  on  Kern  river.  Ib. 

The  Ymitches  and  Cowlahs  live  on  Four  Creeks.  Henky,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept., 
1854,  p.  303. 

The  Waches  Notoowthas,  Ptolmes,  and  Chunemnes  live  on  King  river.  Ib. 

The  Costrowers,  Pitiaches,  Talluches,  Loomnears  and  Amonces  live  on  the 
San  Joaquin.  Id.,  p.  304. 

The  Chowdas,  Chookchaneys,  Phonechas,  Nookchues,  and  Howetsers,  live  on 
the  Fresno  river.  Ib. 

The  Coconoons  live  on  the  Merced  river.  Johnston,  in  SchoolcrafVs  Arch., 
vol.  iv.,  p.  413. 

The  Monos  living  west  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  live  on  Fine  Gold  Gulch  and 
the  San  Joaquin  river.  Ib.  East  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  they  occupy  the 
country  south  of  Mono  Lake.  MS.  Map.  '  The  Monos,  Cosos,  and  some 
other  tribes,  occupy  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas.'  Cal.  Farmer, 
May  8,  1863.  '  The  Olanches,  Monos,  Siquirionals,  Wasakshes,  Cowlmillas, 
Chokiamauves,  Tenisichs,  Yocolles,  Paloushiss,  Wikachumnis,  Openoches, 
Taches,  Nutonetoos  and  Choemimnees,  roamed  from  the  Tuolumne  to  Kings 
river  and  the  Tejon,  on  the  east  of  the  San  Joaquin,  the  Tulare  lakes  and  in 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  as  stated  by  Lieut.  Beale,  in  1856.'  Cal.  Farmer,  June  8, 
1860. 

The  Tularenos  live  in  the  mountain  wilderness  of  the  Four  Creeks,  Por- 
siuncula  (or  Kerns  or  Current)  river  and  the  Tejon;  and  wander  thence 
towards  the  headwaters  of  the  Mohave  and  the  neighborhood  of  the  Cahuil- 
las.  Their  present  common  name  belongs  to  the  Spanish  and  Mexican  times 
and  is  derived  from  the  word  Tulare  (a  swamp  with  flags).  Hayes'  MS.  ' Tu- 


SOUTHEKN  CALIFORNIANS.  457 

larenos,  Habitant  la  grande  vallee  delos  Tulares  de  la  Calif ornie.'  Mofras, 
Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  335. 

'  The  Yocut  dominion  includes  the  Kern  and  Tulare  basins  and  the  mid 
dle  of  San  Joaquiu,  stretching  from  Fresno  to  Kern  River  Falls.'  Powers,  in 
Overland  Monthly,  vol.  xi.,  p.  105. 

Cumbatwas  on  Pitt  river.  Roseborough's  letter  to  the  author,  MS. 

Shastas,  in  Shasta  and  Scott  valleys.  Ib. 

The  SOUTHERN  CALIFOKNIANS,  whose  territory  lies  south  of  the  thirty-fifth 
parallel,  are,  as  far  as  is  known,  tribally  distributed  as  follows: 

The  Cahuillos  '  inhabit  principally  a  tract  of  country  about  eighty  miles 
east  from  San  Bernardino,  and  known  as  the  Cabeson  Valley,  and  their  vil 
lages  are  on  or  near  the  road  leading  to  La  Paz  on  the  Colorado  River. . . . 
Another  branch  of  this  tribe  numbering  about  four  hundred  occupy  a  tract 
of  country  lying  in  the  mountains  about  forty  miles  southeast  from  San  Ber 
nardino,  known  as  the  Coahuila  Valley.'  Stanley,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1869,  pp. 
194-5.  'The  Coahuillas  are  scattered  through  the  San  Bernardino  and  San 
Jacinto  Mountains  and  eastward  in  the  Cabesau  Valley.'  WhUing,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
Kept.,  1871,  p.  691.  The  Coahuilas  live  in  the  San  Jacinto  Mountains.  Park 
er,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1869,  p.  17.  The  Cohuillas  reside  in  the  northern  half 
of  the  country,  commencing  on  the  coast,  and  extending  to  within  fifty  miles 
of  the  Colorado  river,  following  the  eastern  base  of  the  mountains.  San  Fran 
cisco  Herald,  June,  1853.  The  Cahuillos  or  Cawios  reside  '  near  the  Pacific, 
between  the  sources  of  the  San  Gabriel  and  Santa  Anna.'  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang., 
p.  26.  '  The  Cahuillas  are  a  little  to  the  north  of  the  San  Luisenos,  occupy 
ing  the  mountain  ridges  and  intervening  valleys  to  the  east  and  southeast  of 
Mount  San  Bernadino,  down  towards  the  Mohava  river  and  the  desert  that 
borders  the  river  Colorado,  the  nation  of  Mohavas  lying  between  them  and 
these  rivers.  I  am  unable  just  now  to  give  the  number  and  names  of  all  their 
villages.  San  Gorgonio,  San  Jacinto,  Coyote,  are  among  those  best  known, 
though  others  even  nearer  the  desert,  are  more  populous.'  Hayes'  MS.  The 
Cohuillas  occupy  the  southwestern  part  of  San  Bernardino  County,  and  the 
northwestern  part  of  San  Diego  county.  MS.  Map.  'The  Carvilla  Indians 
occupy  the  Country  from  San  Gorgonio  Pass  to  the  Arroyo  Blanco.'  Cram's 
Topog.  Memoir,  p.  119.  'The  Cowillers  and  Telenmies  live  on  Four  Creeks.' 
Id.,  p.  400.  'The  limits  of  the  Kahweyah  and  Kahsowah  tribes  appear  to 
have  been  from  the  Feather  river  in  the  northern1  part  of  the  State,  to  the 
Tulare  lakes  of  the  south.'  Cal.  Farmer,  May  25,  I860. 

The  Diegenos  '  are  said  to  occupy  the  coast  for  some  fifty  miles  above, 
and  about  the  same  distance  below  San  Diego,  and  to  extend  about  a  hun 
dred  miles  into  the  interior.'  W hippie,  Ewbank,  and  Turner's  Eept.,  in  Pac. 
R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.  The  Dieguinos  are  in  the  southern  part  of  San  Diego 
County,  and  extend  from  the  coast  to  the  desert.  Henley,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept., 
1856,  p.  240.  The  Dieguinas  reside  in  the  southern  part  of  the  country 
watered  by  the  Colorado,  and  claim  the  land  from  a  point  on  the  Pacific  to 
the  eastern  part  of  the  mountains  impinging  on  the  desert.  San  Francisco 
Herald,  June,  1853.  The  Comeyas  or  Diegenos  'occupy  the  coast  for  some 
fifty  miles  above,  and  about  the  same  distance  below  San  Diego,  and  extend 


458  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

about  a  hundred  miles  into  the  interior.'  BartktVs  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  7. 
'  The  Indians  round  San  Diego,  Deguinos,  Diegenos,  were  in  a  savage  state, 
and  their  language  almost  unknown.  Bartlett  says  that  they  are  also  called 
Comeya;  but  Whipple  asserts  that  the  Comeya,  a  tribe  of  the  Yumas,  speak 
a  different  language.'  Ludewig,  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  62.  On  page  220  Ludewig  says 
that  as  the  name  Diegenos  means  the  Indians  round  San  Diego,  there  is  no 
such  name  as  Deguinos.  '  The  villages  of  the  Dieguinos,  wherever  they  live 
separately,  are  a  little  to  the  south  of  the  Cahuillas.  Indeed,  under  this 
appellation  they  extend  a  hundred  miles  into  Lower  California,  in  about  an 
equal  state  of  civilization,  and  thence  are  scattered  through  the  Tecate  valley 
over  the  entire  desert  on  the  west  side  of  New  Paver. . .  .Their  villages  known 
to  me  are  San  Dieguito  (about  twenty  souls),  San  Diego  Mission,  San  Pas- 
qual,  Camajal  (two  villages),  Santa  Ysabel,  San  Jose,  Matahuay,  Lorenzo, 
San  Felipe,  Cajon,  Cuyamaca,  Valle  de  las  Viejas.'  Hayes'  MS. 

The  Missouris  '  are  scattered  over  San  Bernardino,  San  Diego  and  other 
counties  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State.'  Parker,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  18G9, 
p.  17. 

The  Kechi  inhabit  the  country  about  Mission  San  Luis  Rey.  Bartlett' s 
Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  92. 

The  Chumas,  or  Kachumas  live  three  miles  from  the  Mission  of  Santa 
Inez.  Cal.  Farmer,  Oct.  18,  1861. 

Los  Cayotes  was  the  name  given  by  the  Spaniards  to  the  tribe  which  orig 
inally  inhabited  San  Diego  county.  Hoffman,  in  San  Francisco  Medical  Press, 
vol.  v.,  p.  147. 

The  New  Elver  Indians  '  live  along  New  River,  sixty  miles  west  from  Fort 
Yuma,  and  near  San  Diego.'  Jones,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1869,  p.  216. 

The  Sierras,  or  Caruanas,  the  Lagunas,  or  Tataguas,  and  the  Surillos  or 
Cartakas  are  mentioned  as  living  on  the  Tejon  reservation.  Wentworth,  in 
Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1862,  pp.  324-6. 

The  Serranos  lived  in  the  vicinity  of  San  Bernardino.  Reid,  in  Los  An 
geles  Star,  Letter  L,  in  Hayes  Gol. 

Mr  Taylor  claims  to  have  discovered  the  exact  positions  of  many  of  the 
places  mentioned.  His  statement,  for  the  accuracy  of  which  I  by  no  means 
vouch,  is  as  follows:  'Xucu,  or  Shucu,  on  the  Ortega  farm,  near  Rincon 
Point;  Missisissepono  on  Rafel  Gonzale's  rancho  on  Saticoy  river,  near  sea, 
sometimes  called  Pono;  Coloc,  near  Carpentaria  beach.  Mugu,  below  Sati 
coy  some  thirty  miles,  near  the  sea;  Anacbuc  or  Anacarck,  near  the  islet  of 
La  Patera,  near  the  sea  shore.  Partocac  or  Paltocac,  the  Indian  cemetery 
on  the  Mesa  of  La  Patera,  near  sea ;  Aguin  at  the  beach  of  Los  Llagos  Can 
ada;  Casalic,  at  the  Refugio  Playa  and  Canada;  Tucumu  or  playa  of  Arroyo 
Honda.  Xocotoc,  Cojo,  or  Cojotoc,  near  Pt.  Concepcion;  Pt.  Concepcion, 
Caiicac  or  Caacac,  or  Cacat.'  Cal.  Farmer,  Aug.  21,  1863. 

The  following  names  of  rancherias  were  taken  from  the  archives  of  the 
various  missions;  in  the  vicinity  of  La  Purissima:  Lajuchu,  bilimastus, 
Sisolop,  Jlaacs,  or  Slacus,  Huasna,  Estait,  Esmischue,  Ausion,  Esnispele, 
Silisne,  Sacspili,  Estait,  Huenejel,  Husistaic,  Silimi,  Suntaho,  Alacupusyuen, 
Espiiluima,  Tutachro,  Sisolop,  Naila,  Tutachro,  Paxpili,  or  Axpitil,  Silino, 
Lisahuato,  Guaslaique,  Pacsiol,  Sihimi,  Huenepel  Ninyuelgual,  Lompoc, 


SOUTHERN  MISSION  INDIANS.  4£9 

Nahuey,  or  Nahajuey,  Sipuea,  Stipu,  lalamma,  Huasna,  Sacsiol,  Kachisupal, 
Salachi,  Nocto,  Fax,  Salachi,  Sitolo,  or  Sautatho,  Omaxtux.     Near  Santa 
Inez,   were:    Sotomoenu,  Katahuac,  Asiuhuil,  Situchi,  Kulahuasa,  Sisuchi, 
Kuyam,  or  Cuyama,  lonata,  Tekep,  Kusil,  Sanchu,  Sikitipuc,  Temesathi, 
Lujanisuissilac,  Tapanissilac,  lalamne,  Chumuchn,  Suiesia,  Chunmclm,  Ta- 
hijuas,  Tinachi,  Lompoe,  lonata,  Aguama,  Sotonoemu,  Guaislac,  Tequepas, 
Matiliha,  Stucu,  Aketsum,  or  Kachuma,  Ahuamhoue,  Geguep,  Achillimo, 
Alizway,  Souscoc,  Talaxano,  Nutonto,  Cholicus.     Near  Santa  Barbara  were 
Guainnonost,  Sisabanonase,  Huelemen,  Inoje,  Luijta,  Cajpilili,  Missopeno 
(Sopono),  Inajalayehua,  Huixapa,  Calahuassa,  Snihuax,  Huililoc,  Yxaulo, 
Anijue,  Sisuch,  Cojats,  Numguelgar,  Lugups,  Gleuaxcuyu,  Chiuchin,  Ipec, 
Sinicon,   Xalanaj,  Xalou,   Sisahiahut,  Cholosoc,  Ituc,   Guima,  Huixapapa, 
Eleunaxciay,  Taxlipu,  Elmian,  Anajue,  Huililic,  Inajalaihu,  Estuc,  Eluaxcu. 
Sihuicom,  Liam.     Some  of  these  were  from  rancherias  of  the  valleys  east  of 
the  vange  on  the  coast.     Some  of  these  Taylor  locates  as  follows:     '  Janaya, 
above  the  Mission,  Salpilil  on  the  Patera;  Aljiman,  near  the  windmill  of  La 
Patera;  Geliec,  near  islet  of  La  Patera;  Tequepes,  in  Santa  Ynez  Valley; 
Cascili,  in  the  Kefugio  playa;  Miguihui,  on  the  Dos  Pueblos;  Sisichii,  in 
Dos  Pueblos;  Maschal,  on  Santa  Cruz  Island;  Gelo,  the  islet  of  La  Patera; 
Cuyamu  on  Dos  Pueblos  aslo  Cinihuaj  on  same  rancho;  Coloc,  at  the  Riucon; 
Alcax  in  La  Goleta;  Allvatalama,  near  the  La  Goleta  Estero;  Sayokenek,  on 
the  Arroyo  Burro;  Partocac  Cemetery,  near  Sea  Bluffs  of  La  Goleta;  Hu- 
maliju,  of  San  Fernando  Mission;  Calla  Wassa  and  Anijue,  of  Santa  Ynez 
Mission;   Sajcay  in  Los  Cruces;   Sasaguel,  in  Santa  Cruz  Island;  Lucuy- 
imm,  in  the  same  Island,  dated  November,  1816;  Nanahuani  and  Chalosas 
were  also  on  same  Island;  Eljman  was  on  San  Marcos,  Xexulpituc  and  Tax 
lipu,  were  camps  of  the  Tulares.'  Cal.  Farmer,  Aug.  21,  18G3. 

Near  San  Buenaventura  Mission  were:  'Miscanaka,  name  of  the  Mis 
sion  site.  Ojai  or  Aujay,  about  ten  miles  up  San  Buenavent  river.  Mugu, 
on  the  coast  near  sea  on  Guadalasca  rancho,  not  far  from  the  point  so  called. 
Matillija  up  the  S.  B.  river  towards  Santa  Inez,  which  mission  also  had  Ma- 
tilija  Indians.  The  Matillija  Sierra  separates  the  valleys  of  S.  Buenaventa 
and  S.  Inez.  Sespe  was  on  the  San  Cayetano  rancho  of  Saticoy  river,  twenty 
miles  from  the  sea.  Mupu  and  Piiru  were  on  the  arroyos  of  those  names 
which  came  into  the  Saticoy  near  Sespe.  Kamulas  was  higher  up  above 
Piiru.  Cayeguas  (not  a  Spanish  name  as  spelt  on  some  maps)  on  rancho  of 
that  name.  Somes  or  Somo  near  hills  of  that  name.  Malico,  range  of  hills 
south  of  Somo.  Chichilop,  Lisichi,  Liam,  Sisa,  Sisjulcioy,  Malahue,  Chum- 
pache,  Lacayamu,  Ypuc,  Lojos  Aogni,  Luupsch,  Miguigui,  and  Chihucchihui 
were  names  of  other  rancherias ....  Ishgua  or  Ishguaget,  was  a  rancheria 

near  the  mouth  of  the  Saticoy  river  and  not  far  from  the  beach Hueneme 

was  a  rancheria  on  the  ocean  coast  a  few  miles  south  of  Saticoy  river.  Tapo 
and  Simi  were  rancherias  on  the  present  Noriega  rancho  of  Simi.  Saticoy  is 
the  name  of  the  existing  rancheria ....  on  the  lower  part  of  the  Santa  Paula 
or  Saticoy  rancho,  about  eight  miles  from  the  sea,  near  some  fine  springs  of 
water,  not  far  from  the  river,  and  near  the  high  road  going  up  the  valleys.' 
Cal.  Farmer,  July  24,  1863.  '  The  site  of  San  Fernando  was  a  rancheria 
called  Pasheckno.  Other  clans  were  Okowvinjha,  Kowanga  and  Saway 


4GO  TKIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

Yanga.  The  Ahapchingas  were  a  clan  or  rancheria  between  Los  Angeles 
and  San  Juan  Capistrano,  and  enemies  of  the  Gabrielenos  or  those  of  San 
Gabriel.  . .  .The  following  are  the  names  of  the  rancherias,  or  clans,  living 
in  the  vicinity  of  San  Luis  Rey  Mission :  Enekelkawa  was  the  name  of  one 
near  the  mission-site,  Mokaskel,  Cenyowpreskel,  Itukemuk,  Hatawa,  Hame- 
chuwa,  Itaywiy,  Milkwanen,  Ehutewa,  Mootaeyuhew,  and  Hepowwoo,  were 
the  names  of  others.  At  the  Aquas  Calientes  was  a  very  populous  rancheria, 
called  Hakoopin.'  Id.,  May  11,  1860. 

In  Los  Angeles  county,  the  following  are  the  principal  lodges  or  ranch 
erias,  with  their  corresponding  present  local  names:  Yangna,  Los  Angeles, 
Sibag-na,  San  Gabriel;  Isanthcagna,  Mision  Vieja;  Sisitcanogna,  Pear 
Orchard;  Sonagna,  Mr  White's  farm;  Acuragna,  The  Presa;  Asucsagiia, 
Azuza;  Cucomogna,  Cucamonga  Farm;  Pasinogna,  Rancho  del  Chino;  Awig- 
na,  La  Puente;  Chokishgna,  The  Saboneria;  Nacaugna,  Carpenter's  Farm; 
Pineugna,  Santa  Catalina  Island;  Pimocagna,  Eancho  de  los  Ybarras; 
Toybipet,  San  Jose;  Hutucgna,  Santa  Ana  (Yorbes) ;  Aleupkigna,  Santa 
Anita;  Maugna,  Rancho  de  los  Felis;  Hahamogna,  Rancho  de  los  Verdugas; 
Cabuegna,  Caliuenga;  Pasecgna,  San  Fernando;  Houtgna,  Ranchito  de 
Lugo,  Suangna,  Suanga;  Pubugna,  Alamitos;  Tibahagna,  Serritos;  Cho- 
wig-na,  PalosVerdes;  Kinkipar,  San  Clemente  Island,  Harasgna.  Held,  in 
Los  Angeles  Star,  Letter  L,  in  Hayes  Collection. 

The  San  Luisienos  inhabit  the  northern  part  of  San  Diego,  from  the 
coast  east,  including  the  mountains.  Henley,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1856,  p.  240. 
'  The  villages  of  the  San  Luisenos  are  in  a  section  of  country  adjacent  to  the 
Cahuillas,  between  40  and  70  miles  in  the  mountainous  interior  from  San 
Diego;  they  are  known  as  Las  Flores,  Santa  Margarita,  San  Luis  Rey  Mis 
sion,  Wahoma,  Pala,  Temecula,  Ahuanga  (two  villages),  La  Joya,  Potrero, 
and  Bruno's  and  Pedro's  villages  within  five  or  six  miles  of  Aqua  Caliente; 
they  are  all  in  San  Diego  County.'  Hayes'  MS. 

The  Noclies  are  settled  along  the  rivers  which  flow  between  the  Colorado 
and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.  p.  45.  Garces  mentions 
the  western  Noches  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  ii.,  vol.  i.,  p.  299. 

The  Tejon  Indians  were  those  who  inhabited  the  southern  part  of  Tulare 
valley.  Mollhausen,  Eeisen  in  die  Felsengeb,  vol.  i.,  p.  83. 

The  Playanos  were  Indians  who  came  to  settle  in  the  valley  of  San  Juan 
Capistrano.  Boscana,  in  Robinson's  Life  in  Gal,  p.  249. 

The  SHOSHONES,  whose  territory  spreads  over  south-eastern  Oregon,  south 
ern  Idaho,  and  the  whole  of  Utah  and  Nevada,  extending  into  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico,  and  the  eastern  border  of  California,  I  divide  into  two  great 
nations,  the  Snakes  or  Shoshones,  proper,  and  the  Utahs,  with  their  subdi 
visions.  Wilson  divides  the  Shoshones  into  the  Shoshones  and  Bannacks, 
and  the  Utahs;  the  latter  he  subdivides  into  seven  bands,  which  will  be  seen 
under  Utahs.  He  adds:  'Among  the  Shoshonies  there  are  only  two  bands 
properly  speaking.  The  principal  or  better  portion  are  called  Shoshonies, 
or  Snakes ....  the  others  the  Shoshocoes ....  Their  claim  of  boundary  is  to 
the  east,  from  the  red  Buttes  on  the  North  fork  of  the  Platte,  to  its  head  in 
the  Park,  Decayaque,  or  Buffalo  Bull-pen,  in  the  Rocky  Mountains;  to  the 


THE  SNAKES.  461 

south  across  the  mountains,  over  to  the  Yanpapa,  till  it  enters  Green,  or 
Colorado  river,  and  then  across  to  the  backbone  or  ridge  of  mountains  called 
the  Bear  river  mountains  running  nearly  due  west  towards  the  Salt  Lake,  so 
as  to  take  in  most  of  the  Salt  Lake,  and  thence  on  to  the  sinks  of  Marry's  or 
Humboldt's  river;  thence  north  to  the  fisheries,  on  the  Snake  river,  in  Oregon; 
and  thence  south  (their  northern  boundary),  to  the  Red  Buttes,  including 
the  source  of  Green  River.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  697.  '  Under  va 
rious  names.... the  great  race  of  Shoshones,  is  found  scattered  over  the 
boundless  wilderness,  from  Texas  to  the  Columbia.  Their  territory  is  bound 
ed  on  the  north  and  west  by. . .  .the  Blackfeet  and  Crows.'  BrowndVs  Ind. 
Races,  pp.  537-8. 

The  Snakes,  or  Shoshones  proper,  although  they  form  a  part  only  of  the 
great  Shoshone  family,  are  usually  termed  '  the  Shoshones'  by  the  authorities. 
They  are  divided  by  Dr  Hurt  into  '  Snakes,  Bannacks,  Tosiwitches,  Go- 
sha  Utes,  and  Cumumpahs,  though  he  afterwards  classes  the  last  two  divis 
ions  as  hybrid  races*  between  the  Shoshones  and  the  Utahs The  Sho 
shones  claim  the  northeastern  portion  of  the  territory  for  about  four  hun 
dred  miles  west,  and  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  miles 
south  from  the  Oregon  line.'  Simpson's  Route  to  CaL,  p.  46.  '  The  great 
Snake  nation  may  be  divided  into  three  divisions,  namely,  the  Shirrydi- 
kas,  or  dog-eaters;  the  Wararereekas,  or  fish-eaters;  and  the  Banattees,  or 
robbers.  But,  as  a  nation,  they  all  go  by  the  general  appellation  of  Sho 
shones,  or  Snakes. . .  .The  Shirrydikas  are  the  real  Shoshones,  and  live  in 
the  plains  hunting  the  buffalo.'  The  country  claimed  by  the  Snake  tribes 
'is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Rocky  Mountains,  on  the  south  by  the  Span 
ish  waters;  on  the  Pacific,  or  west  side,  by  an  imaginary  line,  beginning  at 
the  west  endv  or  spur,  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  behind  Fort  Nez  Perces,  and 
running  parallel  with  the  ocean  to  the  height  of  land  beyond  the  Umpqna 
River,  in  about  north  lat.  41°  (this  line  never  approaches  within  150  miles  of 
the  Pacific) ;  and  on  the  north  by  another  line,  running  due  east  from  the  said 
spur  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  and  crossing  the  great  south  branch,  or  Lewis 
River,  at  the  Dalles,  till  it  strikes  the  Rocky  Mountains  20U  miles  north  of  the 
three  pilot  knobs,  or  the  place  thereafter  named  the  'Valley  of  Troubles.' 
Ross'  Fur  Hunters,  vol.  i.,  pp.  249,  251.  '  They  embrace  all  the  territory  of 
the  Great  South  Pass,  between  the  Mississippi  valley  and  the  waters  of  the 
Columbia ....  Under  the  name  of  Yampatickara  or  Root-eaters  and  Bonacks 
they  occupy  with  the  Utahs  the  vast  elevated  basin  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake, 
extending  south  and  west  to  the  borders  of  New  Mexico  and  California.' 
BrownelVs  Ind.  Races,  pp.  533-7,  540.  '  The  hunters  report,  that  the  proper 
country  of  the  Snakes  is  to  the  east  of  the  Youta  Lake,  and  north  of  the  Snake 
or  Lewis  river;  but  they  are  found  in  many  detached  places.  The  largest 
band  is  located  near  Fort  Boise,  on  the  Snake  river  to  the  north  of  the  Bo 
nacks.'  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  501.  The  Shoshones 
'occupy  the  centre  and  principal  part  of  the  great  Basin.'  Taylor,  in  CaL 
Farmer,  Oct.  18,  1861.  '  Inhabit  that  part  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  which 
lies  on  the  Grand  and  Green  River  branches  of  the  Colorado  of  the  West, 
the  valley  of  Great  Bear  River,  the  habitable  shores  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake, 
a  considerable  portion  of  country  on  Snake  River  above  and  below  Fort  Hall, 


462  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

and  a  tract  extending  two  or  three  hundred  miles  to  the  west  of  that  post.' 
Farnham's  Trav.,  p.  61.  The  Shoshones  inhabit  about  one  third  of  the  ter 
ritory  of  Utah,  living  north  of  Salt  Lake  '  and  on  the  line  of  the  Humboldt 
or  Mary  River,  some  400  miles  west  and  100  to  125  south  of  the  Oregon  line. 
The  Yuta  claim  the  rest  of  the  territory  between  Kansas,  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
New  Mexico  and  the  Oregon  frontier.'  Burton's  City  of  the  Saints,  p.  575. 
'Les  Soshonies,  c'est-a-dire  les  deterreurs  de  racines,  surnommes  les  Ser 
pents, ....  habitent  la  partie  meridionale  du  territoire  de  1'Oregon,  dans  le 
voisinage  de  la  haute  Californie.'  De  Smet,  Voy.,  p.  24.  'Their  country 
lies  south-west  of  the  south-east  branch  of  the  Columbia,  and  is  said  to 
be  the  most  barren  of  any  part  of  the  country  in  these  western  regions.' 
Parker's  Explor.  Tour.,  p.  83.  'On  the  south  part  of  the  Oregon  Terri 
tory,  adjoining  upper  California,  are  located  the  Shoshones  or  Snake  In 
dians.'  Ib.,  p.  308.  'Serpents  ou  Saaptins,  Monquis,  Bonacks  et  Youtas, 
toutes  les  branches  du  Rio  Colombia  ou  Sud-Est  et  les  environs  du  lac 
Sale  au  Timpanogos.'  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  385.  'The  country  of 
the  Shoshonees  proper  is  south  of  Lewis  or  Snake  River,  and  east  of  the  Salt 
Lake.  There  is,  however  one  detached  band,  known  as  the  Wihinasht,  or 
Western  Snakes,  near  Fort  Boirie,  separated  from  the  main  body  by  the  tribe 
of  Bonnaks.'  Hole's  Ethnog.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  219.  'The  Sho 
shones  are  a  small  tribe  of  the  nation  called  Snake  Indians,  a  vague  denom 
ination,  which  embraces  at  once  the  inhabitants  of  the  southern  part  of  the 
Rocky  mountains,  and  of  the  plains  on  each  side.'  Lewis  and  Clarke's  Trav., 
p.  305.  The  Snakes  or  Shothoucs  'formerly  occupied  the  whole  of  that 
vast  territory  lying  between  the  Rocky  and  the  Blue  Mountains,  and  extend 
ing  northward  to  the  lower  fork  of  the  Columbia,  and  to  the  south  as  far  as 
the  basin  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake.'  Coke's  Rocky  Mis.,  p.  275.  '  They  occupy 
southern  and  western  Nevada.  Parker,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rtpt.,  1869,  p.  18.  '  They 
inhabit  the  southern  part  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  plains  on  each  side. ' 
Bulfinch's  Ogn.,  p.  124.  '  They  occupy  all  the  country  between  the  southern 
branches  of  Lewis's  river,  extending  from  the  Umatullum  to  theE.  side  of  the 
Stony  Mountains,  on  the  southern  parts  of  Wallaumut  river  from  about  40°  to 
47°  N.  Lat.  A  branch  of  this  tribe  reside ....  in  spring  and  summer  on  the  W. 
fork  of  Lewis  river,  a  branch  of  the  Columbia,  and  in  winter  and  fall  on  the 
Missouri/  Morse's  Kept,,  p.  369.  'The  Shoshones  dwell  between  the  Rocky 
and  blue  mountain  ranges.'  Nicolay's  Ogn.  Ter.,  p.  151.  'The  aboriginees  of 
the  Reese  River  country  consist  of  the  Shoshone  nation,  divided  into  many 
subordinate  tribes,  each  having  a  distinctive  name,  and  occupying  a  tract  of 
country  varying  from  20  to  50  miles  square.  Their  country  is  bordered  on 
the  west  by  the  Pi-Utes,  the  Edwards  Creek  mountains  some  20  miles  west 
of  Reese  River,  being  the  dividing  line.  On  the  east  it  extends  to  Ruby  Val 
ley,  where  it  joins  on  the  territory  of  the  Goshoots,  the  Bannocks  being  their 
neighbors  on  the  northeast.'  Cal.  Farmer,  June  26,  1863.  '  The  Snake  tribe, 
inhabit  the  country  bordering  on  Lewis  and  Bear  Rivers,  and  their  various 
tributaries.'  Palmer's  Jour.,  p.  43.  '  The  Snake  Indians,  who  embrace  many 
tribes,  inhabit  a  wide  extent  of  country  at  the  head  of  Snake  River  above 
and  below  Fort  Hall,  and  the  vicinity  of  Great  Bear  River  and  Great  Salt 
Lake.  They  are  a  migratory  race;  and  generally  occupy  the  south-east- 


BANNACKS  AND  UTAHS.  463 

ern  portion  of  Oregon.'  Dunn's  Ogn.,  p.  325.  The  Shoshones  inhabit  the 
great  plains  to  the  southward  of  the  Lewis  River.  Cox's  Adven.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  143. 
The  Shoshones  occupy  '  almost  the  whole  eastern  half  of  the  State  (Nevada). 
The  line  separating  them  from  the  Pai-Utes  on  the  east  and  south  is  not  very 
clearly  defined.'  Parker,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1866,  p.  114.  '  The  western  bands 

of  Shoshones range  from  the  Idaho  boundary  north,  southward  to  the 

thirty-eighth  parallel;  their  western  limit  is  the  line  passing  through  the 
Sunatoya  Mountains;  their  eastern  limit  Steptoe  and  Great  Salt  Lake  Valleys.1 
Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1870,  p.  95.  The  Snakes  inhabit  '  the  plains  of  the  Columbia 
between  the  43d  and  44th  degrees  of  latitude.'  Franchere's  Nar.,  p.  150.  The 
Washakeeks  or  Green  River  Snakes  inhabit  the  country  drained  by  Green 
River  and  its  tributaries.  The  Tookarikkahs,  or  mountain  sheep-eaters,  '  oc 
cupy  the  Salmon  river  country  and  the  upper  part  of  Snake  River  Valley, 
and  Coiners'  Prairie,  near  the  Boise  mines.'  These  two  bands  are  the  gen 
uine  Snakes;  other  inferior  bands  are  the  Hokandikahs  or  Salt  Lake  Diggers 
who  'inhabit  the  region  about  the  great  lake.'  The  Aggitikkahs  or  Sal 
mon-eaters  who  '  occupy  the  region  round  about  Salmon  falls,  on  Snake 
river.'  Stuart's  Montana,  p.  80. 

'  The  Bannacks,  who  are  generally  classed  with  the  Snakes,  inhabit  the 
country  south  of  here,  (Powder  River)  in  the  vicinity  of  Harney  lake. .  .  The 
Winnas  band  of  Snakes  inhabit  the  country  north  of  Snake  river,  and  are 
found  principally  on  the  Bayette,  Boise,  and  Sickley  rivers.'  Kirkpatrick,  in 
Ind.  Aff.  Bept.,  1862,  pp.  267-8.  The  Bonacks  '  inhabit  the  country  between 
Fort  Boise  and  Fort  Hall.'  Wttkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  502. 
They  '  inhabit  the  southern  borders  of  Oregon,  along  the  old  Humboldt  River 
emigrant  road.'  Simpson's  Route  to  CaL,  p.  47.  '  The  Bonaks  seem  '  to  embrace 
Indian  tribes  inhabiting  a  large  extent  of  country  west  of  the  Rocky  Moun 
tains.  As  the  name  imports,  it  was  undoubtedly  given  to  that  portion  of  In 
dians  who  dig  and  live  on  the  roots  of  the  earth.'  Johnston,  in  Schoolcraft's 
Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  221.  The  Bonaks  inhabit  '  the  banks  of  that  part  of  Saptin 
or  Snake  River  which  lies  between  the  mouth  of  Boisais  or  Reeds  River  and 
the  Blue  Mountains.'  Farnham's  Trav.,  p.  76.  The  Bonax  inhabit  the 
country  west  of  the  Lewis  fork  of  the  Columbia  between  the  forty-second 
and  forty-fourth  parallels.  Parker's  Map.  The  Bannacks  range  through 
northern  Nevada,  and  into  Oregon  and  Idaho.  Parker,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rejrt., 
1869,  p.  18.  They  'claim  the  southwestern  portions  of  Montana  as  their 
land.'  Sully,  in  Id.,  p.  289.  'This  tribe  occupies  most  of  that  portion  of 
Nevada  north  of  the  forty-first  degree  of  north  latitude,  with  the  southeast 
ern  corner  of  Oregon  and  the  southwestern  corner  of  Idaho.'  Parker,  in  Id., 
1866,  p.  114.  The  Bannocks  drift  'from  Boise  City  to  the  game  country 
northeast  of  Bozeman,  Montana,  and  south  as  far  as  Fort  Bridger,  Wyoming 

Territory traveling  from  Oregon  to  East  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.'  High, 

in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1872,  pp.  272-3. 

The  Utah  nation  occupies  all  that  portion  of  the  territory  assigned  to  the 
Shoshone  family  lying  south  of  the  Snakes,  between  the  country  of  the  Cal- 
ifornians  proper,  and  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  divided  into  several  tribes, 
the  number  varying  with  different  authorities.  Wilson  divides  the  Utah  na 
tion  into  seven  tribes:  viz.,  the  'Taos,  Yampapas,  Ewinte,  Tenpenuy  Utahs, 


464  TRIBAL  BOUND  ABIES. 

Parant  Utahs,  Sampiches,  Pahmetes.'  SchoolcrafVs  Arch.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  697. 
'  Besides  the  Parawat  Yutas,  the  Yampas,  200-300  miles  south,  on  the  White 
River;  the  Tebechya,  or  sun-hunters,  about  Tete  de  Biche,  near  Spanish 
lands;  and  the  Tash  Yuta,  near  the  Navajos;  there  are  scatters  of  the  nation 
along  the  Calif ornian  road  from  Beaver  Valley,  along  the  Santa  Clara,  Virgen, 
Las  Vegas,  and  Muddy  Rivers,  to  New  Mexico.'  Burton's  City  of  the  Saints, 
p.  578.  '  The  tribes  of  Utah  Territory  are:  Utahs  at  large,  Pi  Utahs.  roving, 
Uwinty  Utahs,  Utahs  of  Sampitch  Valley,  Utahs  of  Carson  Valley,  Utahs  of 
Lake  Sevier  and  Walker  River,  Navahoes  and  Utahs  of  Grand  River,  Sho- 
shonees,  or  Snakes  proper,  Diggers  on  Huinboldt  River,  Eutahs  of  New 
Mexico.'  SchoolcrafVs  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  498.  The  Utahs  are  composed  of 
several  bands,  the  most  important  of  which  are  the  Timpanogs  who  '  range 
through  Utah  valley  and  the  mountains  adjoining  the  valley  on  the  east. . . . 
The  Uintahs,  the  principal  band  of  the  Utahs, . .  range  through  Uintah  val 
ley  and  the  Green  River  country The  Pah  Vants range  through 

Pah  Vant  and  Sevier  valleys  and  west  to  the  White  mountains.'  Irish,  in 
Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1865,  p.  145.  'The  Yutah  nation  is  very  numerous,  and  is 
also  made  up  of  many  bands,  which  are  to  be  distinguished  only  by  their 
names. ..  .Four  of  these  bands  called  Noaches,  Payuches,  Tabiachis  and 
Sogup,  are  accustomed  to  occupy  lands  within  the  province  of  New  Mexico, 
or  very  near  it,  to  the  north  and  northeast.'  Whipple,  Ewbank,  &  Turner's 
Kept,,  in  Pac.  E.  R.  Eept.,  vol.iii.  '  The  Utahs  are  divided  into  three  bands 
— Mohuaches,  Capotes,  and  Nomenuches  or  Poruches.'  Delgado,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
Eept.,  1865,  p.  163;  see  also  pp.  17,  18.  '  The  Ute  tribe  Dr.  Hurt  divides  into 
the  Pah  Utahs,  Tamp  Pah-Utes,  Cheveriches,  Pah  Vants,  San  Pitches,  and 
Pyedes.  The  Utahs  proper  inhabit  the  waters  of  Green  River,  south  of  Green 
River  Mountains,  the  Grand  River  and  its  tributaries  and  as  far  south  as  the 
Navajo  country.  They  also  claim  the  country  bordering  on  Utah  Lake  and 
as  far  south  as  the  Sevier  Lake.'  Simpson's  Eoute  to  CaL,  p.  44.  '  The  Utahs 
are  a  separate  and  distinct  tribe  of  Indians,  divided  into  six  bands,  each  with  a 

head  chief,  as  follows:    The  Menaches the  Capotes the  Tabe-naches 

the  Cibariches .the   Tempanahgoes the   Piuchas.'   Graves,   in 

Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1854,  p.  178.  « The  Yutahs  are  subdivided  into  four  great 
bands:  the  Noaches,  the  Payuches  (whom  we  believe  to  be  identical  with 
the  Pai*  Utahs),  the  Tabiachis,  and  the  Sogups,  who  live  in  perfect  harmony 
on  the  north-eastern  confined  of  New  Mexico,  and  at  a  distance  of  500  miles 
to  the  south  of  the  great  tribe  of  the  Zuguaganas.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol. 

ii.,  p.  8.     The  Utes  are  'those which  inhabit  the  vicinity  of  the  lakes 

and  streams  and  live  chiefly  on  fish,  being  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Pah 
Utahs  or  Pah  Utes,  the  word  Pah,  in  their  language  signifying  water.'  Stans- 
Itury's  Eept.,  p.  148.  'The  country  of  the  Utaws  is  situated  to  the  east  and 
southeast  of  the  Soshonees,  at  the  sources  of  the  Rio  Colorado.'  De  Smet's 
Letters,  p.  39.  '  The  Youtas  live  between  the  Snake  and  Green  Rivers.'  Prich- 
ard's  Eesearches,  vol.  v.,  p.  430.  '  The  Utahs  of  New  Mexico  are  a  portion  of 
the  tribe  of  the  same  name  inhabiting  the  Territory  of  Utah . . .  They  inhabit 
and  claim  all  that  region  of  country,  embracing  the  sources  of  the  north 
western  tributaries  of  the  Arkansas  river,  above  Bent's  fort,  up  to  the  south 
ern  boundary  of  Utah  Territory,  and  all  the  northern  tributaries  of  the  Rio 


UTAHS.  465 

Grande,  which  lie  within  New  Mexico  and  north  of  the  37th  parallel  of  lati 
tude.'  Merriwether,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1854,  p.  169.  The  Utes  'occupy  and 
claim  that  section  of  country  ranging  from  Abiquiu,  northward  to  Navajo 
Kiver  and  westward  somewhat  of  this  line.'  Davis,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1869, 
p.  255.  The  Eutaws  'reside  on  both  sides  of  the  Eutaw  or  Anahuac  mount 
ains,  they  are  continually  migrating  from  one  side  to  the  other.'  Farnham's 
Trav.,  p.  48.  'The  Youtas  inhabit  the  country  between  the  Snake  and 
Green  rivers.'  Wilkes'  Nar.,  in  U.  S.  Ex.  Ex.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  502.  'The  Utahs* 
claim  of  boundaries  are  all  south  of  that  of  the  Shoshonies,  embracing  the 
waters  of  the  Colorado,  going  most  probably  to  the  Gulf  of  California.' 
Wilson,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  698.  The  country  of  the  Utaws  '  is 
situated  to  the  east  and  southeast  of  the  Shoshones,  about  the  Salt  Lake,  and 
on  the  head  waters  of  the  Colorado  river,  which  empties  into  the  gulf  of 
California. . .  .Their  country  being  in  latitude  about  41V  The  Utaws  are 
decent  in  appearance  and  their  country,  which  is  towards  Santa  Fe,  is  said 
to  be  tolerably  good.'  Parker's  Explor.  Tour.,  pp.  79,  309.  The  Yutas,  Utaws, 
or  Youtas,  '  range  between  lat.  35°  and  42 J  North  and  the  Meridians  29°  and 
37 'J  W  Long,  of  Washington.  The  great  Yutas  tribe  is  divided  into  two  fa 
milies  which  are  contradistinguished  by  the  names  of  their  respective  head 
quarters;  the  Tao  Yutas,  so  called  because  their  principal  camp  is  pitched  in 
Tao  mountains,  seventy  miles  north  of  Santa  Fe ;  and  the  Timpanigos  Yutas, 
who  hold  their  great  camp  near  the  Timpanigos  lake.'  Farnham's  Lifein  Cat., 
p.  371.  '  Um  den  Fluss  Dolores  haben  die  Yutas  Tabeguachis  Payuches  und 
Tularenos  ihre  Wohnsitze.'  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  538.  The 
Utahs  live  '  on  the  border  of  New  Mexico.'  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  196.  '  Le 
pays  des  Utaws  est  situe  a  Test  et  au  sud-est  de  celui  des  Soshonies,  aux 
sources  du  Rio-Colorado.'  De  Smet,  Voy.,  p.  30.  'The  Yutas  or  Eutaws  are 
one  of  the  most  extensive  nations  of  the  West,  being  scattered  from  the  north 
of  New  Mexico  to  the  borders  of  Snake  river  and  Kio  Colorado.'  Gregg's 
Com.  Prairks,  vol.  i.,  p.  300. 

The  Pah  Utes  occupy  the  greater  part  of  Nevada,  and  extend  southward 
into  Arizona  and  south-eastern  California.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that 
the  Pi  Utes  are  a  distinct  tribe  from  the  Pah  Utes,  but  as  the  same  localities 
are  frequently  assigned  to  both  tribes  by  different  writers,  and  as  many  have 
evidently  thought  them  one  and  the  same,  thereby  causing  great  confusion, 
I  have  thought  it  best  to  merely  give  the  names  as  spelled  by  the  authorities 
without  attempting  to  decide  which  tribe  is  being  spoken  of  in  either  case. 
The  Pah-Utes  '  range  principally  in  the  southwestern  portion  of  Utah  and 
the  southeastern  portion  of  Nevada.'  Head,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Pept.,  1866,  p.  124. 
The  Pah  Utes  '  are  spread  over  the  vast  tract  of  territory,  between  the  Sierra 
Nevada  and  the  Colorado  Eiver,  going  as  far  south  as  the  thirty-fifth  parallel, 
and  extending  to  the  northward  through  California  and  Nevada  into  South 
ern  Oregon  and  Idaho.'  Colyer,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1869,  p.  92.  The  Pah-Utes 
inhabit  the  western  part  of  Nevada.  Walker,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1872,  p.  59. 
The  Pah  Utes  and  Pah  Edes  range  over  all  that  part  of  Utah  south  of  the  city  of 
Filmore  in  Millard  County.  Head,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1868,  p.  150.  '  The  term 
Pah  Utes  is  applied  to  a  very  large  number  of  Indians  who  roam  through 
that  vast  section  of  country  lying  between  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Colo- 
VOL.  I.  30 


466  TEIBAL  BOUNDAEIES. 

rado,  going  as  far  south  as  the  thirty-fifth  parallel,  and  extending  to  the 
northward  through  California,  Nevada,  into  Southern  Oregon  and  Idaho. 
The  Indians  of  this  tribe  in  Arizona  are  located  in  the  Big  Bend  of  the  Col 
orado,  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  and  range  as  far  east  as  Diamond  Kiver, 
west  to  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  northward  into  the  State  of  Nevada.'  Jones, 
in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1869,  p.  216.  The  Pah  Utes  'properly  belong  in  Nevada 
and  Arizona,  but  range  over  in  southwestern  Utah.'  Irish,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept., 
1865,  p.  146.  The  Pah-Utes  'range  principally  from  the  borders  of  Oregon, 
en  the  north,  to  the  southeast  boundary  of  Nevada,  and  from  the  Sierra 
Nevada"  eastward  to  the  Humboldt  Eiver  and  Sink  of  Carson;  there  are  one  or 
two  small  bands  of  them  still  further  east,  near  Austin,  Nevada.  They  are 
much  scattered  within  these  limits.'  Douglas,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1870,  pp. 
94-5.  '  The  Pah-utes  roam  along  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Virgin  with  the  Colorado  (in  about  lat  36°  long.  115- ) 
to  the  territories  of  the  Washoes  north,  and  as  far  east  as  the  Sevier  Lake 
country  of  Fremont's  explorations.'  Cal.  Farmer,  June  22,  1860.  'The  Pa- 
utahs,  and  Lake  Utahs  occupy  the  territory  lying  south  of  the  Snakes,  and 
upon  the  waters  of  the  Colorado  of  the  west  and  south  of  the  Great  Salt 
Lake.'  Scenes  in  the  Rocky  Mts.,  p.  179.  'The  Pa  Yuta  (Pey  Utes)  'extend 
from  forty  miles  west  of  Stony  Point  to  the  Calif ornian  line,  and  N.W.  to  the 
Oregon  line,  and  inhabit  the  valley  of  the  Fenelon  Eiver,  which  rising  from 
Lake  Bigler  empties  itself  into  Pyramid  Lake.'  Burton's  City  of  the  Saints,  p. 
576.  '  The  Womenunche  (also  known  as  the  Pa  Uches)  occupy  the  country 
on  the  San  Juan  river.'  Collins,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1862,  p.  238.  '  The  custom 
of  designating  the  different  bands  of  Pah  Utes  is  derived  from  the  name  of 
some  article  of  food  not  common  in  other  localities;  "Ocki,"  signifies  "  trout," 
"  toy,"  "  tule,"  &c.  The  Ocki  Pah  Utes. . .  .are  located  on  Walker  Kiver  and 
Lake,  and  the  mountains  adjacent  thereto.  The  Cozaby  Pah  Utes.  . .  .range 
from  Mono  Lake  east  to  Smoky  Valley.'  Campbell,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1870, 
pp.  112-13.  The  Pah  Utes  extend,  '  over  portions  of  Utah  and  Arizona  Ter 
ritories,  also  the  States  of  Nevada  and  California.  Fcnton,  in  Id.,  p.  113. 

The  Chemehuevis  are  a  band  of  Pah-Utahs.  Whipple,  Eucbank,  and  Turner's 
Kept.,  in  Pac.  R.  Rcpt.,\ol.  Hi.,  p.  76.  The  Chimehuevais  live  about  forty  miles 
below  the  Colorado  Eiver  agency,  on  the  California  side  of  the  river,  and  are 
scattered  over  an  area  of  fifty  square  miles.  Tonner,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1872,  p. 
323.  The  Chemehuewas  are  '  located  mainly  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Colora 
do,  above  La  Paz,  and  ranges  along  the  river  from  about  thirty  miles  south  of 
Fort  Mohave,  to  a  point  fifty  miles  north  of  Fort  Yuma,  to  the  eastward,  but 
a  short  distance.'  Sherman,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1869,  p.  216.  The  Chemihuevis 
live  on  the  Colorado  river,  above  the  Bill  Williams  fork,  a  small  tribe  and 
quite  unknown.  Poston,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1863,  p.  387.  The  Chemehnevis 

are  'a  band  of  Pahutahs, belonging  to  the  great  Shoshonee  family.' 

Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  35.     '  The  Chimchinves  are  undoubtedly  a  branch  of 
the  Pah  Ute  tribe.'  Stanley,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1866,  p.  102. 

The  Pi  Utes,  or  Pyutes,  '  inhabit  Western  Utah,  from  Oregon  to  New  Mex 
ico;  their  locations  being  generally  in  the  vicinity  of  the  principal  rivers  and 
lakes  of  the  Great  Basin,  viz.,  Humboldt,  Carson,  Walker,  Truckee,  Owens's, 
Pyramid,  and  Mono.'  Simpson's  Route  to  Cal,.  p.  48.  'The  tribe  of  Indians 


PI  TJTES  AND  GOSH  UTES.  467 

who  inhabit  this  section  (near  Fort  Churchill)  of  which  the  post  forms  the 
centre  comes  under  the  one  generic  name  of  Piute,  and  acknowledge  as  their 
great  chief  Winnemucca.  They  are  split  up  into  small  Captaincies  and  scat 
tered  throughout  a  vast  extent  of  territory.'  Farley,  in  San  Francisco  Medical 
Press,  vol.  iii.,  p.  154.  The  Piutes  or  Paiuches  inhabit  '  the  northern  banks 
of  the  Colorado,  the  region  of  Severe  river,  and  those  portions  of  the  Timpa- 
nigos  desert  where  man  can  find  a  snail  to  eat.'  Farnham's  Life  in  CaL,  p. 
371.  The  Piutes  live  '  along  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Virgen  with  the  Colorado  (in  about  Lat.  36°  Long.  115°) 
to  the  territories  of  the  Washoes  north,  and  as  far  east  as  the  Sevier  Lake.' 
Taylor,  in  CaL  Farmer,  June  22,  1860.  'Yon  34°  nordwarts  die  Pai  Utes.' 
Mollhausen,  Reisen  in  die  Felsengeb.,  vol.  i.,  p.  430.  The  territory  occupied 
by  the  Piutes  '  is  about  one  hundred  miles  broad,  and  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  country  of  the  Bannocks,  on  the  east  by  that  of  the  Shoshones, 
on  the  south  by  the  State  line  between  Nevada  and  California  and  on  the 
west  by  the  territory  of  the  Washoes.'  Parker,  in  Lid.  Aff.  Kept.,  18G6,  p.  115. 
The  Piutes  inhabit  '  a  country  two  hundred  miles  long  by  one  hundred  and 

twenty  broad,  lying  parallel  and  east  of  that  of  the  Washoes South  of 

Walker  lake  are  the  Mono  Pi  Utes They  are  closely  allied  to  the  Walker 

River  or  Ocki  Pi  Utes. . .  .located  in  the  vicinity  of  Walker  river  and  lake  and 

Carson  river  and  Upper  lake At  the  lower  Carson  lake  are  the  Toy  Pi 

Utes.'  Campbell,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1866,  p.  119.  '  Upon  the  Colorado  river, 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  Territory  lives  a  band,  or  some  bands,  of  Pi  Utes, 
occupying  both  sides  of  the  river,  roaming  to  the  limit  of  Arizona  on  the 
west,  but  on  the  east,  for  some  miles,  how  far  cannot  be  determined.'  Whit- 
tier,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1868,  p.  140.  The  Pi  Ute  'range  extends  north  to  the 
Beaver,  south  to  Fort  Mojave,  east  to  the  Little  Colorado  and  San  Francisco 
Mountains,  and  on  the  west  through  the  southern  part  of  Nevada  as  far  as 
the  California  line. . .  .the  larger  portion  living  in  Nevada.'  Fenton,  in  Ind. 
Aff.  Rept.,  1869,  p.  203.  The  Pi  Utes  inhabit  the  south-west  portion  of  Utah. 
Tourtellotte,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1870,  p.  142.  'The  Pi  Ute  Indians  are  scat 
tered  over  a  large  extent  of  country  in  Southeastern  Nevada  and  Southwest 
ern  Utah.'  Powell,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1871,  p.  562.  The  Pi  Utes  inhabit  the 
south-eastern  part  of  Nevada.  Walker,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1872,  p.  59. 

The  Gosh  Utes  inhabit  the  country  west  of  Great  Salt  Lake,  and  extend  to 
the  Pah  Utes.  They  are  said  by  most  writers  to  be  of  mixed  breed,  be 
tween  the  Snakes,  or  Shoshones  proper,  and  the  Utahs:  'The  Goshautes 
live  about  forty  miles  west '  of  Salt  Lake  City.  Forney,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept., 
1858,  p.  212.  The  Goships,  or  Gosha  Utes,  range  west  of  Salt  Lake.  Cooley, 
in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1865,  p.  17.  The  Goships  'range  between  the  Great  Salt 
Lake  and  the  land  of  the  western  Shoshones.'  Head,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1866, 
p.  123.  The  Goship  Shoshones  '  live,  in  the  western  part  of  Utah,  between 
Great  Salt  Lake  and  the  western  boundary  of  the  Territory,'  (Utah).  Tour 
tellotte,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1869,  p.  230.  The  Goshutes  are  located  'in  the 
country  in  the  vicinity  of  Egan  Canon. . .  .In  the  Shoshone  range.'  Douglas, 
in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1870,  p.  96.  '  The  Goship  Shoshones  inhabit  that  part  of 
Utah  which  lies  between  Great  Salt  Lake  and  the  western  boundary  of  the 
Territory  (Utah).'  Tourtellotte,  in  Id.,  p.  141.  The  Goshoots  'Dr.  Hurt 


468  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

classes  among  the  Shoshones;  but  according  to  Mr.  G.  "W.  Bean,  Capt. 
Simpson's  Guide  in  the  fall  of  1858.  . .  .they  are  the  offspring  of  a  disaffected 
portion  of  the  Ute  tribe,  that  left  their  nation,  about  two  generations  ago, 
under  their  leader  or  Chief  Goship,  whence  their  name  Goship  Utes  since 

contracted  into  Goshutes Reside  principally  in  the  grassy  valleys  west  of 

Great  Salt  Lake,  along  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Capt.  Simpson's  routes,  as  far 
as  the  Ungoweah  Range.'  Simpson's  Route  to  CaL,  pp.  47-8.  The  Gosh  Yutas, 
'  a  body  of  sixty  under  a  peaceful  leader  were  settled  permanently  on  the 
Indian  Farm  at  Deep  Creek,  and  the  remainder  wandered  40  to  200  miles 
west  of  X>t.  S.  L.  City.'  Burton's  City  of  the  Saints,  p.  577. 

The  Toquimas  live  about  the  head  of  Reese  River  Valley,  and  in  the 
country  to  the  east  of  that  point.  Taylor,  in  CaL  Farmer,  June  26,  1863. 

The  Temoksees  live  about  thirty  miles  south  of  Jacobsville.  CaL  Farmer, 
June  26,  1863. 

The  Pah  Vants  '  occupy  the  Corn  Creek,  Paravan,  and  Beaver  Valleys,  and 
the  valley  of  Sevier.'  Simpson's  Eoute  to  CaL,  p.  45.  Half  the  Pavants  'are 
settled  on  the  Indian  farm  at  Corn  Creek;  the  other  wing  of  the  tribe  lives 
along  Sevier  Lake,  and  the  surrounding  country  in  the  north-east  extremity 
of  Filmore  Valley,  fifty  miles  from  the  City,  where  they  join  the  Gosh  Yuta.' 
Burton's  City  of  the  Saints,  p.  577.  Although  Mr  Burton  gives  this  as  the 
fruit  of  his  own  observation,  it  is  evidently  taken  from  Forney's  Kept.,  in 
Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1859,  p.  364,  which  reads  as  follows:  'About  half  of  them 
(the  Pahvants)  have  their  home  on  the  Corn  Creek  Indian  farm.  The  other 
wing  of  the  tribe  lives  along  Sevier  lake  and  surrounding  country,  in  the 
northeast  extremity  of  Fillmore  valley,  and  about  fifty  miles  from  Fillmore 
city.'  The  Pah  Vants  range  'through  Pah-Vant  and  Sevier  valleys,  and 
west  to  the  White  Mountains.'  Cooky,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1865,  p.  17.  '  The 
Pahveiits  occupy  the  territory  in  the  vicinity  of  Corn  Creek  reservation, 
and  south  of  the  Goship  Shoshones.'  Tourtdotte,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1869,  p. 
230.  '  The  Pah  Vant  Indians  inhabit  the  country  south  of  the  Goship  Sho 
shones.'  Tourtellotte,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1870,  p.  142. 

The  Pi  Edes  '  are  a  band  ranging  through  Beaver  and  Little  Salt  Lake 
Valley,  and  on  the  Virgin  and  Santa  Clara  rivers,  down  to  the  Muddy,  em 
bracing  the  whole  southern  portion  of  Utah  Territory.'  Irish,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
Eept.,  1865,  p.  145.  '  The  Py  Edes  live  adjoining  the  Pahvants,  down  to  the 
Santa  Clara.'  Simpson's  Eoute  to  CaL,  p.  45.  'The  Pi  Ede  Indians  inhabit 
the  country  south  of  the  Pah  Vants.'  Tourtelotte,  in  Ind  Aff.  Eept.,  1870,  p. 
142.  '  The  Piede  Indians  inhabit  the  extreme  southern  portion  of  the  terri 
tory  (Utah)  on  the  Santa  Clara  and  Muddy  rivers.'  Armstrong,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
Eept.,  1856,  p.  234.  The  Piede  Indians  live  on  Rio  Virgin  and  Santa  Clara 
river.  Carvalho's  Incid.  of  Trav.,  p.  223. 

The  Washoes  '  inhabit  the  country  along  the  base  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains,  from  Honey  lake  on  the  north  to  the  west  fork  of  Walker's  river 
the  south.'  Dodge,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1859,  p.  374.  Simpson's  Eoute  to  CaL,  on 
p.  45,  and  Burton's  City  of  the  Saints,  p.  578,  repeat  this.  The  Washoes  '  are 
stated  to  have  boundaries  as  high  up  as  the  Oregon  line,  along  the  eastern 
flanks  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  as  far  to  the  east  as  two  hundred  miles  and  to 
the  south  to  Walker's  river.'  CaL  Farmer,  June  22,  1860.  The  Washoes  live 


WASHOES  AND  SAMPITCHES.  469 

in  the  extreme  western  part  of  Nevada.  Parker,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1866,  p. 
115.  '  Commencing  at  the  western  boundary  of  the  State,  we  have  first  the 

Washoe   tribe, occupying  a  tract  of  country  one  hundred  miles  long, 

north  and  south,  by  twenty-five  in  width.'  Campbell,  in  Id.,  p.  119.  The 
Washoes  '  live  along  Lake  Bigler  and  the  headwaters  of  Carson,  Walker,  and 
Truckee  rivers,  and  in  Long  and  Sierra  Valleys.'  Wasson,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept., 
1861,  p.  114.  The  Washoes  '  are  scattered  over  a  large  extent  of  country  along 
the  western  border  of  the  State  '  of  Nevada.  Parker,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1869, 
p.  18.  The  Washoes  '  frequent  the  settled  portions  of  the  State,  principally 
the  towns  of  Virginia  City,  Carson  City,  Reno,  Washoe  City,  and  Genoa. 
In  summer  they  betake  themselves  to  the  mountains  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake 
Tahoe  and  Hope  Valley.'  Douglas,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1870,  p.  96. 

The  Sampitches  'range  through  the  Sanpitch  valley  and  creek  on  the 
Sevier  river.'  Irish,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1865,  p.  145.  'The  Sampiches  are  a 
tribe  wandering  on  the  desert  to  the  south  of  Youta  Lake.'  Prichard's  Re 
searches,  vol.  v.,  p.  430.  Burton  mentions  '  Sampichyas  '  settled  at  San  Pete. 
City  of  the  Saints,  p.  578.  The  San  Pitches  '  live  in  the  San  Pitch  valley  and 
along  the  Sevier  river.'  Cooley,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1865,  p.  18.  'The  San 
Pitches  occupy  a  territory  south  and  east  of  the  Timpanagos.'  Tourtellotte, 
in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1869,  p.  230.  ' The  San  Pitch  Indians  inhabit  the  country 
about  the  San  Pete  reservation.'  Tourtellotte,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1870,  p.  142. 
*  Les  Sampectches,  les  Pagouts  et  les  Ampayouts  sont  les  plus  proches  voi- 
sins  des  Serpents.'  De  Smet,  Voy.,  p.  28. 

The  Uinta  Utes  'claim  Uinta  valley  and  the  country  along  Green  river.' 
Forney,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1859,  p.  364.  The  Uinta  Yutas  live  '  in  the  mount 
ains  south  of  Fort  Bridger,  and  in  the  country  along  Green  River.'  Burton's 
City  of  the  Saints,  p.  577. 

The  Yam  Pah  Utes  '  inhabit  the  country  south  of  the  Uinta  Valley  reserva 
tion.'  Tourtellotte,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1870,  p.  142;  Id.,  1869,  p.  231. 

The  Elk  Mountain  Utes  live  in  the  south-eastern  portion  of  Utah.   Tour 
tellotte,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1870,  p.  142;  Burton's  City  of  the  Saints,  p.  578. 
repeats. 

The  Tosawees  or  White  Knives,  or  as  they  are  sometimes  called  Shoshoteos 
or  Foot-men,  on  the  Huinboldt  and  Goose  Creek.  Stuart's  Montana,  p.  80. 
'  The  Tosawitches,  or  White  Knives,  inhabit  the  region  along  the  Humboldt 
River.'  Simpson's  Shortest  Route,  p.  47.  The  Indians  about  Stony  Point  are 
called  Tosawwitches  (white  knives).  Hurt,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1856. 

The  Weber  Utes  'live  in  the  valley  of  Salt  Lake.'  Tourtellotte,  in  Ind. 
Aff.  Rept.,  1869,  p.  230,  also  in  id.,  1870,  p.  141.  The  Weber  Utes  live  in 
the  vicinity  of  Salt  Lake  City.  Walker,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1872,  p.  56.  The 
Weber  River  Yutas  are  principally  seen  in  Great  Salt  Lake  City.  Their  chief 
settlement  is  forty  miles  to  the  north.  Burton's  City  of  the  Saints,  p.  578. 

The  Cum  Umbahs  'are  mixed-bloods  of  the  Utes  and  Shoshonees,  and 
range  in  the  region  of  Salt  lake,  Weber  and  Ogden  valleys  in  northern  Utah.' 
Irish,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1865,  p.  144. 

The  Wimmenuches  are  '  a  tribe  of  the  Ute  Indians,  whose  country  is  prin 
cipally  from  Tierra  Amarilla  northward  to  Ellos  de  los  Animas  and  thence 
also  to  the  Rio  Grande.  They  mix  with  the  Pi  Utes  in  Utah.'  Davis,  in  Ind. 


470  TRIBAL  BOUNDAEIES. 

Aff.  Rept.,  1869,  p.  255.  The  Wemenuche  Utes  'roam  and  hunt  west  of  the 
San  Juan  River,  and  their  lodges  are  to  be  found  along  the  banks  of  the  Rio 
de  las  Animas,  Rio  de  la  Plata  and  Rio  Mancos.'  Hanson,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept., 
1870,  p.  155.  The  Weminuche  Utes  live  near  the  San  Juan  river.  Armstrong, 
in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1872,  p.  307. 

The  Capote  Utes  '  roam  from  within  five  to  fifty  miles  of  the  agency,  but 
the  greater  part  of  the  time  live  in  the  vicinity  of  Tierra  Amarilla,  from  five 
to  ten  miles  distant,  north  and  south  along  the  Rio  Charmer.'  Hanson,  in 
2nd.  Aff.  Rept.,  1870,  p.  154;  Armstrong,  in  Id.,  1870,  p.  307. 

'  The  Sheberetches  inhabit  the  country  south  of  the  Yam  Pah  Utes.  Tour- 
tellotte,  in  Ind.  Aff.  RepL,  1870,  p.  142. 

The  Fish  Utes  '  inhabit  the  country  about  Red  Lake,  south  of  the  She 
beretches.'  Tourtellotte,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1870,  p.  142. 

The  Task  Utes  live  near  the  Navajos.  Burton's  City  of  the  Saints,  p.  578. 

The  Tabechya,  or  Sun-hunters,  '  live  about  Tete  de  Biche,  near  Spanish 
lands.'  '  Timpenaguchya,  or  Tinipana  Yuta,  corrupted  into  Tenpenny  Utes, 
. . .  .dwell  about  the  kanyon  of  that  name,  and  on  the  east  of  the  Sweetwater 
Lake.'  Burton's  City  of  the  Saints,  pp.  577-8.  'The  Timpanoge  Indians 
formerly  resided  at  and  about  Spanish  Fort  reservation,  but  they  are  now 
scattered  among  other  bands  and  do  not  now  exist  as  a  separate  tribe.'  Tour 
tellotte,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1870,  p.  142;  see  also  Id.,  1869,  p.  230.  The  Tim- 
panogs  inhabit  'Utah  valley,  and  the  neighboring  mountains.'  Cooky,  in 
Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1865,  p.  17. 


CHAPTER  V. 


NEW   MEXICANS. 

GEOGEAPHICAL  POSITION  OF  THIS  GROUP,  AND  PHYSICAL  FEATURES  OF  THE 
TERRITORY — FAMILY  DIVISIONS:  APACHES,  PUEBLOS,  LOWER  CALIFORNIANS, 
AND  NORTHERN  MEXICANS— THE  APACHE  FAMILY:  COMANCHES,  APACHES 

PROPER,  HUALAPAIS,  YUMAS,   COSNINOS,  YAMPAIS,  YALCHEDUNES,  YAMAJABS, 

COCHEES,  CRUZADOS,  NIJORAS,  NAVAJOS,  MOJAVES,  AND  THEIR  CUSTOMS — 
THE   PUEBLO   FAMILY:    PUEBLOS,  MOQUIS,  PIMAS,  MARICOPAS,  PAPAGOS, 

AND   THEIR   NEIGHBORS— THE    COCHIMIS,    WAICURIS,    PfiRICUIS,    AND   OTHER 

LOWER   CALIFORNIANS — THE    SERIS,    SINALOAS,  TARAHUMARES,    CONCHOS, 
TEPEHUANES,  TOBOSOS,  ACAXES,  AND  OTHERS  IN  NORTHERN  MEXICO. 

The  NEW  MEXICANS,  under  which  name  I  group  the 
nations  of  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Lower  California,  So- 
nora,  Sinaloa,  Chihuahua,  Durango,  Coahuila,  Nuevo 
Leon,  northern  Zacatecas,  and  western  Texas,  present 
some  peculiarities  not  hitherto  encountered  in  this  work. 
As  a  groupal  designation,  this  name  is  neither  more  nor 
less  appropriate  than  some  others;  all  I  claim  for  it  is 
that  it  appears  as  fit  as  any.  The  term  Mexican  might 
with  propriety  be  applied  to  this  group,  as  the  majority 
of  its  people  live  within  the  Mexican  boundary,  but  that 
word  is  employed  in  the  next  division,  which  is  yet  more 
strictly  of  Mexico. 

The  territory  of  the  New  Mexicans,  which  lies  for  the 
most  part  between  the  parallels  3  6°  and  2  3°  and  the  mer 
idians  96°  and  117°,  presents  a  great  diversity  of  climate 
and  aspect.  On  reaching  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
Gulf  of  California,  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  coast  ranges  of 
mountains  join  and  break  up  into  detached  upheavals,  or 


472  NEW  MEXICANS. 

as  they  are  called  k'  lost  mountains ;'  one  part,  with  no  great 
elevation,  continuing  through  the  peninsula,  another, 
under  the  name  of  Sierra  Madre,  extending  along  the 
western  side  of  Mexico.  The  Rocky  Mountains,  which 
separate  into  two  ranges  at  about  the  forty-fifth  paral 
lel,  continue  southward,  one  branch,  known  in  Utah  as 
the  Wahsatch,  merging  into  the  Sierra  Madre,  while 
the  other,  the  great  Cordillera,  stretches  along  the 
eastern  side  of  Mexico,  uniting  again  with  the  Sierra 
Madre  in  the  Mexican  table-land.  Besides  these  are 
many  detached  and  intersecting  ranges,  between  which 
lie  arid  deserts,  lava  beds,  and  a  few  fertile  valleys. 
From  the  sterile  sandy  deserts  which  cover  vast  areas  of 
this  territory,  rise  many  isolated  groups  of  almost  inac 
cessible  peaks,  some  of  which  are  wooded,  thus  affording 
protection  and  food  for  man  and  beast,  Two  great 
rivers,  the  Colorado  and  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte  flow 
through  this  region,  one  on  either  side,  but,  except  in 
certain  spots,  they  contribute  little  to  the  fertilization  of 
the  country.  In  the  more  elevated  parts  the  climate  is 
temperate,  sometimes  in  winter  severely  cold;  but  on 
the  deserts  and  plains,  with  the  scorching  sun  above  and 
the  burning  sand  beneath,  the  heat  is  almost  insupport 
able.  The  scanty  herbage,  by  which  the  greater  part  of 
this  region  is  covered,  offers  to  man  but  a  transient  food- 
supply;  hence  he  must  move  from  place  to  place  or 
starve.  Thus  nature,  more  than  elsewhere  on  our  coast, 
invites  to  a  roving  life ;  and,  as  on  the  Arabian  deserts, 
bands  of  American  Bedouins  roam  over  immense  tracts 
seeking  what  they  may  devour.  Here  it  is  that  many 
a  luckless  miner  and  ill-protected  traveler  pays  the  pen 
alty  of  his  temerity  with  his  life ;  here  it  is,  more  than 
elsewhere  within  the  temperate  zones  of  the  two  Amer 
icas,  that  the  natives  bid  defiance  to  the  encroachments 
of  civilization.  Sweeping  down  upon  small  settlements 
and  isolated  parties,  these  American  Arabs  rob,  murder, 
and  destroy,  then  fleeing  to  their  strongholds  bid  defiance 
to  pursuers.  In  the  midst  of  all  this  we  find  another 
phenomenon  in  the  semi-civilized  towns-people  of  New 


THE  APACHES.  473 

Mexico  and  Arizona;  a  spontaneous  awakening  from  the 
ruder  phases  of  savagism. 

The  families  of  this  division  may  be  enumerated  as 
follows:  The  Apaches,  under  which  general  name  I  in 
clude  all  the  savage  tribes  roaming  through  New  Mexico, 
the  north-western  portion  of  Texas,  a  small  part  of  north 
ern  Mexico,  and  Arizona;  the  Pueblos,  or  partially  culti 
vated  towns-people  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  with 
whom  I  unite,  though  not  town-builders,  the  non-no 
madic  Pimas,  Maricopas  and  Papagos  of  the  lower  Gila 
River ;  the  Lower  Calif ornians,  who  occupy  the  peninsula ; 
and  the  Northern  Mexicans,  which  term  includes  the  vari 
ous  nations  scattered  over  the  States  of  Sonora,  Sinaloa, 
Chihuahua,  Durango,  Coahuila,  Nuevo  Leon  and  north 
ern  Zacatecas. 

To  the  APACHES,  using  the  term  in  the  signification  of 
a  family  of  this  division,  no  accurate  boundaries  can  be 
assigned.  Owing  to  their  roving  proclivities  and  in 
cessant  raids  they  are  led  first  in  one  direction  and  then 
in  another.  In  general  terms  they  may  be  said  to  range 
about  as  follows:  The  Comanches,  Jetans,  or  Nauni, 
consisting  of  three  tribes,  the  Comanches  proper,  the 
Yamparacks,  and  Tenawas,  inhabiting  northern  Texas, 
eastern  Chihuahua,  Nuevo  Leon,  Coahuila,  Durango,  and 
portions  of  south-western  New  Mexico,1  by  language 
allied  to  the  Shoshone  family;2  the  Apaches,  who  call 

1  The  Comanches  '  are  divided  into  three  principal  bands,  to  wit:  the  Co- 
manche,  the  Yamparack  and  the  Tenawa.'  Burnet,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol. 
i.,  p.  230;  'letans,  termed  by  the  Spaniards  Comanches,  and  in  their  own 
language  Na-uui,  signifying  "life  people."  '  PricJiard's  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  ii., 

p.  549.     'The  Comanches  and  the  numerous  tribes  of  Chichimecas are 

comprehended  by  the  Spaniards  under  the  vague  name  of  Mecos.'  Prichard's 
Researches,  vol.  v.,  p.  422.     The  tribe  called  themselves  Niyuna.'  Schoolcraft's 
Arch.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  575-6;  Parker's  Notes  on  Tex.,  p.  231;  Neighbors,  in  Ind. 
Aff.  Kept.,  1856,  p.  J75;  Mollhausen,  Taqebuch,  p.  115;  Frenches  Hist.  La.,  p. 
155.     '  Se  divide  en  cuatro  ramas  considerables  bajo  los  nombres  de  Cuchan- 
ticas,  Jupes,  Yamparicas  y  Orientales.'  Garcia  Conde,  in  Soc.  Mex.  Geog.,  Bole- 
tin,  torn,  v.,  p.  318;  see  also  Cortez,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Kept.,  vol.  iii.,  p.   121. 
The  Jetans  or  Camanches,  as  the  Spaniards  term  them,  or  Padoucas,  as  they 
are  called  by  the  Pawnees.  Pike's  Explor.  Trav.,  p.  214. 

2  Turner,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,^  vol.  iii.,  p.  76.     '  Los  Indies  yutas, son 

los  mismos  que  los  comanches  d  cumanches,  pues  yuta  eso  quiere  decir  en 
la  lengua  de  los  lipanes.    Por  consiguente  no  se  pueden  distinguir  esos  nom' 


474  NEW  MEXICANS. 

themselves  Shis  Inday,  or  'men  of  the  woods/3  and  whose 
tribal  divisions  are  the  Chiricaguis,  Coyoteros,  Faraones, 
Gilenos,  Lipanes,  Llaneros,  Mescaleros,  Mimbrefios,  Na- 
tages,  Pelones,  Pinaleiios,  Tejuas,  Tontos  and  Yaqueros, 
roaming  over  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  north-western  Texas, 
Chihuahua  and  Sonora,4  and  who  are  allied  by  language 
to  the  great  Tinneh  family;5  the  Navajos,  or  Tenuai, 
'men,'  as  they  designate  themselves,  having  linguistic 


bres,  que  aunque  de  clos  lenguas  difereutes  espresan  una  misma  nacion.'  J5 
landier  y  Thovel,  Diario,  p.  251.     'The  Comanches  are  a  branch  of  the  SI 


Ber- 
Sho- 

shones  or  Snakes.'  Ruxton's  Adven.,  p.  244.  'The  Pawnees  are  descended 
from  a  cousin-germanship  of  the  same  stock.'  Edward's  Hist.  Tex.,  pp.  108-9. 
'  Si  le  sang  des  Azteques  existe  encore  sans  melange  en  Ameriqiie,  il  doit  couler 
dans  les  veines  des  Comanches.'  Domenech's  Jour.,  p.  16;  see  also  Domenech's 
Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  24;  Buschmann,  Spuren  der  Azi.  Spr.,  p.  391. 

3  '  Probably  because  their  winter  quarters  are  always  located  amid  the 
forests  which  grow  upon  the  Sierras.'  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  243. 

4  Cordero  gives  the  following  tribal  names,  which  he  says  are  used  among 
themselves:    Vinni  ettiiieniie,  Tontos;   Segatajenne,   Chiricaguis;   Tjuiccu- 
jeniie,  Gilenos;  Iccujenne,  Mimbrenos;  Yutajenne,  Faraones;  Sejenne,  Mes 
caleros;  Cuelcajenne,  Llaneros;  Lipajenne  and  Yutajenne,  Lipans  and  Na- 


vajos.  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  pp.  369,  379-385.     '  Los  pimas  gilenos  llaman 

;  los  jamajabs  les  llaman  yavipais  y 
apaches.'  Garces,  Diario,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  ii.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  265,  352-3. 


los  yavipais  taros  6  nifores;  los  jamajabs  les  llaman  yavipais  y  nosotros 


'Yavipais  Tejua  que  son  los  indomitos  Apaches.'  Arricivita,  Cronica  Serdfica, 
p.  471.     '  Yavapais,  or  Apache  Mohaves,  as  they  are  more  generally  called.' 
Parker,  in  Ind.  Aff.  llept.,  1869,  p.  217.     'Pueden  dividirse  en  nueve  tribus 
principales  ....  Tontos,  Chirocahues,  Gilenos,  Mimbrenos,  Faraones,  Mezcal- 

eros,  Llaneros,  Lipanes  y  Navajoes.     Todos  hablan  un  mismo  idioma  ....  No 

componen  una  nacion  unif  orine  en  sus  usos  y  costumbres,  pero  coinciden  en 
la  major  parte  de  sus  inclinaciones,  variando  en  otras  con  proporcion  a  los 
terrenos  de  su  residencia,  a  las  necesidades  que  padecen.'  Garcia  Conde,  in 
Soo.  Mex.  Geog.,  Boletin,  torn,  v.,  p.  314.     Apaches,  '  their  name  is  said  to  sig 
nify  'men.''     Mescaleros,  'the  meaning  of  the  name,  probably,  is  drink 
ers  of  mescal.'  Cortes,  in  Pac.  R.  R.Rept.,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  118-9.  Froebel's  Cen 
tral  Arner.,  pp.  309,  353,  491;  Froebel,  Aus  Amerika,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  161,  223,  425; 
Gregg's  Com.  Prairies,  vol.  i.,  p.  285;  Wislizenus'  Tour,  p.  26;  Thummel,  Mexiko, 
p.  351;  Ruxton's  Adven.,  p.  194;  Eaton,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  216; 
Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  i.,  pp.  212-13;  Mowry,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1857,  p. 
298;  Steck,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1863,  p.  108,  and  Id.,  1864,  p.'  182,  1858,  p.  197; 
Bailey,  in  Id.,  1858,  p.  206;  Glum,  in  Id.,  1871,  p.  42;  BartktVs  Pers.  Nar.,  vol. 
i.,  p.  325.     Called  Coyoteros,  because  it  is  believed  that  '  they  feed  upon  the 
flesh  of  the  coyote.'    Hardy's   Trav.,  p.  430.     'Les  Gilenos  ......  avec  les 

Axuas  et  les  Apaches  qui  viennent  de  la  Sierra  Madre  sont  confondus  sous 
le  nom  de  Papagos.'  J/o/ras,  Explor.,  torn,  i.,  p.  213;  Bustamante,  in  Cavo, 
Tres  Siglos,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  79-80.  '  Tonto,  in  Spanish  means  stupid.'  '  Tonto 
is  a  Spanish  corruption  of  the  original  Indian  name.'  Palmer,  in  Harper's 
Mag.,  vol.  xvii.,  p.  460;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  5-8;  Ayers,  in  Ind. 
Aff.  Eept.,  1858,  p.  175;  Collins,  in  Id.,  1860,  p.  161;  Id.,  1861,  p.  122;  Max 
well,  in  Id.,  1863,  p.  116;  Parker,  in  Id.,  1869,  p.  23;  Walker,  in  Id.,  1872,  p. 
53;  Glum,  in  Id.,  1871,  p.  368;  Wappaus,  Geog.  u.  Stat.,  p.  214;  Hassel,  Mex. 
Gnat.,  p.  275;  Turner,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des'Voy.,  1852,  torn,  cxxxv.,  p.  308. 
5  'The  Apaches  and  their  congeners  belong  to  the  Athapascan  family.' 
Turner,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  84,  and  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy., 
1852,  torn.,  cxxxv.,  p.  311;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  10. 


APACHE  NATIONS.  475 

affinities  with  the  Apache  nation,  with  which  indeed 
they  are  sometimes  classed,  living  in  and  around  the 
Sierra  de  los  Mimbres  ;6  the  Mojaves,  occupying  both  banks 
of  the  Colorado  in  Mojave  Yalley ;  the  Hualapais,  near 
the  headwaters  of  Bill  Williams  Fork;  the  Yumas,  on 
the  east  bank  of  the  Colorado,  near  its  junction  with 
the  Rio  Gila;7  the  Cosmnos,  who  like  the  Hualapais  are 
sometimes  included  in  the  Apache  nation,  ranging  through 
the  Mogollon  Mountains  ;8  and  the  Yampais,  between  Bill 
Williams  Fork  and  the  Rio  Hassayampa.9  Of  the  mul 
titude  of  names  mentioned  by  the  early  Spanish  author 
ities,  I  only  give  in  addition  to  the  above  the  Yakhe- 
dunes,  located  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Colorado  in  about 
latitude  33°  20',  the  Yamajabs,  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
same  river,  in  about  latitude  34°-35°;  the  Cochees,  in  the 
Chiricagui  Mountains  of  Arizona,  the  C-ruzados10  in  New 
Mexico,  and  finally  the  Nij&ras*1  somewhere  about  the 
lower  Colorado.12 

6  '  The  Apaches  call  the  Navajoes  Yutahkah.     The  Navajoes  call  them 
selves,  as  a  tribe,  Teiiuai  (man).     The  appellation  Navajo  was  unquestion 
ably  given  them  by  the  Spaniards.'  Eaton,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  pp. 
217,  218.     '  The  Navajoes  and  Apaches  are  identically  one  people.'  Cremony's 
Apaches,  p.  306;  Ruxton's  Adven.,  p.  194;  Mollhausen,  Tagebuch,  p.  229;  Pos- 
ton,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  18G3,  p.  389.     '  Navajoes  and  Apaches  have  descended 
from  the  same  stock.'  Carleion,  in  Ind.  Aff.,  Rept.  Spec.  Com.,  1867,  p.  134. 
'  The  Nayajoes  are  a  Pueblo  Indian.'  Griner,  in  Id.,  p.  329.     'Allied  to  the 
Crow  Indians.'    Fitzpatrick,  in  Emory's  Reconnoissance,  p.  133;    Thummel, 
Mexiko,  p.  348.     'Most  civilized  of  all  the  wild  Indians  of  North  America.' 
Farnham's  Life  in  Gal.,  p.  372.     The  Navajoes  '  are  a  division  of  the  ancient 
Mexicans.'  Scenes  in  the  Rocky  Mis.,  p.  180. 

7  *  "  Yumah,"  signifies  "  Son  of  the  River,"  and  is  only  applied  to  the  In 
dians  born  on  the  banks  of  the  Colorado.     This  nation  is  composed  of  five 
tribes. . .  .among  which. . .  .the  Yabipai's  (Yampai's  or  Yampaos).'  Domenech's 
Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  65.     '  The  Cajuenches  and  Cuchans belong  to  two  dif 
ferent  divisions  of  one  tribe,  which  forms  part  of  the  great  nation  of  the 
Yumas.'  Id.,  p.  10. 

8  Cosninos,  '  Es  ist  mehrfach  die  Ansicht  ausgesprochen  worden  das  die 
meisten  derselben  zu  dem  Stamme  der  Apaches  gehoren,  oder  vielmehr  mit 
ihnen  verwandt  sind.'   Mollhausen,   Tagebuch,  pp.  330-1;  Figuier's  Human 
Race,  p.  482. 

9  '  The  Yampais  form  a  connecting  link  between  the  Gila,  Colorado,  and 
Pueblo  Indians.'  Whipple,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  98.     Yampais  are 
related  to  the  Yumas.  Mollhausen,  Reisen,  torn,  i.,  p.  431.     Yampais:  'Unable 
to  separate  them  from  the  Tonto-Apaches.'  Movcry,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1857, 
p.  302. 

10  '  Llaman  a  estos  indios  los  cruzados,  por  unas  cruces  que  todos,  chicos 
y  grandes  se  atan  del  copete,  que  les  viene  a  caer  en  la  frente;  y  esto  hacen 
cuando  ven  a  los  espanoles.'  Salmeron,  Relaciones,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie 
iii.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  31. 

11  '  Unos  dicen  que  a  un  lado  de  estas  naciones  (Yutas)  para  hacia  al  Po- 


476  NEW  MEXICANS. 

The  Apache  country  is  probably  the  most  desert  of 
all,  alternating  between  sterile  plains  and  wooded  mount 
ains,  interspersed  with  comparatively  few  rich  valleys. 
The  rivers  do  little  to  fertilize  the  soil  except  in  spots ; 
the  little  moisture  that  appears  is  quickly  absorbed  by 
the  cloudless  air  and  arid  plains  which  stretch  out,  some 
times  a  hundred  miles  in  length  and  breadth,  like  lakes 
of  sand.  In  both  mountain  and  desert  the  fierce,  rapa 
cious  Apache,  inured  from  childhood  to  hunger  and 
thirst,  and  heat  and  cold,  finds  safe  retreat.  It  is  here, 
among  our  western  nations,  that  we  first  encounter  thiev 
ing  as  a  profession.  No  savage  is  fond  of  work;  in 
deed,  labor  and  savagism  are  directly  antagonistic,  for 
if  the  savage  continues  to  labor  he  can  but  become  civ 
ilized.  Now  the  Apache  is  not  as  lazy  as  some  of  his 
northern  brothers,  yet  he  will  not  work,  or  if  he  does, 
like  the  Pueblos  who  are  nothing  but  partially  reclaimed 
Apaches  or  Comanches,  he  forthwith  elevates  himself, 
and  is  no  longer  an  Apache;  but  being  somewhat  free 
from  the  vice  of  laziness,  though  subject  in  an  eminent 
degree  to  all  other  vices  of  which  mankind  have  any 
knowledge,  he  presents  the  anomaly  of  uniting  activity 
with  barbarism,  and  for  this  he  must  thank  his  thievish 
propensities.  Leaving  others  to  do  the  work,  he  cares 
not  whom,  the  agriculturists  of  the  river-bottoms  or  the 
towns-people  of  the  north,  he  turns  Ishmaelite,  pounces 
upon  those  near  and  more  remote,  and  if  pursued  retreats 
across  the  jornadas  del  muerte,  or  'journeys of  death'  as 
the  Mexican  calls  them,  and  finds  refuge  in  the  gorges, 
canons,  and  other  almost  impregnable  natural  fortresses 
of  the  mountains. 

niente  esta  la  nacion  de  los  nijoras,  y  otros  afirman  que  no  hay  tal  nacion 
Nijora,  sino  que  esta  palabra  nijor  quiere  decir  cautivo,  y  que  los  cocomari- 
copas  les  dan  de  noche  a  las  naciones  mas  inmediatas  y  les  quitan  sus  hijos, 
los  que  cautivan  y  venden  a  los  pimas  y  estos  a  los  espanoles;  si  es  asi  que 
hay  tal  nacion,  esta  en  esta  inmediacion  del  rio  Colorado  para  el  rio  Salado 
6  rio  Verde.'  Noticias  de  la  Pimeria,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv., 
p.  838.  '  Todos  estos  cautivos  llaman  por  aca  fuera  Nijores,  aunqne  hay  otra 
nacion  Hijeras  a  parte.'  Sedelmair,  Relation,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn, 
iv.,  p.  852. 

12  For  further  particulars  as  to  location  of  tribes,  see  notes  on  TKIBAL 
BOUNDARIES,  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 


PHYSIQUE  OF  APACHES.  477 

The  disparity  in  physical  appearance  between  some  of 
these  nations ,  which  may  be  attributed  for  the  most  part 
to  diet,  is  curious.  While  those  who  subsist  on  mixed 
vegetable  and  animal  food,  present  a  tall,  healthy,  and 
muscular  development,  hardly  excelled  by  the  Caucasian 
race,  those  that  live  on  animal  food,  excepting  perhaps 
the  Comanches,  are  small  in  stature,  wrinkled,  shriveled, 
and  hideously  ugly.13  All  the  natives  of  this  family, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Apaches  proper,  are  tall,  well- 
built,  with  muscles  strongly  developed,  pleasing  features, 
although  at  times  rather  broad  faces,  high  foreheads, 
large,  clear,  dark-colored  eyes,  possessing  generally  ex 
traordinary  powers  of  vision,  black  coarse  hair  and,  for 
a  wonder,  beards.  Taken  as  a  whole,  they  are  the  most 
perfect  specimens  of  physical  manhood  that  we  have  yet 
encountered.  While  some,  and  particularly  females,  are 
of  a  light  copper  color,  others  again  approach  near  to  the 
dark  California!!.  Women  are  generally  plumper,  inclin 
ing  more  to  obesity  than  the  men.  Some  comely  girls 
are  spoken  of  amongst  them,  but  they  grow  old  early.14 

13  '  Besonders  fiel  uns  der  Untersclried  zwischen  den  im  Gebirge,  ahnlich 
den  Wolf  en  lebenden  Yampays  und  Tontos .  '. . .  und  den  von  vegetabilischen 
Stoffen  sich  nahrenden  Bewohnern  des  Colorado-Thales  auf,  iudem  erstere 
nur  kleine  hassliche  Gestalten  mit  widrigem  tiickischem  Ausdruck  der  Physi 
ognomic  waren,  die  anderen  dagegen  wie  lauter  Meistervverke  der  schopfer- 
iscben  Natur  erschienen.'  Mollhausen,  Tagebuch,  p.  384. 

14  The  Navajos  are  '  of  good  size,  nearly  six  feet  in  height,  and  well  pro 
portioned;  cheek-bones  high  and  prominent,  nose  straight  and  well  shaped; 
hair  long  and  black;  eyes  black;. . .  .feet  small;  lips  of  moderate  size;  head 
of  medium  size  and  well  shaped;  forehead  not  small  but  retreating.'  Lether- 
mann,  in  Smithsonian  Kept.,  1855,  p.  288.    '  Fine  looking,  physically.'     '  Most 
symmetrical  figure,  combining  ease,  grace  and  power,  and  activity.'    And  the 
Comanches  '  about  five  feet  ten  inches  in  height,  with  well  proportioned 
shoulders,  very  deep  chest,  and  long,  thin,  but  muscular  arms.'  Cremony's 
Apaches,  pp.  49,  305,  15.     The  Mojave  '  men  are  tall,  erect,  and  finely  pro 
portioned.     Their  features  are  inclined  to  European  regularity;  their  eyes 
large,  shaded  by  long  lashes.'     The  Cuchans  are  '  a  noble  race,  well  formed, 
active  and  intelligent.'   \Vhipple,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  110,  114. 
The  Navajos  are  distinguished  'by  the  fullness  and  roundness  of  their  eyes.' 
IVhipple,  Ewbank,  and  Turner's  Rtpt.,  p.  31,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rfpt.,  vol.  iii., 
'  The  Camanches  are  small  of  stature. . .  .wear  moustaches  and  heads  of  long 
hair.'  Pope,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  15.     The  Comanches  '  que  da  tin 
aspecto  bien  particular  a  estas  naciones,  es  la  falta  completa  de  cejas,  pues 
ellos  se  las  arraucan;  algunos  tienen  una  poca  barba.'  Berlandier  and  Thovel, 
Diario,  p.  253.     The  Yumas  '  if  left  to  their  natural  state,  would  be  fine  look 
ing,  '  but  the  Hualpais  '  were  squalid,  wretched-looking  creatures,  with  splay 

feet,  large  joints  and  diminutive  figures features  like  a  toad's They 

present  a  remarkable  contrast  to  our  tall  and  athletic  Mojaves.'     The  Nava 
jos  are  ' a  fine  looking  race  with  bold  features.'     'The  Mojaves  are  perhaps 


478  NEW  MEXICANS. 

In  contradistinction  to  all  this  the  Apaches  proper,  or 
Apache  nation,  as  we  may  call  them,  are  slim,  ill  de 
veloped,  but  very  agile.  Their  height  is  about  five  feet 

as  fine  a  race  of  men  physically,  as  there  is  in  existence.  Ives'  Colorado 
Elver,  pp.  44,  54,  97-8,  108,  73,  128,  19,  39,  59,^  66,  plate  p.  66.  The  Co- 
manches  are  'de  buena  estatura.'  Beaumont,  Cronica  de  Mechoacan,  MS.,  p. 
527.  The  people  between  the  Colorado  and  Gila  rivers.  'Es  geiite  bien 
agestada  y  corpnlenta,  triguenos  de  color.'  Sedelmair,  Relation,  in  Doc.  His. 
Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  851.  The  Cruzados  are  described  as  '  bien  ages- 
tados  y  nobles  y  ellas  hermosas  de  lindos  ojos  y  amorosas.'  Salmeron,  Relaci- 
ones,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  31;  see  also  Cordoue,  in  Ternaux- 
Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  x.,  p.  446.  In  New  Mexico  Allegre  describes 
them  as  '  corpulentos  y  briosos,  pero  mal  agestados,  las  orejas  largas.  .  .tieuen 


ecstasies  over  the  splendid  figures  of  the  lower  Colorado  people,  whom  he 
calls  the  personification  of  the  ancient  gods  of  the  Romans  and  Greeks,  says 
further  that  they  are  'grosse,  schon  gewachsene  Leute,'  and  describes  their 
color  as  '  dunkelkupferfarbig.'  Of  the  women  he  adds  '  Ganz  im  Gegensatze 
zu  den  Mannern  sind  die  Weiber  der  Indianer  am  Colorado  durcligangig 
klein,  untersetzt  und  so  dick,  das  ihr  Aussehen  mituiiter  an's  komische 
granzt.'  Comparing  the  Hualapais  with  the  Mojaves  he  writes  '  auf  der  eine 
Seite  die  unbekleideten,  riesenhaften  und  wohlgebildeteii  Gestalten  der  Mo- 
haves.  . .  .auf  der  andern  Seite  dagegen  die  ini  Vergleich  mit  erstern,  zwerg- 
ahnlichen,  hagern . . .  .  Figuren  der  Wallpays,  mit  ihren  verwirrten,  struppi- 
gen  Haaren,  den  kleinen,  geschlitzten  Augen  und  den  falschen,  gehassigen 
Ausdruck  in  ihren  Zugen.'  The  Cosninos  he  calls  'hasslich  und  verkum- 
mert.'  Mollhausen,  Tagebuch,  pp.  331,  382-8;  Mollhausen,  Reisen,  torn,  i.,  pp. 
123-4,  199,  215,  274,  293,  318,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  43,  37,  and  plate  frontispiece. 
Mollhausen,  Mormonmmfidclien,  torn,  ii.,  p.  140.  The  Comanche  'men  are 
about  the  medium  stature,  with  bright  copper-coloured  complexions. . .  .the 
women  are  short  with  crooked  legs. . .  .far  from  being  as  good  looking  as  the 
men.'  In  the  Colorado  Valley  'are  the  largest  and  best-formed  men  I  ever 
saw,  their  average  height  being  an  inch  over  six  feet.'  Marcy's  Army  Life, 
pp.  25,  279.  '  Les  Comanches  out  la  taille  haute  et  elancee,  et  sont  presq'ue 
aussi  blancs  que  les  Europeens.'  Soc.  Geog.,  Buletin,  serie  v.,  No.  96,  p.  192. 
And  of  the  Comanches  see  further.  Dragoon  Camp,  p.  153.  '  Robust,  almost 
Herculean  race.'"  Footers  Texas,  vol.  i.,  p.  298.  'Exceedingly  handsome.' 
Calderonde  la  Barca's  Life  in  Mex.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  308;  Hartmann  and  Mittard's 
Texas,  p.  109.  'Women  are  ugly,  crooklegged,  stoop-shouldered.'  Parker's 
Notes  on  Tex.,  pp.  189,  232,  194;  Mexikanische  Zustande,  torn,  i.,  p.  373;  Froe- 
bel's  Cent.  Am.,  p.  267;  see  also  Froebel,  Aus  America,  torn,  ii.,  p.  101;  Gregg's 
Com.  Prairies,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  37-8;  Domenech,  Journ.,  p.  132.  The  Yuma  '  wom 
en  are  generally  fat.'  '  The  men  are  large,  muscular,  and  well  formed.'  Bart- 
lett's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,pp.  180,  178.  Navajo  women  are  'much  handsomer 
and  have  lighter  complexions  than  the  men.'  Pattie's  Pers.  Nar.,  pp.  218-19; 
Simpson's  Jour.  Mil.  Recon.,  p.  52;  Domenech' 's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  7,  10,  24, 
65, plate  8.  The  Navajos  have  '  light  flaxen  hair,  light  blue  eyes ....  their  skin 
is  of  the  most  delicate  whiteness. '  Brownell's  Ind.  Races,  p.  545;  Hughes'  Don- 
iphan's  Ex.,  p.  203.  On  the  Mojaves  see  further,  Stratton's  Capt.  Oatman  Girls, 
p.  138;  Sitgreaves'  Zufd  Ex.,  p.  18;  Cal.  Mercantile  Jour.,  vol.  i.,  p.  227,  plate; 
Glum,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1871,  p.  363.  And  on  the  Yumas.  Poston,  in  Ind. 
Rept.  Aff.,  1863,  p.  387;  Browne's  Apache  Country,  p.  61;  Taylor,  in  Cal 
Farmer,  Feb.  22,  1860.  Women's  'feet  are  naturally  small.'  Emory's  Rept., 
in  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Boundary  Survey,  vol.  i.,  p.  109.  The  Yampais  are  broad- 
faced,  and  have  'aquiline  noses  and  small  eyes.'  Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag., 
vol.  xvii.,  p.  460.  Indian  Traits,  in  Hayes  Col. 


PHYSICAL  PECULIARITIES.  479 

four  to  five  inches;  features  described  as  ugly,  repulsive, 
emotionless,  flat,  and  approaching  the  Mongol  cast,  while 
the  head  is  covered  with  an  unkempt  mass  of  coarse, 
shocky,  rusty  black  hair,  not  unlike  bristles.  The  women 
are  not  at  all  behind  the  men  in  ugliness,  and  a  pleasing 
face  is  a  rarity.  A  feature  common  to  the  family  is  re 
markably  small  feet;  in  connection  with  which  may  be 
mentioned  the  peculiarity  which  obtains  on  the  lower 
Colorado,  of  having  the  large  toe  widely  separated  from 
the  others,  which  arises  probably  from  wading  in  marshy 
bottoms.  All  the  tribes  whose  principal  subsistence  is 
meat,  and  more  particularly  those  that  eat  horse  and 
mule  flesh,  are  said  to  exhale  a  peculiar  scent,  something 
like  the  animals  themselves  when  heated.15 


15  '  Their  average  height  is  about  five  feet  four  or  five  inches.  They  are 
but  slimly  built,  and  possess  but  little  muscular  development. . .  .light  brown 
ish  red  color.'  Some  have  'a  Chinese  cast  of  countenance. ..  .rusty  black 
hair.'  Smart,  in  Smithsonian  Rcpt.,  1867,  p.4J8.  Their  '  features  were  flat, 

negro-like small   legged,    big-bellied   and   broad-shouldered.'  Emory's 

Reconnaissance,  p.  52.  'More  miserable  looking  objects  I  never  beheld;' 
legs,  'large  and  muscular.'  Fremont  and  Emory's  Notes  of  Trav.,  p.  139. 
'  Wiederliche  Physiognomien  und  Gestalten  .  ..unter  rnittlerer  Grosse.... 
grosse  Kopfe,  vorstehende  Stirii  uud  Backenknochen,  dicke  Nasen,  aufge- 
worfene  Lippen  und  kleine  geschlitzte  Augen....Ihr  Gesicht  war  dunkler 
als  ich  es  jemals  bei  Indianern  gefunden.'  Jllollhausen,  Tayebuch,  p.  360.  '  Von 
zottigen  weit  abstehenden  Haupthaaren  bedeckt.'  Mollhausen,  Fluchtliny,  torn, 
iii.,  p.  49.  '  Ill-formed,  emaciated,  and  miserable  looking  race. . .  .had  all  a 
treacherous-fiendish  look.'  Bartlett's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  327.  '  Physically 
of  a  slighter  build  than  any  Indians  I  have  seen.'  Clum,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept., 
1871,  p.  47.  '  Most  wretched  looking  Indians  I  have  ever  seen.'  Sitgreaves' 
Zuni  Ex.,  p.  14.  '  Small  in  stature. . .  .Coal-black  eye.'  Peters'  Life  of  Carson, 
p.  326.  'Hair  is  very  black  and  straight,  much  resembling  horse  hair. . . . 
appears  to  belong  to  the  Asiatic  type.'  Henry,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v., 
p.  211.  '  Gipsy  looking  with  an  eye  singularly  wild.and  piercing.'  Houstoun's 
Terns,  p.  227.  '  Have  very  light  complexions.'  Ward's  Mexico,  vol.  i.,  p.  580. 
'  Die  Lipanis  haben  blondes  Haar,  und  sind  schiine  Leute.'  Muhlenpfordt,  Me- 
jico,  torn,  i.,  p.  215,  torn,  ii.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  421.  '  Sont  des  beaux  hommes.'  Lacha- 
pelle,  Raousset-Boulbon,  p.  82.  'Tall,  majestic  in  figure;  muscular.'  Brantz- 
Mayer's  Mex.  Aztec.,  etc.,  vol.  ii.  p.  123.  '  Fine  physical  conformation.'  Foote's 
Texas,  vol.  i.,  p.  298.  'Their  skin  looked  whiter  than  I  have  ever  seen  it  in 


the  Indians.'  Wizlizenus'  Tour,  p.  71.     '  Crian  pie  menor  que  los  otros  iiidios.' 

3.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p. 
son  morenos.  cuerpo  bien  proporcionado,  ojos  vivos,  cabello  largo  y  lam- 


Sonora,  Descrip.  Geog.,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  564.     '  Todos 


pifios.'  Velasco,  Noticias  de  Sonora,  p.  265.  '  Su  talla  y  color  diferencian 
algo  en  cada  tribu,  variando  este  desde  el  bronceado  al  moreno.  Son  todos 
bien  proporcionados .  . .  .y  ninguna  barba.'  Garcia  Conde,  in  Soc.  Mex.  Geog., 
Boletin,  torn,  v.,  p.  314;  see  also  Cordero,  in  Orozco y  Berra,  Geografia,  pp. 370-1. 
1  Though  not  tall,  are  admirably  formed,  with  fine  features  and 'a  bright  com 
plexion,  inclining  to  yellow.'  Pattie's  Pers.  Nar.,  p.  117.  '  Son  altos,  rubios 
y  de  bellisimas  proporciones.'  Revista  Cientifica,  torn,  i.,  p.  55.  '  Taille  ordi 
naire,  de  eouleur  fence.'  '  Comme  ces  Indiens  ne  font  leur  nourriture  que 


480  NEW  MEXICANS. 

All  the  natives  of  this  region  wear  the  hair  much  in 
the  same  manner,  cut  square  across  the  forehead,  and 
flowing  behind.16  The  Mojave  men  usually  twist  or  plait 
it,  while  with  the  women  it  is  allowed  to  hang  loose. 
Tattooing  is  common,  but  not  universal;  many  of  the 
Mojave  women  tattoo  the  chin  in  vertical  lines  like  the 
Central  Californians,  except  that  the  lines  are  closer  to 
gether.17  Paint  is  freely  used  among  the  Mojaves,  black 
and  red  predominating,  but  the  Apaches,  Yumas,  and 
others  use  a  greater  variety  of  colors.18  Breech-cloth  and 
moccasins  are  the  ordinary  dress  of  the  men,19  while  the 

de  chair  et  principalement  de  celle  de  1'ane  et  du  millet,  ils  exhalent  une 
odeur  si  penetrante  que  les  chevaux  et  suvtout  les  mules  rebroussent  chemin 
aussitot  qu'ils  les  eventent.'  Soc.  Geog.,  Bulletin,  serie  v.,  No.  96,  p.  187. 

16  '  Cut  their  hair  short  over  the  forehead,  and  let  it  hang  behind.'  Dom- 
enech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  65.     Distinguished  '  durch  den  vollstandig  gleich- 
massigen  Schnitt  ihrer  schwarzen  Haare.'  Mollhausen,  Reisen  indie  Felsengeb., 
torn,  i.,  p.  274;  Mollhausen,  Tagebuch,  p.  384;  Brown's  Apache  Country,  107; 
Sitgreaves'  Zuni.  Ex.,  pp.  15,  18;  Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xvii.,  pp. 
460,  461;   Whipple,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Kept.,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  98,  110. 

17  Mojave  girls,  after  they  marry,  tattoo  the  chin  '  with  vertical  blue  lines.' 
Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xvii.,  p.  463.     Yumas:   '  Doch  ist  ihnen  das 
Tatowiren  nicht  fremd;  dieses  wird  indessen  mehr  von  den  Frauen  ange- 
wendet  welche  sich  die  Mundwinkel  und  das  Kinn  mit  blauen  Punkten  und 
Linien  schmiicken,'  Mollhausen,  Reisen  in  die  Felsengeb.,  torn,  i.,  p.  124;  Moll 
hausen,   Tagebuch,  p.  385;  Stratton's  Capt.  Oatman  Girls,  pp.  151-2;  Whipple, 
Ewbank,  and  Turner's  Rept.,  p.  33,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.,  and  plate; 
Michler,  in  Emory's  Rept.,  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Boundary  Survey,  vol.  i.,  p.  110;  Soc. 
Geog.,  Bulletin,  serie  v.,  No.  96,  p.  186;  Treasury  of  Trav.,  p.  32. 

U  'Das  Gesicht  hatten  sich  alle  Vier  (Mojaves)  auf  gleiche  Weise  be- 
malt,  namlich  kohlschwarz  mit  einem  rothen  Striche,  der  sich  von  der  Stirue 
iiber  Nase,  Mund  und  Kinn  zog.'  Mollhausen,  Tagebuch,  pp.  383,  385,  388; 
plate,  394.  '  Painted  perfectly  black,  excepting  a  red  stripe  from  the  top  of 
his  forehead,  down  the  bridge  of  his  nose  to  his  chin.'  Ives'  Colorado  Riv., 
p.  67.  The  Apaches  '  Se  tinen  el  cuerpo  y  la  cara  con  bastantes  colores.'  Doc. 
Hist.  N.  Vizcaya,  MS.,  p.  5.  '  Pintura  de  greda  y  almagre  con  que  se  untan 
la  cara,  brazos  y  piernas.'  Cordero,  in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  371;  Doc. 
Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  11;  Velasco,  Noticias  de'Sonora,  p.  266; 
Henry,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  211;  Hardy's  Trav.,  p.  337;  Smart,  in 
Smithsonian  Rept.,  1867,  "p.  418;  Whipple,  Ewliank,  and  Turner's  Rept.,  p.  33, 
in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.,  and  plate;  Whipple,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol. 
iii.,  p.  110;  Sedelmair,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  858. 

19  'Naked  with  the  exception  of  the  breech-cloth.'   Sitgreaves'  Zuni  Ex., 

?p.  14,  18;  see  also  plates;  Mojave  men  '  simply  a  breech-cloth.'  Touner,  in 
nd.  Aff.  Rept.,  1871.  '  No  clothing  but  a  strip  of  cotton The  Yumas  dis 
play  '  a  ludicrous  variety  of  tawdry  colors  and  dirty  finery.'  Ives'  Colorado 
Rept.,  pp.  54,  59,  66.  See  colored  plates  of  Yumas,  Mojaves,  and  Hualpais, 
'  Andan  enteramente  desnudos.'  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  iii.,  p.  Ill; 
Mollhausen,  Tagebuch,  p.  383;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  62;  Hardy's  Trav., 
pp.  336,  342;  Stratton's  Capt.  Oatman  Girls,  p.  138;  Pattie's  Pers.  Nar.,  p.  149; 
Walker,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1872,  p.  162;  Cortez,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii., 
p.  124;  Whipple,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  33;  Cremony''s  Apaches,  pp. 
29,  132;  Soc.  Geog.,  Bulletin,  serie  v.,  No.  96,  p.  186;  Indian  Traits,  vol.  i., 
iii  Hayes  Col. 


DBESS  OF  APACHES  AND  MOJAVES.  481 

women  have  a  short  petticoat  of  bark.20  The  dress  of 
the  Mojaves  and  Apaches  is  often  more  pretentious,  being 
a  buckskin  shirt,  skull-cap  or  helmet,  and  moccasins  of 
the  same  material ;  the  latter,  broad  at  the  toes,  slightly 
turned  up,  and  reaching  high  up  on  the  leg,  serve  as  a 
protection  against  cacti  and  thorns.21  It  is  a  common 
practice  among  these  tribes  to  plaster  the  head  and  body 
with  mud,  which  acts  as  a  preventive  against  vermin  and 
a  protection  from  the  sun's  rays.22  In  their  selection 

20  '  A  few  stripes  of  the  inner  bark  of  the  willow  or  acacia  tied  scantily 


Ives'  Colorado  Riv.,  p.  66.  '  Nude,  with  the  exception  of  a  diminutive  breech 
cloth.'  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  29.  'Las  rnas  se  cubren  de  la  cintura  hasta 
las  piernas  con  la  cascara  interior  del  sauce.'  Sedelmair,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.t 
serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  851.  '  Las  mugeres  se  cubren  de  la  cintura  a  la  rodilla 
con  la  cascara  interior  del  sauce.'  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  iii.,  p.  Ill; 
Mollhausen,  Tagebuch,  p.  384;  Mollhausen,  Reisen  in  die  Felsengeb.,  vol.  i.,  p. 
123;  Stratton's  Capt.  Oatman  Girls,  p.  138;  Soc.  Geog.,  Bulletin,  serie  v.,  No.  96, 
p.  186;  Whipple,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  114;  Whipple,  Ewbank,  and 
Turner's  Rept.,  p.  33,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  hi.,  plate  and  cuts;  Touner, 
in  IneZ.  Aff.  Rept.,  1871,  p.  364;  Parker,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1870,  p.  130;  Mich- 
ler,  in  Emory's  Rept.  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Boundary  Survey,  vol.  i.,  pp.  109,  110, 
with  plate. 

21  *  Partly  clothed  like  the  Spaniards,  with  wide  drawers,  moccasins  and 
leggings  to  the  knee . . .  their  moccasins  have  turned-up  square  toes . .  mostly 
they  have  no  head-dress,  some  have  hats,  some  fantastic  helmets.'  Cults' 
Conq.  of  CaL,  p.  184.     'They  prefer  the  legging  and  blanket  to  any  other 
dress.'  Bartldt's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  320,  328.     'Mexican  dress  and  sad 
dles  predominated,  showing  where  they  had  chiefly  made  up  their  wardrobe.' 
Emory's  Reconnoisance,  p.  61.      'Los  hombres,  se  las  acomodan  alrededor 
del  cuerpo,  dejando  desambarazados  los  brazos.     Es  en  lo  general  la  gamuza 
o  piel  del  venado  la  que  emplean  en  este  servicio.     Cubren  la  cabeza  de  un 
bonete  6  gorra  de  lo  mismo,  tal  vez  adomado  de  plumas  de  aves,  o  cuernos 
de  animates. . .  .El  vestuario  de  las  mujeres  es  igualmente  de  pieles.'  Cordero, 
in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  371.     '  Cervinis  tergoribus  amiciuntur  tarn 
fceminse  quam  mares.'  Benavides,  in  De  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  316;  Alarchon, 
in  Hakluyt's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  431,  437;  Sonora,  Descrip.  Geog.,  in  Doc.  Hist. 
Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  564;  Doc.  Hist.  N.  Vizcaya,  MS.,  p.  5;  Pattie's 
Pers.  Nar.,  p.  117;  Hughes'  Doniphan's  Ex.,  p.  214;  Peters'  Life  of  Carson,  p: 
451;  Henry,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  pp.  210,  211;  Walker,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
Rept.,  1872,  p.  174;  Parker,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1869,  p.  248;  Roedel,  in  Ind. 
Aff.  Rept.,  1871,  p.  397;  Niza,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix., 
pp.  266,  268;  Froebel,  Aus  Amerika,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  161,  424;  see  also  Froebel's 
Cent.  Am.,  pp.  309,  490;  Garcia  Conde,  in  Album  Mex.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  46,  166, 
167;  Linati,  Costumes,  plate  xxii;  Velasco,  Noticias  de  Sonora,  p.  266;  Moll 
hausen,  Fluchtling,  torn,  ii.,  p.  173;  Beaumont,  Cron.  de  Mechoacan,  MS.,  p. 
417;  Lachapelle,  Raousset  de  Boulbon,  p.  82. 

22  The  hair  of  the  Mohaves  is  occasionally  '  matted  on  the  top  of  the  head 
into  a  compact  mass  with  mud.'  Sitgreaves'  Zuni  Ex.,  p.  18.     'Their  pig 


ments  are  ochre,  clay,  and  probably  charcoal  mingled  with  oil.'  Whipple, 
Ewbank,  and  Turner's  Rept.,  pp.  33,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.  'Ihr 
Hauptschmuck  dagegen  sind  die  langen,  starken  Haare,  die  mittelst  nasser 


Lehmerde  in  Rollen  gedreht.'  Mollhausen,  Reisen  in  die  Felsengeb,  torn,  i.,  p. 
VOL.  I.    31 


482  NEW  MEXICANS. 

of  ornaments  the  Mojaves  show  a  preference  for  white, 
intermixed  with  blue;  necklaces  and  bracelets  made 
from  beads  and  small  shells,  usually  strung  together, 
but  sometimes  sewed  on  to  leather  bands  are  much  in 
vogue.  The  Apache  nation  adopt  a  more  fantastic  style 
in  painting  and  in  their  head-dress;  for  ornament 
they  employ  deer-hoofs,  shells,  fish-bones,  beads,  and 
occasionally  porcupine-quills,  with  which  the  women  em 
broider  their  short  deer-skin  petticoats.23  The  Nav- 
ajoes,  both  men  and  women,  wear  the  hair  long,  tied  or 
'Clubbed  up  behind;  they  do  not  tattoo  or  disfigure 
themselves  with  paint.24  The  ordinary  dress  is  a  species 
•of  hunting-shirt,  or  doublet,  of  deer-skin,  or  a  blanket 
confined  at  the  waist  by  a  belt ;  buckskin  breeches,  some 
times  ornamented  up  the  seams  with  pieces  of  silver  or 
porcupine-quills;  long  moccasins,  reaching  well  up  the 

124.  The  Axuas  '  Beplastered  their  bodies  and  hair  with  mud.'  Hardy's 
Trav.,  pp.  34:3-4,  356,  368,  370;  .Browne's  Apache  Country,  pp.  61,  63. 

23  Small  white  beads  are  highly  prized  by  the  Mohaves.  Ives'  Colorado 
Elver,  pp.  68-9.  'The  young  girls  wear  beads. . .  .a  necklace  with  a  single 
sea-shell  in  front.'  The  men  'leather  bracelets,  trimmed  with  bright  but 
tons.  .  .  .eagles'  feathers,  called  "sormeh,"  sometimes  white,  sometimes  of  a 
•crimson  tint. . .  .strings  of  wampum,  made  of  circular  pieces  of  shell.'  Whip- 
pie,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  114,  115.  'Shells  of  the  pearl-oyster, 
.and  a  rough  wooden  image  are  the  favorite  ornaments  of  both  sexes '  with 
the  Apaches.  Henry,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  210.  '  Sus  adornos  en 
el  cuello  y  brazos  son  sartas  de  pesunas  de  venado  y  berrendos,  conchas, 
espinas  de  pescado  y  raices  de  yerbas  odoriferas.  Las  familias  mas  pudi- 
eutes  y  aseadas  bordan  sus  trajes  y  zapatos  de  la  espina  del  puerco-espin.' 
Cordero,  in  Orozco y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  371.  '  Adornanse  con  gargantillas  de 
•caracolillos  del  mar,  entreverados  de  otras  cueutas,  de  conchas  coloradas 
redondas.'  Sedelmair,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  851.  'Las 
mugeres  por  arracadas  6  aretes,  se  cuelgan  conchas  enteras  de  nacar,  y  otras 
mayores  azules  en  cada  oreja.'  Alegre,  Hist.  Cornp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  iii.,  p.  Ill; 
Froebel,  Aus  Amerika,  torn,  ii.,  p.  424;  Emory's  Reconnoissance,  p.  61;  Cremony's 
Apaches,  p.  222;  Garcia  Conde,  in  Album  Mex.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  166,  167;  Pattie's 
Pers.  Nar.,  p.  149;  Bartlett's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  181;  Almanza,  in  Doc.  Hist. 
Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  837;  Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xvii.,  p.  463; 
Velasco,  Noticias  de  Sonora,  p.  266;  Browne's  Apache  Country,  pp.  60-64;  Mich- 
.Zer,  in  Emory's  Rept.  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Boundary  Survey,  pp.  109-110;  Whipple, 
in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  93;  Whipple,  Ewbank,  and  Turner's  Rept.,  p. 
:33,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.;  Mollhausen,  Tagebuch,  pp.  389,  394,  399; 
Montanus,  Nieuwe  Weereld,  p.  210;  Hardy's  Trav.,  p.  364;  Smart,  in  Smith- 
.sonian  Rept.,  1867,  pp.  418-19;  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  pp. 
266,  268,  273;  Alarchon,  in  Hakluyt's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  437;  Mexikanische  Zu- 
stande,  torn,  i  ,  p.  64. 

24  The  'hair  is  worn  long  and  tied  up  behind '  by  both  sexes;  Letherman, 
in  Smithsonian  Rept.,  1855,  p.  290.  '  Langes  starkes  Haar  in  eiiien  dicken 
Zopf  zusammengeknotet. '  Mollhausen,  Fluchtliny,  torn,  iv.,  p.  36;  Bartlett's 
Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  329. 


COMANCHE  DKESS  AND  ORNAMENT.         483 

leg,  and  a  round  helmet-shaped  cap,  also  of  buckskin, 
surmounted  with  a  plume  of  eagle  or  wild  turkey  feath 
ers,  and  fastened  with  a  chin-strap.  The  women  wear 
a  blanket  and  waist-belt,  breeches  and  moccasins.  The 
belts,  which  are  of  buckskin,  are  frequently  richly  orna 
mented  with  silver.  They  sometimes  also  use  porcupine- 
quills,  with  which  they  embroider  their  garments.25 

The  Comanches  of  both  sexes  tattoo  the  face,  and 
body  generally  on  the  breast.20  The  men  do  not  cut  the 
hair,  but  gather  it  into  tufts  or  plaits,  to  which  they 
attach  round  pieces  of  silver  graduated  in  size  from  top 
to  bottom;  those  who  cannot  obtain  or  afford  silver  use 
beads,  tin,  or  glass.27  Much  time  is  spent  by  them  in 

25  'Tolerably  well  dressed,  mostly  in  buckskin They  dress  with  great 
er  comfort  than  any  other  tribe,  and  wear  woolen  and  well-tanned  buckskin 
. .  .the  outer  seams  are  adorned  with  silver  or  brass  buttons.'  Davis'  El  Gringo, 
pp.  406,  411,  412.     Leggins  made  of  deer-skin  with  thick  soles a  leath 
ern  cap  shaped  like  a  helmet,  decorated  with  cocks',  eagles'  or  vultures' 
feathers.    Fiyuier's  Hum.   Race,  pp.  481,  482.     'Auf  dem  Kopfe  tragen  sie 
eine  helmartige  Lederkappe  die  gewiihnlich  mit  einem  Busch  kurzer,  glan- 
zender  Truthahnfedern  und  einigen  Geier  oder  Adlerfedern  geschmiickt  ist.' 
Mollhausen,  Tagebuch,  pp.  229,  230.     '  A  close  banded  cap  is  worn  by  the  men 
which  is  gracefiilly  ornamented  by  feathers,  and  held  under  the  chin  by  a 
small  throat-latch.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  435,  and  plate  vii.,  Fig.  3, 
p.  74.      'Their  wardrobes  are  never  extravagantly  supplied.'   Backus,   in 
Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  212.     The  women  'wear  a  blanket.'  Ives'  Col 
orado  Riv.,  p.   128,  and  plate.     The  women  'wore  blankets,  leggins  and 
moccasous.'  Simpson's  Jour.  Mil.  Recon.,  pp.  51,  52,  81.     '  Over  all  is  thrown 
a  blanket,  under  and  sometimes  over  which  is  worn  a  belt,  to  which  are  at 
tached  oval  pieces  of  silver.'  Letherman,  in  SmWisonian  Sept.,  1855,  p.  290. 
The  women's  dress  is  '  chiefly  composed  of  skins. . .  .showily  corded  at  the 
bottom,  forming  a  kind  of  belt  of  beads  and  porcupine  quills.'  Pattie's  Pers. 
Nar.,  pp.  118-9.  BartleWs  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  329;  Mollhausen,  Reisen  in  die 
Felsenqeb.,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  220,  224,  235;  Mollhausen,  Fluchtling,  torn,  iv.,  pp.  36, 
37;  Wliipple,  Ewbank,  and  Turner's  Rept.,  p.  31,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  RepL,  vol.  iii.; 
Bristol,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.  Spec.  Com.,  1867,  p.  344;  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  30'5. 

26  'Tattooed  over  the  body,  especially  on  the  chest.'  Domenech's  Deserts, 
vol.  ii.,  p.  281.     'Tattoo  their  faces  and  breasts.'  Marcy's  Army  Life,  p.  25. 
'  Mares  juxta  atque  foaminae  facies  atque  artus  lineis  quibusdani  persignant.' 
De  Lad,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  310;  Warden,  Recherches,  p.  79;  Famham's  Trav., 
p.  32. 

27  'They  never  cut  the  hair,  but  wear  it  of  very  great  length,  and  orna 
ment  it  upon  state  occasions  with  silver  and  beads.'  Marcy's  Army  Life,  p. 
25.     '  Their  heads  are  covered  with  bits  of  tin  and  glass.'  Shepard's  Land  of 
the  Aztecs,  p.  182.     '  Der  dicke  und  lang  iiber  den  Riicken  hinabhangende 
Zopf^mit  abwarts  immer  kleiuer  werdenden  silbernen  Scheiben  belastet,  die, 
im  Nacken  mit  der  Grosse  einer  massigen  Untertasse  begiiinend,  an  der 
Spitze  .des  Zopfes  met  der  Grosse  eines  halben  Thalers  endigten.'  Froebel, 
Aus  Amerika,  torn,  ii.,  p.  100,  and  Froebel's  Cent.  Am.,  p.  266.     They  'never 
cut  their  hair,  which  they  wear  long,  mingling  with  it  on  particular  occasions 
silver  ornaments  and  pearls.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  24.     '  Todos  ellos 
lie  van  la  cabeza  trasquilada  desde  la  rnitad  hasta  la  f  rente,  y  dejan  lo  demas  del 


484  NEW  MEXICANS. 

painting  and  adorning  their  person — red  being  a  favor 
ite  color;  feathers  also  form  a  necessary  adjunct  to  their 
toilet.28  Some  few  wear  a  deer-skin  shirt,  but  the  more 
common  dress  is  the  buffalo-robe,  which  forms  the  sole 
covering  for  the  upper  part  of  the  body ;  in  addition,  the 
breech-cloth,  leggins,  and  moccasins  are  worn.  The 
women  crop  the  hair  short,  and  a  long  shirt  made  of 
deer-skin,  which  extends  from  the  neck  to  below  the 
knees,  with  leggins  and  moccasins,  are  their  usual  at 
tire.29 

pelo  colgando.'  Beaumont,  Cron,  de  Mechoacan,  MS.,  p.  527;  Revista  Cientifica, 
torn.  i.,  p.  162;  Parker's  Notes  on  Tex.,  p.  191;  Dragoon  Camp.,  p.  153;  Moll- 
hausen,  Tagebuch,  p.  115;  Wliipple,  Ewbank,  and  Turner's  Ilept.,  p.  27,  in  Pac. 
R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.;  Garcia  Conde,  in  Album  Mex.,  torn,  i.,  p.  299;  Combier, 
Voy.,  p.  224. 

28  '  Im  Gesichte  mit  Zinnober  bemalt,  auf  dem  Kopfe  mit  Adlerfedern  ge- 
schmiickt.'  Froebel,  Aus  Amerika,  torn,  ii.,  p.  100.     'It  takes  them  a  con 
siderable  time  to  dress,  and  stick  feathers  and  beads  in  their  hair.'  Dome- 
nech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  281.      'Fond  of  decking  themselves  with  paint, 
beads  and   feathers.'  Marcy's  Army  Life,  pp.  25,  26,  30.     '  Vederbosschen 
op't  hoofd.'  Montanus,  Nieuwe  Weereld,  p.  209.     'En  quanto  a  los  colores, 
varian  mucho,  no  solamente  en  ellos,  sino  tambien  en  los  dibujos  que  se 
hacen  en  la  cara.'  Garcia  Conde,  in  Album  Mex.,  torn,  i.,  p.  299.     The  Co- 
manches  '  de  tout  sexe  portent  im  miroir  attache  au  poignet,  et  se  teignent 
le  visage  en  rouge.'  Soc.  Geog.,  Bulletin,  serie  v.,  No.  96,  p.  192;  Whipple,  Ew- 
lank,  and  Turner's  Rept.,  p.  27,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.;  Palmer,  in 
Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xvii.,  p.  450;  Pattie's  Pe?'s.  Nar.,  pp.  35,  36;  Schoolcraft's 
Arch.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  133;  Parker's  Notes  on  Tex.,  pp.  181,  194,  197,  202;  Wislize- 
nus'  Tour.,  p.  71;  Simpson's  Jour.  Mil.  Recon.,  p.  119;  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de 
Jesus,  torn,  i.,  p.  332;  Combier,  Voy.,  p.  224;  Hartmann  and  Millard,  Texas, 
p.  110;  Larenaudiere,  Mex.  et  Guat.,  p.  147,  plate;  Tempsky's  Mitla,p.  80;  GUI- 
iam's  Trav.,  p.  305;  Horn's  Captivity,  p.  25. 

29  'The  Camanches  prefer  dark  clothes.'  Parker's  Notes  on  Tex.,  pp.  180, 
181,  202.     'Les  guerriers  portent  pour  tout  vetement  une  peau  de  buffle  en 
manteau.'  Soc.  Geog.,  Bulletin,  serie  v.,  No.  96,  p.  192.     'Las  mugeres  andan 
vestidas  de  la  cintura  para  abajo  con  unoo  cueros  de  venado  adobado  en 
forma  de  faldellines,  y  cubren  el  cuerpo  con  unos  capotillos  delmismocuero.' 
Beaumont,  Cron,  de  Mechoacan,  MS.,  p.  527.    '  Vistense  galanos . .  .  asi  hombres 
como  mugeres  con  mantas  pintadas  y  bordadas.'  Torquemada,  Monarq.  Ind., 
torn,  i.,  p.  681.     '  Sus  vestidos  se  componen  de  unas  botas,  un  mediano  de- 
lantal  que  cubre  sus  vergiienzas,  y  un  coton,  todo  de  pieles:  las  mugeres 
usan  una  manta  cuadrada  de  lana  negra  muy  estrecha.'  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp. 
de  Jesus,  torn,  i.,  p.  332.     'Tarn  mares  quam  fceminaB  gossypinis  tunicis  et 
ferarum  exuviis  vestiebantur  ad  Mexicanorum  norniam  et  quod  insolens  bar- 
baris,  ideoque  Hispanis  novum  visurn,  utebautur  calceis  atque  ocreis  quse  e 
ferarum  tergoribus  et  taurino  corio  consuta  erant.     Fceminis  capillus  bene 
pexus  et  elegantur  erat  dispositus,  iiec  ullo  prseterea  velamine  caput  tegebant. ' 
De  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  311;  Froebel,  Aus  Amerika,  pp.  99,  101;  Dragoon 
Camp.,  p.  153;  Warden,  Recherches,  pp.  79,  80;  Garcia  Conde,  in  Album  Mex., 
torn,  i.,  p.  299;  Salmeron,  Relaciones,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  pp. 
25,  31,  91;  Revista  Cientijica,  torn,  i.,  p.  162;  Horn's  Captivity,  p.  22;  Marcy's 
Army  Life,  pp.  25,  29, 45;  Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xvii.,  p.  450;  Cremony's 
Apaches,  p.  15;  Larenaudiere,  Mex.  et  Guat,  p.  147,  plate;  Gallatin,  in  Nouve'llcx 
Annales  des  Voy.,  1851,  torn,  cxxxi.,  pp.  252,  272,  273;  Montanus,  Nieuwe  Wecr- 


DWELLINGS  OF  THE  APACHES.  485 

Nomadic  and  roving  in  their  habits,  they  pay  little 
attention  to  the  construction  of  their  dwellings.  Sel 
dom  do  they  remain  more  than  a  week  in  one  locality  f° 
hence  their  lodges  are  comfortless,  and  diversified  in 
style  according  to  caprice  and  circumstances.  The 
frame-work  everywhere  is  usually  of  poles,  the  Coman- 
ches  placing  them  erect,  the  Lipans  bringing  the. tops 
together  in  cone-shape,  while  the  Apaches  bend  them 
over  into  a  low  oval  ;31  one  or  other  of  the  above  forms 
is  usually  adopted  by  all  this  family,32  with  unimportant 
differences  depending  on  locality  and  variations  of  cli 
mate.  The  framework  is  covered  with  brushwood  or 

eld,  p.  216,  and  Dapper,  Neue  Welt,  p.  243;  Castaneda,  in  Ternaux-Compans, 
Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  127;  Wislizenus'  Tour.,  p.  71;  Parker,  in  Lid.  Aff. 
Rept.,  1809,  p.  109;  Escudero,  Noticias  de  Chihuahua,  p.  230;  Grega's  Com. 
Prairies,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  38,  310,  312;  Foster's  Pre-Hist.  Hac.es,  p.  228;  Hartmann 
and  Millard,  Texas,  p.  110;  Domenech,  Jour.,  pp.  134,  135;  Maillard,  Hist.  Tex., 
p.  240;  Jaramillo,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  pp.  372,  377; 
Castano  de  Soza,  in  Pacheco,  Col.  Doc.  Ined.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  331;  Houstoim's 
Tex.,  p.  227;  Alcedo,  Dicdonario,  torn,  iii.,  p.  184;  Farnham's  Trav.,  p.  32; 
Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  133;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  24. 

30  The  Apaches  'rarely  remain  more  than  a  week  in  any  one  locality.' 
Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  240.  '  Cette  nation  etant  uomode  et  toujours  a  la  pour- 
suite  du  gibier.'  Castaneda,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn.  p.  133; 
Velasco,  Noticias  de  Sonora,  p.  266;  Marcy's  Army  Life,  p.  44;  Henry,  in  School- 
craft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.  p.  212;  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  202;  Backus,  in  Id., 


p. 

31  'The  principal  characteristic  I  believe,  is  the  form  of  their  wigwams; 
one  sets  up  erect  poles,  another  bends  them  over  in  a  circular  form,  and  the 
third  gives  them  a  low  oval  shape.'  Barilett's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.   106. 
Other  tribes  make  their  lodges  in  a  different  way,  by  a  knowledge  of  which 
circumstance,  travelers  are  able  to  discover  on  arriving  at  a  deserted  camp 
whether  it  belongs  to  a  hostile  or  friendly  tribe.'  Parker's  Notes  on  Texas,  p. 
213;  Hartmann  and  Millard,  Texas,  p.  110;  Garcia  Conde,  in  Soc.  Mex.  Geog., 
Buletin,  torn,  v.,  p.  315. 

32  Sus  chozas  o  jacales  son  circulares,  hechas  de  ramas  de  los  arboles,  cu- 
biertas  con  pieles  de  caballos,  vacas,  6  cibolos.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geoyrafia,^  p. 
371.     'I  did  expect  . .  .to  find  that  the  Navajos  had  other  and  better  habita 
tions  than  the  conical,  pole,  brush,  and  mud  lodge.'  Simpson's  Jour.  Mil. 
Recon.,  p.  77.     '  The  Camanches  make  their  lodges  by  placing  poles  in  the 
ground  in  a  circle  and  tying  the  tops  together.'  Parker's  Notes  on  Texas,  p. 
213.     Huts  are  only  temporary,  conical,  of  sticks.  Letherman,  in  Smitlisonian 
Rept.,  1855,  p.  289.     '  Sie  bestanden  einfach  aus  grossen  Lauben  von  Cedern- 
zweigen,  deren  Wolbung  auf  starken  Pfahlen  ruhte,  und  von  Aussen  theil- 
weise  mit  Erde,  Lehm,  und  Steinen  bedecktwar.'  Mollhausen,  Reisen  in  die 
Felsenyeb.,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  15,  220-233.     'Tin  grand  nombre  de  forme  ronde.' 
Jaramillo,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  p  379.     'Their  lodges 
are  rectangular.'  Sityreaves'  Zufti  Ex.,  p.  18;  Castaneda,  in  Ternaux-Compans, 
Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  p.  194;  Ivcs'  Colorado  River,  p.  100;  Figuierts  Hum. 
Race,  p.  482. 


486  NEW  MEXICANS. 

skins,  sometimes  with  grass  or  flat  stones.  They  are 
from  twelve  to  eighteen  feet  in  diameter  at  the  widest 
part,  and  vary  from  four  to  eight  feet  in  height,33  which 
is  sometimes  increased  by  excavation.34  A  triangular 
opening  serves  as  a  door,  which  is  closed  with  a  piece  of 
cloth  or  skin  attached  to  the  top.35  When  on  or  near 
rocky  ground  they  live  in  caves,  whence  some  travelers 
have  inferred  that  they  build  stone  houses.36  A  few  of 

33  t  They  make  them  of  upright  poles  a  few  feet  in  height ....  upon  which 
rest  brush  and  dirt.'  Emory's  Rept.  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Boundary  Survey,  vol.  i., 
pp.  111-12.     '  The  very  rudest  huts  hastily  constructed  of  branches  of  cedar 
trees,  and  sometimes  of  flat  stones  for  small  roofs.'  Eaton,  in  Schoolcraft's 
Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  217.     These  huts  are  about  eight  feet  high,  eighteen  i'eet 
in  diameter  at  base,  the  whole  being  covered  with  bark  or  brush  and  mud. 
Simpson's  Jour.  Mil.  Recon.,  p.  60.     '  Exceedingly  rude  structures  of  sticks 
about  four  or  five  feet  high.'  Backus,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  213. 

'The  Comanches  make  their  lodges in  a  conical  shape which  they 

cover  with  buffalo  hides.'  Parker's  Notes  on  Tex.,  p.  213.     '  Us  habitent  sous 
des  tentes.'  Soc.  Geog.,  Bulletin,  serie  v.,  torn.  96,  p.  192;  Davis'  El  Gringo.,  p. 
414;  Henry,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  212;  Bent,  in  Id.,  vol.  i..  p.  243; 
Gregg's  Com.  Prairies,  vol.  i.,  p.  290;  Browne's  Apache  Country,  p.  96;  Farn- 
ham's  Trav.,  p.  32;  Mange,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  i.,  p.  299;   Vil- 
la-Senor  y  Sanchez,  Theairo,  torn.  ii.  p.  413;  Dufey.  Resume  de  I' Hist.,  torn,  i., 
p.  4;  Torquemada,  Monarq.  Ind.,  torn,  i.,  p.  279;  Domenech,  Jour.,  p.  131; 
Dillon,  Hist.  Mex.,  p.  97;  Ludecus,  Reise,  p.  104;  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  p.  205; 
Thummel,  Mexiko,  p.  352;  Emory's  Recon.,  p.  61;  Marcy's  Rept.,  p.  219;  Gal- 
latin,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1851,  torn,  cli.,  p.  274;  Jaramillo,  in  Ter- 
naux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  pp.  372-9;  Beaumont,  Cron.  de  Mechoa- 
can,  p.  417;  Alarchon,  in  Hakluyt's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  431;  Dapper,  Neue  Welt, 
p.  239;  see  also,  Montanus,  Nieuve  Weereld,  p.  209;  Mollhausen,  Tagebuch,  pp. 
109-115;  Humboldt,  Essai,  Pol.,  torn,  i.,  p.  230;  Cordoue,  in  Temaux-Compans, 
Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  x.,  p.  443;  De  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  301;  Brownett's  Ind. 
Races,  p.  544;  Hardy's  Trav.,  p.  336. 

34  Sitgreaves'  Zuni  Ex.,   p.   18.      'This  compels  the  Navajoes  to  erect 
substantial  huts  of   an  oval  form,  the  lower  portion  of  the  hut  being  ex 
cavated.'    Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  306.     'They  live  in  brush  houses,  in  the 
winter  time,  digging  a  hole  in  the  ground  and  covering  this  with  a  brush 
roof.'  Parker,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1870,  p.  130;   Hughes'  Doniphan's  Ex.,  p. 
218;  Stratton's  Capt.  Oatman  Girls,  p.  136;  Maillard's  Hist.  Tex,,  p.  241. 

35  '  Their  lodges  are. . .  .about  four  or  five  feet  high,  with  a  triangular 
opening  for  ingress  or  egress.'  Backus,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  213. 

The  most  they  do  is  to  build  small  huts with  thick  poles  for  the  arches 

and  a  small  door  through  which  a  single  person  can  hardly  pass.    Velasco, 
Noticias  de  Sonora,  p.  266.     A  rancheria  of  the   Cuabajai  is  described  as 
'  formada  como  una  grande  galeria  en  una  pieza  muy  larga  adornada  con 
arcos  de  sauz,  y  cubierta  con  esteras  de  tule  muy  delgadas  y  bien  cocidas ; 
tenia  ventanas  para  la  luz  y  desahogar  el  humo  y  dos  puertas,  una  al  Oriente 

y  otra  al  Poniente, a  los  dos  lados  de  la  pieza  habia  varios  camaras  6 

alojamientos  para  dormir.'  Arricivita,  Cronica  Serdftca,  pp.  474-5. 

36  'Some  live   in  caves  in  the  rocks.'    Letherman,  in  Smithsonian  Rept., 
1855,  p.  289.     '  They  do  not  live  in  houses  built  of  stone  as  has  been  repeat 
edly  represented,  but  in  caves,  caverns,  and  fissures  of  the  cliffs.'  Eaton,  in 
Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  217.     '  Us  habitaient  des  cavernes  et  des  lieux 
souterrains,  ou  ils  deposaient  leurs  recoltes.'  Gallatin,  in  Nouvelles  Annales 
des  Voy.,  1851,  torn,  cxxxi.,  p.  309.    Most  of  theNavajos  '  live  in  houses  built 


NEW  MEXICAN  DWELLINGS.  487 

the  Mojave  dwellings  are  so  superior  to  the  others  that 
they  deserve  special  notice.  They  may  be  described  as 
a  sort  of  shed  having  perpendicular  walls  and  sloping 
roof,  the  latter  supported  by  a  horizontal  beam  running 
along  the  center,  the  roof  projecting  in  front  so  as  to 
form  a  kind  of  portico.  The  timber  used  is  cotton  wood, 
and  the  interstices  are  filled  up  with  mud  or  straw.37 
None  of  their  houses  have  windows,  the  door  and  smoke- 
hole  in  the  roof  serving  for  this  purpose ;  but,  as  many 
of  them  have  their  fires  outside,  the  door  is  often  the 
only  opening.38 

Small  huts  about  three  feet  in  height  constitute  their 
medicine-lodges,  or  bath-houses,  and  are  generally  in 
form  and  material  like  their  other  structures.39  The 
Mojaves  also  build  granaries  in  a  cylindrical  form  with 
conical,  skillfully  made  osier  roofs.40 

The  food  of  all  is  similar;41  most  of  them  make  more 
or  less  pretentions  to  agriculture,  and  are  habituated  to 
a  vegetable  diet,  but  seldom  do  any  of  them  raise  a  suffic 
ient  supply  for  the  year's  consumption,  and  they  are 
therefore  forced  to  rely  on  the  mesquit-bean,  the  pinon- 

of  stone.'  Scenes  in  the  Pocky  Mts.,  p.  180;  Thummcl,  Mexiko,  p.  352;  Alman- 
za,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  825;  Torquemada,  Monarq.  Ind., 
torn,  i.,  p.  679;  Sanchez,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Hex.,  serie  iv.,  tom.i.,  p.  93;  Gordon's 
Hist,  and  Geog.  Mem.,  p.  88. 

37  '  The  large  cottonwood  posts  and  the  substantial  roof  of  the  wide  shed 
in  front,    are  characteristic   of  the   architecture  of  this  people.'   Whipple, 
Ewbank,  and  Turner's  Rept.,  p.  23,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.    '  They  are  built 
upon  sandy  soil  and  are  thirty  or  forty  feet  square;  the  sides  about  two  feet 

thick  of  wicker-work  and  straw their  favorite  resort  seems  to  be  the  roof, 

where  could  usually  be  counted  from  twenty  to  thirty  persons,  all  appar 
ently  at  home.'  Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xvii.,  p.  464. 

38  See  plate  in  Marcy's  Army  Life,  p.  48.     •  The  fire  is  made  in  the  front 
of  the  lodge.'  Backus,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  70. 

39  '  In  every  village  may  be  seen  small  structures,  consisting  of  a  frame 
work  of  slight  poles,  bent  into  a  semi-spherical  form  and  covered  with  buf 
falo  hides.     These  are  called  medicine  lodges  and  are  used  as  vapor-baths.' 
Marcy's  Army  Life,  p.  60.     '  They  make  huts  three  feet  high  for  bath-rooms 
and  heat  them  with  hot  stones.'  Letherman,  in  Smithsonian  Rept.,  1855,  p. 
289. 

40  Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xviii.,  p.  464;  Whipple,  Ewbank,  and 
Turner's  Rept.,  p.  23,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii. 

41  '  Us  sont  tres-laborieux;  ils  cultivent  les  melons,  les  haricots,  et  d'autres 
legumes;  ils  recoltent  aussi  en  abondance  le  mais.'  Soc.  Geog.,  Bulletin,  serie 
v.,  No.  96,  p.  186.     '  Bohnen,  Mais,  Weizen,  feingeriebenes  Mehl,  Kurbisse 
und  Melonen.'  Mollhausen,  Tagebuch,  pp.  385,  396-7.     '  The  Yumas  and  other 
tribes  on  the  Colorado,  irrigate  their  lands,  and  raise  wheat,  corn,  melons, 
&c.'   Bartlett's   Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  263,  180,  181;  Lachapelle,   Raousset- 


488  NEW  MEXICANS. 

nut  and  the  maguey-plant,  agave  mexicana,  and  other 
wild  fruits,  which  they  collect  in  considerable  quanti 
ties.42  They  are  but  indifferent  hunters,  and  secure 
only  a  precarious  supply  of  small  game,  such  as  rabbits 
and  squirrels,  with  ultimate  recourse  to  rats,  grasshop 
pers,  lizards  and  other  reptiles.43  A  few  fish  are  taken 
W  those  living  in  the  neighborhood  of  rivers.44  The 

Boulbon,  p.  81;  Arridvita,  Cronica  Serdfica,  p.  419;  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de 
Jesus,  torn,  i.,  p.  332;  Ives'  Colorado  River,  pp.  60,  67,  70,  73;  Emory's 
Kept.  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Boundary  Survey,  vol.  i.,  pp.  117,  128,  129;  Stratton's 
Ca.pt.  Oatman  Girls,  p.  123;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  40,  65,  66;  Sit- 
greaves'  Zuiii  Ex.,  p.  18;  Browne's  Apache  Country,  pp.  51,  52,  107;  Mowry's 
Arizona,  p.  33;  Pattie's  Pers.  Nar.,  p.  91;  Mexicanische  ZusUinde,  torn,  i.,  p.  64; 
Mdllhausen,  Eeisen  in  die  Felsengeb,  torn.  1.,  p.  Ill;  Champagnac,  Voyageur. 
p.  84;  Bent,  in  Schoolcraft' 's  Arch.,  vol.  i.,  p.  243;  Eaton,  'in  Schoolcraft's 
Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  217;  Whipple,  Ewbank,  and  Turner's  Rept.,  pp.  13,  120,  in 
Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.;  Thiimmel,  Mexiko,  p.  349;  Gallatin,  in  Nouvelles 
Annales  des  Voy.,  1851,  torn,  cxxxi.,  pp.  288-9;  Prichard's  Nat.  Hist.  Man, 
vol.  ii.,  p.  567;  Farnham's  Life  in  CaL;  Davis'  El  Gringo,  p.  411;  Clark,  in 
Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  viii.,  p.  280';  Salmeron,  Relaciones,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie 
hi.,  torn,  iv.,  pp.  25-6. 

42  '  A  small  but  agreable  nut  called  the  Pinon,  grows  abundantly  in  this 
country;  and  during  a  period  of  scarcity,  it  sometimes  constitutes  the  sole 
food  of  the  poorer  class  of  natives  for  many  successive  weeks.'  Backus,  in 
Schoolcraft' s  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  212.     'Living  upon  the  fruit  of  the  mezquit 
and  tornilla  trees.'  Sitgreaves'  Zuni  Ex.,  pp.  10,  19;  Emory's  Rept.  U.  S.  and 
Mex.  Boundary  Survey,  vol.  i.,  p.  112.     '  Tambien  tienen  para  su  sustento 
mescali,  que  es  conserva  de  raiz  de  maguey.'  Salmeron,  Rdaciones,  in  Doc. 
Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  31;  Henry,  in  Schoolcraft' s  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p. 
212;  Hardy's  Trav.,  pp.  338;  Mdllhausen,   Tagebuch,  pp.  147,  331,  350,  396, 
397;   Cord'oue,  \nTernaux-C  ompans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  x.,  p.  446;  Castaneda, 
in  Id.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  pp.  53,  54;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  i.,  p.  217;  Bart- 
lett's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  234. 

43  '  The  quail  and  hare  of  the  valley,  and  the  deer  and  lizards  of  the  plains, 
together  furnish  but  a  scanty  supply.'  Ehrenberg,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1866,  p. 
110.     '  They  ate  worms,  grasshoppers,  and  reptiles.'  Stratton's  ('apt.  Oatman 
Girls,  pp.  115-116.     '  An  den  dttnnen  Gurt  hatten  unsere  Besucher  uoch  Rat- 
ten,  grosse  Eidechsen  und  Frosche  befestigt.'  Mdllhausen,    Tagebuch,  p.  383. 
'Depending  upon  game  and  roots  for  food.'  Parker,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1870, 
p.  137,  and  1869,  p.  92.     '  Mas  para  ellos  es  plato  regaladisimo  el  de  ratones 


iv.,  p.  212;  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  297. 

44  On  the  Rivers  Colorado  and  Gila.  '  Usan  de  hilo  torcido  unas  redes  y 
otras  de  varios  palitos,  que  los  tuercen  y  juntan  por  las  puntas,  en  que  for- 
man  a  modo  de  un  pequeno  barquito  para  pescar  del  infinite  pescado  que 
hay  en  el  rio.'  Sedelmair,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  851. 
The  Cajuenches  when  the  produce  is  insufficient,  live  on  fish.  Domenech's 
Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  10.  The  Navajos  'live  by  raising  flocks  and  herds, 
instead  of  hunting  and  fishing.'  Davis'  El  Gringo,  p.  411.  The  Apaches 
'  no  comen  pescado  alguno,  no  obstante  de  lo  que  abundan  sus  rios.'  Cor- 
dero,  in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  375.  '  El  Apache  no  come  el  pescado, 
aunque  los  hay  abundantes  en  sus  rios.'  Velasco,  Noticias  de  Sonora,  p.  285; 
Emory's  Rept.  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Boundary  Survey,  vol.  i.,  p.  123;  Stratton's  Capt. 


FOOD  AND  AGEICULTUEE.  489 

Navajos,  Mojaves,  and  Yumas,  have  long  been  ac 
quainted  with  the  art  of  agriculture  and  grow  corn, 
beans,  pumpkins,  melons,  and  other  vegetables,  and  also 
some  wheat;  some  attempt  a  system  of  irrigation,  and 
others  select  for  their  crops  that  portion  of  land  which 
has  been  overflowed  by  the  river.  The  Navajos  possess 
numerous  flocks  of  sheep,  which  though  used  for  food, 
they  kill  only  when  requiring  the  wool  for  blankets. 
Although  in  later  years  they  have  cows,  they  do  not 
make  butter  or  cheese,  but  only  a  curd  from  sour  milk, 
from  which  they  express  the  whey  and  of  which  they 
are  very  fond.45 

Their  method  of  planting  is  simple ;  with  a  short  sharp- 
pointed  stick  small  holes  are  dug  in  the  ground  into 
which  they  drop  the  seeds,  and  no  further  care  is  given 
to  the  crop  except  to  keep  it  partially  free  from  weeds.46 

Maize  soaked  in  water  is  ground  to  a  paste  between 
two  stones;  From  this  paste  tortillas,  or  thin  cakes,  are 
made  which  are  baked  on  a  hot  stone.  To  cook  the 
maguey,  a  hole  is  made  in  the  ground,  in  which  a  fire  is 
kindled ;  after  it  has  burned  some  time  the  maguey-bulb 
is  buried  in  the  hot  ashes  and  roasted.  Some  concoct  a 
gypsy  sort  of  dish  or  ollapodrida ;  game,  and  such  roots 
or  herbs  as  they  can  collect,  being  put  in  an  earthen  pot 
with  water  and  boiled.47 

Oatman  Girls,  p.  149;  Hardy's  Trav.,  p.  373;  Mollhausen,  Belsen  in  die  Felsen- 
geb,  torn,  i.,  pp.  227-8. 

45  '  They  do  not  make  butter  and  cheese Some  who  own  cattle  make 

from  the  curd  of  soured  milk  small  masses,  which  some  have  called  cheese.' 
Letherman,  in  Smithsonian  Rept.,  J855,  p.  292.  '  They  never  to  my  knowledge 
make  butter  or  cheese,  nor  do  I  believe  they  know  what  such  things  are.' 
Eaton,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  217.  The  Navajoes  'make  butter 
and  cheese.'  Scenes  in  the  Rocky  Mts.,  p.  180.  Some  of  the  'men  brought 
into  camp  a  quantity  of  cheese.'  Ives'  Colorado  River,  pp.  128,  130. 

«  Emory's  Rept.  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Boundary  Survey,  vol.  i.,  p.  112.  '  They 
plant  corn  very  deep  with  a  stake  and  raise  very  good  crops.'  Ind.  Aff.  Rept., 
Spec.  Com.,  1867,  p.  337;  Merriwether,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  p.  172. 

47  '  The  metate  is  a  slightly  hollowed  hard  stone,  upon  which  soaked 

maize  is  laid  and  then  reduced  to  paste The  paste  so  formed  is  then 

patted  between  the  hands  until  it  assumes  a  flat,  thin  and  round  appearance 
when  it  is  laid  on  a  hot  pan  and  baked  into  a  tortilla. '  Cremony's  Apaches, 

Ep.  145-6.     '  Us  recoltent  aussi  en  abondance  le  mais  dont  ils  font  de  tortil- 
LS.'  Spc.  Geog.,  Bulletin,  serie  v.,  No.  96,  p.  186.     '  Their  meat  was  boiled  with 
water  in  a  Tusquin  (clay  kettle)  and  this  meat-mush  or  soup  was  the  staple 
of  food  among  them.'  Stratton's  Capt.  Oatman  Girls,  pp.  114,  115.     'A  large 
Echino  Cactus hollowed  so  as  to  make  a  trough.     Into  this  were  thrown 


490  NEW  MEXICANS. 

As  before  mentioned,  the  roving  Apaches  obtain  most 
of  their  food  by  hunting  and  plunder;  they  eat  more 
meat  and  less  vegetable  diet  than  the  other  Arizona 
tribes.  They  have  a  great  partiality  for  horse-flesh,  sel 
dom  eat  fish,  but  kill  deer  and  antelope.48  When  hunt 
ing  they  frequently  disguise  themselves  in  a  skin,  and 
imitating  closely  the  habits  and  movements  of  the  animal, 
they  contrive  to  approach  within  shooting-distance.49 
Whether  it  be  horse  or  deer,  every  portion  of  the  carcass 
with  the  exception  of  the  bones,  is  consumed,  the  entrails 
being  a  special  delicacy.  Their  meat  they  roast  par 
tially  in  the  fire,  and  eat  it  generally  half  raw.  When 
food  is  plenty  they  eat  ravenously  and  consume  an  enor- 

the  soft  portions  of  the  pulpy  substance  which  surrounds  the  heart  of  the 
cactus;  and  to  them  had  been  added  game  and  plants  gathered  from  the 
banks  of  the  creek.  Mingled  with  water,  the  whole  had  been  cooked  by 
stirring  it  up  with  heated  stones.'  Whipple,  in  Pac.  E.  E.  Eept.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  96. 
*  Us  mangent  des  pains  de  mai's  cuits  sous  la  cendre,  aussi  gros  que  les  gros 
pains  de  Castille.'  Castaneda,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  p. 
49;  Hardy's  Trav.,  p.  238;  Pattie's  Pers.  Nar.,  p.  63;  Bartlett's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol. 
i.,  p.  291;  Castano  de  Soza,  in  Pacheco,  Col.  Doc.  Ine'd.,  torn,  iv.,  pp.  330-1. 

48  '  The  Apaches  rely  chiefly  upon  the  flesh  of  the  cattle  and  sheep  they 

can  steal they  are  said,  however,  to  be  more  fond  of  the  meat  of  the 

mule  than  that  of  any  other  animal.'  Gregg's  Com.  Prairies,  vol.  i.,  pp.  290-1. 
'  A  nonproductive  race,  subsisting  wholly  on  plunder  and  game.'  Cremony's 
Apaches,  p.  141.     The  Jicarilla  Apaches:  'the  chase  is  their  only  means  of 
support.'  Carson,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  18GO,  p.  164.     'They  live  entirely  by 
hunting.'    Delgado,  in   Ind.* Aff.  Eept.,    1866,    p.   138.     'Die   Nahrung  der 

Aapches  besteht  hauptsachlich  in  dem  Fleische  der  Binder  und  Schaf e 

doch  soil,  wie  man  sagt,  Maulthierfleisch  ihre  Lieblingspeise  sein.'  Thum- 
mel,  Mexiko,  p.  352.     '  Ihre  besten  Leckerbissen  sind  Pferde  und  Maulesel- 
fleisch,  welches  sie  braten  und  dem  Rindfleische  vorzieheii.'  Ochs,  in  Murr, 
Nachrichten,  p.  289.     Their  daintiest  food  is  mule  and  horseflesh.  Apostolicos 
Afanes,  p.  432.     '  Anteriormente  antes  que  en  la  frontera  abundase  el  gan- 
ado,  uno  de  sus  alimentos  era  la  carne  del  caballo,  y  la  caza  de  diferentes 
animales.'  Velasco,  Noticias  de  Sonora,  pp.  2G6-7;  Edward's  Hist.  Texas,  p.  95; 
Emory's  Eept.    U.  S.  and   Mex.  Boundary  Survey,  vol.  i.,  p.  112;  Barllett's 
Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  327;  Soc.  Geog.,  Bulletin,  serie  v.,  No.  96,  p.  187;  Stratton's 
Capt.  Oatman  Girls,  p.  116;  Ward's  Mexico,  vol.  i.,  p.  580;  Armin,  Das  Heutige 
Mexiko,  p.  282;  Stanley's  Portraits,  p.  57;  Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xvii., 
p.  460;  Edwards'  Campaign,  p.  05;  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  p.  276;  Schoolcraft's 
Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  202;  see' further  Ind.  Aff.  Eepts.,  from  1854-73;  Gallatin,  in 
Nouvettes  Annales  des  Voy.,  1851,  torn,  cxxxi.,  p.  308;  Peters'  Life  of  Carson, 
p.  452;  Torquemada,  Monarq.  Ind.,  torn,  i.,  p.  679. 

49  <  What  I  would  have  sworn  was  an  antelope,  proved  to  be  a  young  In 
dian, who  having  enveloped  himself  in  an  antelope's  skin  with  head, 

horns  and  all  complete,  had  gradually  crept  up  to  the  herd  under  his  dis 
guise.'  Cremony's  Apaches,  pp.  28,  194.     '  Se  viste  de  una  piel  de  los  mismos 
animales,  pone  sobre  su  cabeza  otra  de  la  clase  de  los  que  va  a  buscar,  y  ar- 
mado  de  su  arco  y  flechas  andando  en  cuatro  pies,  procura  mezclarse  en  una 
banda  de  ellos.'  Cordero,  in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  375;  Garcia  Conde, 
in  Album  Mex.,  torn,  i.,  p.  372;  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  212;    Ferry, 
Scenes  de  la  VieSauvage,  p.  262. 


BUFFALO  HUNTING.  491 

mous  quantity ;  when  scarce,  they  fast  long  and  stoically. 
Most  of  them  hate  bear-meat  and  pork.  So  Jew-like  is 
the  Navajo  in  this  particular  that  he  will  not  touch  pork 
though  starving.50 

The  Comanches  do  not  cultivate  the  soil,  but  subsist 
entirely  by  the  chase.  Buffalo,  which  range  in  immense 
herds  throughout  their  country,  are  the  chief  food,  the 
only  addition  to  it  being  a  few  wild  plants  and  roots; 
hence  they  may  be  said  to  be  almost  wholly  flesh-eaters.51 
In  pursuit  of  the  buffalo  they  exhibit  great  activity, 
skill,  and  daring.  When  approaching  a  herd,  they  ad 
vance  in  close  column,  gradually  increasing  their  speed, 
and  as  the  distance  is  lessened,  they  separate  into  two  or 
more  groups,  and  dashing  into  the  herd  at  full  gallop, 
discharge  their  arrows  right  and  left  with  great  rapidity ; 
others  hunt  buffalo  with  spears,  but  the  common  and 
more  fatal  weapon  is  the  bow  and  arrow.  The  skinning 
and  cutting  up  of  the  slain  animals  is  usually  the  task 
of  the  women.52  The  meat  and  also  the  entrails  are 


avoid 

lett's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p. 
panther  meat,  but  seldom  touch  that  of  the  bear.'  Cremony's  Apaches,  p. -226. 
'Tambien  matan  para  comer  osos.'  Salmeron,  Relaciones,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex., 
serie  iii.,  torn.  iv.  p.,  25.  The  Navajoes  '  never  kill  bears  or  rattlesnakes  un 
less  attacked.'  Letherman,  in  Smithsonian  liept.,  1855,  p.  291.  '  5Sie  verehreu 
den  Baren,  der  nie  von  ihnen  getiidtet  wird,  und  desseii  Fleisch  zu  essen  sie 
sich  schenen.  Schweinefleisch  verschmahen  sie  desgleichen;  bem  iargsten 
Hunger  konnen  sie  es  nicht  fiber  sich  gewinuen,  davon  zu  kosten.'  Arntin, 
Das  Heutige  Mexiko,  p.  278;  Cordero,  in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  370. 

51  'The  Northern  and  Middle  Comanches. .  .  subsist  almost  exclusively  up 
on  the  flesh  of  the  buffalo,  and  are  known  among  the  Indians  as  buffalo-eaters.' 
Marcy's  Army  Life,  pp.  19,  26,  46.     '  They  plant  no  corn,  and  their  only  food 
is  meat,  and  a  few  wild  plants  that  grow  upon  the  prairies.'  Marcy's  Kept., 
p.  188.     The  Comanches  are  a  '  nation  subsisting  solely  by  the  chase.'  Pike's 
Explor.  Trav.,  p.  214.     'Subsist  mainly  upon  the  buffalo.'  Graves,  in  Ind. 
Aff.  Kept.,  1854,  p.  180.     'Acknowledge  their  entire  ignorance  of  even  the 
rudest  methods  of  agriculture.'  Baylor,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rej)t.,   1856,  p.   177; 
Sent,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  i.,  p.  244;  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  575; 
Froebel,  Aus  Amerika,  torn,  ii.,  p.  103,  and  Frond's  Cent.  Anier.,  p.  268;  Corn- 
bier,  Voy.,  p.  292;   French's  Hist.  Coll.  La.,  pt.  i'.,  p.  155;  Mollhausen,  Tagebuch, 
p.  115;  Gregg's  Com.  Prairies,  pp.  214-16,  30< ;  Figuier's  Hum.  Race,  p.  480; 
Ludecus,  Reise,  p.  104;  Dragoon  Camp-.,  p.  153;  Foote's  Texas,  p.  298;  Hoc.  Geog., 
Bulletin,  serie  v.,  No.  96,  p.  .192;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  21;  Domenech, 
Jour.,  p.  469;  Kennedy's  Texas,  vol.  i.,  p.  345;  Holley's  Texas,  p.  153;  Dufey, 
Resume,  torn,  i.,  p.  4;  Dewees'  Texas,  p.  233;  Frost's  Ind.  Battles,  p.  385. 

52  '  Luego  que  los  cibolos  echan  a  huir,  los  cazadores  sin  apresurarlos  de- 
masiado  los  persiguen  a  un  galope  corto,  que  van  activando  mas  y  mas  hasta 
que  rompen  en  carrera  ...el  indio  sin  cesar  de  correr,  dispara  su  arco  en 


492  NEW  MEXICANS. 

eaten  both  raw  and  roasted.  A  fire  being  made  in  a 
hole,  sticks  are  ranged  round  it,  meeting  at  the  top,  on 
which  the  meat  is  placed.  The  liver  is  a  favorite  morsel, 
and  is  eaten  raw ;  they  also  drink  the  warm  blood  of  the 
animal.53  No  provision  is  made  for  a  time  of  scarcity, 
but  when  many  buffalo  are  killed,  they  cut  portions  of 
them  into  long  strips,  which,  after  being  dried  in  the  sun, 
are  pounded  fine.  This  pemican  they  carry  with  them 
in  their  hunting  expeditions,  and  when  unsuccessful  in 
the  chase,  a  small  quantity  boiled  in  water  or  cooked 
with  grease,  serves  for  a  meal.  When  unable  to  procure 
game,  they  sometimes  kill  their  horses  and  mules  for 
food,  but  this  only  when  compelled  by  necessity.54  In 
common  with  all  primitive  humanity  they  are  filthy— 
never  bathing  except  in  summer55 — with  little  or  no 
sense  of  decency.56 

tpdas  direcciones,  y  va  sembrando  el  campo  de  reses ....  Las  indias  al  mismo 
tiempo  van  dessollando  cada  una  de  aquellas  reses,  recogiendo  la  piel  y  la 
came.'  Revista  Cientifica,  torn,  i.,  pp.  165-6.  At  a  suitable  distance  from 
their  prey  they  divide  into  two  squadrons,  one  half  taking  to  the  right,  and 
the  other  to  the  left,  and  thus  surround  it.'  Edwards'  Hist.  Tex.,  p.  108; 
French's  Hist.  Coll.  La.,  pt.  ii.,  p.  155;  Gregg's  Com.  Prairies,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  214- 
216.  Women  when  they  perceive  a  deer  or  antelope  '  give  it  chase,  and  return 
only  after  capturing  it  with  the  lasso.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  249. 

53  '  When  any  game  was  killed,  the  Indians  would  tear  out  the  heart,  liver, 
and  entrails,  and  eat  them  raw.'  Frost's  Ind.  Battles,  p.  385.     '  Ces  Indiens 

se  nourissent  de  viande  crue  et  boivent  du  sang Us  coupent  la  viande  en 

tranches  tres-minces  et  la  font  secher  au  soleil;  ils  la  recluisent  ensuite  en 
poudre  pour  la  conserver.'  Castaneda,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i., 
torn,  ix.,  pp.  190-1.    '  They  "jerked  "  or  dried  the  meat  and  made  the  pemmi- 
can.'  Marcy's  Army  Life,  p.  18.     '  Comen  las  criadillas  crudas,  recogiendo  la 
sangre  que  corre  del  cuerpo  con  unas  tutundas  6  jicaras,  se  la  beben  caliente.' 
Beaumont,  Cron.  de  Mechoacan,  MS.,  p.  528;  Farnham's  Trav.,  p.  32;  Horn's 
Captivity,  pp.  16,  23;  Kennedy's  Texas,  vol.  i.,  p.  345. 

54  '  At  one  time  their  larder  is  overstocked  and  they  gorge  themselves  to  re 
pletion.  '  Marcy's  Army  Life,  pp.  32,  44,  46.    'Catch  and  tame  these  wild  horses, 
and  when  unsuccessful  in  chase,  subsist  upon  them.'  Holley's  Texas,  p.  153. 
'  When  pressed  by  hunger  from  scarcity  of  game,  they  subsist  oil  their  young 
horses  and  mules.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  132-3.     '  Have  a  rare  ca 
pacity  for  enduring  hunger,  and  manifest  great  patience  under  its  infliction. 
After  long  abstinence  they  eat  voraciously.'   Burnd,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch., 
vol.  i.,  p.  231;  Parker's  Notes  on  Tex.,  p.  235;  Edwards'  Hist.  Tex.,  p.  108. 

55  The  tribe  'lived  in  the  most  abject  condition  of  filth  and  poverty.' 
Browne's  Apache  Country,  p.  96.      'With  very  few  exceptions,  the  want  of 
cleanliness  is  universal — a  shirt  being  worn  until  it  will  no  longer  hang  to 
gether,  and  it  would  be  difficult  to  tell  the  original  color.'   LetJierman,  in 
Smithsonian  Kept.,  1855,  p.  290.     '  They  are  fond  of  bathing  in  the  summer, 
. . .  .but  nothing  can  induce  them  to  wash  themselves  in  winter.'  Cremony's 
Apaches,  p.  302.     They  give  off  very  unpleasant  odors.  Mollhausen,  Reisen 
in  die  Felsengeb.,  torn,  'i.,  p.  307.     'They  seem  to  have  a  natural  antipathy 


WEAPONS.  493 

Throughout  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  the  bow  and  ar 
row  is  the  principal  weapon,  both  in  war  and  in  the  chase ; 
to  which  are  added,  by  those  accustomed  to  move  about 
on  horseback,  the  shield  and  lance  ;57  with  such  also  the 
Mexican  riata  may  now  occasionally  be  seen.58  In  bat 
tle,  the  Colorado  River  tribes  use  a  club  made  of  hard 
heavy  wood,  having  a  large  mallet- shaped  head,  with  a 
small  handle,  through  which  a  hole  is  bored,  and  in 
which  a  leather  thong  is  introduced  for  the  purpose  of 
securing  it  in  the  hand.59  They  seldom  use  the  torna- 

against  water,  considered  as  the  means  of  cleansing  the  body. ..  .water  is 
only  used  by  them  in  extreme  cases;  for  instance,  when  the  vermin  become 
too  thick  on  their  heads,  they  then  go  through  an  operation  of  covering  the 
head  with  mud,  which  after  some  time  is  washed  out.'  Dodt,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
Kept,  1870,  p.  130;  lues'  Colorado  Riv.,  108;  Baclcus,  in  Schoolcrafl's  Arch., 
vol.  iv.,  p.  214;  Parker's  Notes  on  Tex.,  p.  203;  Arridvita,  Cronica  Serdficu, 
p.  470. 

56  '  They  defecate  promiscuously  near  their  huts;  they  leave  offal  of  every 
character,  dead  animals  and  dead  skins,  close  in  the  vicinity  of  their  huts.' 
Ind.  Aff.  RepL  Spsc.  Com.,  1867,  p.  339;  Strattoris  Capt.  Oatman  Girls,  p.  114; 
Hardy's  Trav.,  p.  380. 

57  The  Mojave   'arms  are  the  bow  and  arrow,  the  spear  and  the  club.' 
Sitgreaves'  Zuni.  Ex.,  p.  18.     'Armed  with  bows  and  arrows.'  Fremont  and 
Emory's  Notes  of  Trav,,   p.  39.     The   Querechos  'use   the  bow  and   ar 
row,  lance  and  shield.'  Marcy's  Army  Life,  pp.  19,  23.     'The  Apache  will 
invariably  add  his  bow  and  arrows  to  his  personal  armament.'  Cremony's 
Apaches,  pp.  15,  75-6,  103,  189.     'Neben  Bogenund  Pfeilen  f iihren  sie  noch 
sehr  lange  Lanzen.'  Mollhausen,  Tagebuch,  p.  230.     '  They  use  the  bow  and  ar 
row  and  spear.'  Letherman,  in  Smithsonian Rept.,  1855,  p.  293.     'Armed  with 
bows  and  arrows,  and  the  lance.'  Backus,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p. 
214.     For  colored  lithograph  of  weapons  see  Whipple,  Ewbank,  and  Turner's 
Rept.,  p.  50,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.     'El  armamento  de  los  apaches  se 
cornponen  de  lanza,  arcoy  flechas.'  Cordero,  in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p. 
372.     'Lasarmas  de  los  apaches  son  fusil,  flechas  y  lanza.'  Garcia  Conde, 

in  Soc.  Mex.  Geog.,  Boletin,  torn,  v.,  p.  315.     'Los  Yumas  son  Indios de 

malas  armas,  muchos  110  lie  van  arco,  y  si  lo  lie  van  es  mal  dispuesto,  y  con 
dos  6  tres  flechas.'  Garces,  in  Arridvita,  Cronica  Serdfica,  p.  419;  Seddmair, 
Reladon,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  851;  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de 
Jesus,  torn,  iii.,  p.  Ill ;  Malte-Brun,  Precis  de  la  Geog.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  399;  Parker's 
Notes  on  Tex.,  p.  190;  Drew,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  188$,  p.  105;  Odin,  in  Domenech, 
Jour.,  p.  450;  Wlslizenus'  Tour,  p.  71;  Dewees'  Texas,  p.  233;  Holley's  Texas, 
p.  153;  Browntll's  2nd.  Races,  p.  543;  Dragoon  Camp.,  p.  153;  Moore's  Texas, 
p.  33;  Ward's  Mexico,  vol.  ii.,  p.  602;  Mtihlenpfordt,  Mfjico,  vol.  ii.,  pt.  ii  , 
p.  421;  Lachapelle,  Raousset-Boulbon,  p.  82;  Combier,    Voy.,  p.  224;  Brantz- 
Mayer's  Mex.  Aztec,  etc.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  123;  Thummel,  Mexiko,  p.  444;  Peters'  Life 
of  Carson,  p. 452;  Cutts'  Cong.  of^Cal.,  p.  185;  Bartlett's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  pp. 
328-9,  451;  Pages'  Travels,  vol.*  i.,  p.  107;  Linati,  Costumes,  plate  xxii.;  Armin, 
Das  Heutige  Mexiko,  p.  274;  Mollhausen,  Mormonenmadchen,  torn,  ii.,  p.  152; 
Figuier's  Hum.  Race,  pp.  480-2,  with  cut. 

58  '  Their  weapons  of  war  are  the  spear  or  lance,  the  bow,  and  the  laso.' 
Hughes'  Doniphan's  Ex.,  p.  173. 

59  Among  '  their  arms  of  offence  '  is  '  what  is  called  Macana,  a-  short  club, 
like  a  round  wooden  mallet,  which  is  used  in  close  quarters.'  Hardy's  Trav., 
p.  373.     'War  clubs  were  prepared  in  abundance.'  Stratton's  Capt.  Oatman 


494  NEW  MEXICANS. 

hawk.  Some  carry  slings  with  four  cords  attached.60 
The  bows  are  made  of  yew,  bois  d'arc,  or  willow,  and 
strengthened  by  means  of  deer-sinewTs,  firmly  fastened 
to  the  back  with  a  strong  adhesive  mixture.  The  length 
varies  from  four  to  five  feet.  The  string  is  made  from 
sinews  of  the  deer.61  A  leathern  arm-guard  is  worn 
round  the  left  wrist  to  defend  it  from  the  blow  of  the 
string.62  The  arrows  measure  from  twenty  to  thirty 
inches,  according  to  length  of  bow,  and  the  shaft  is  com 
posed  of  two  pieces;  the  notch  end,  which  is  the  longer, 
consisting  of  a  reed,  into  wrhich  is  fitted  a  shorter  piece 

Girls,  p.  176.  Die  Apachen  '  nur  Bogen,  Pfeile  uud  Keulen.'  Thilmmel,  Mex- 
iko,  p.  444.  '  Their  clubs  are  of  mezquite  wood  (a  species  of  acacia) 
three  or  four  feet  long.'  Emory's  Rept.  (J.  S.  and  Mex.  Boundary  Survey, 
vol.  i.,  p.  108.  'Us  n'oiit  d'autre  arme  qti'un  grand  croc  et  une  massue.' 
/b'oc.  Geog.,  Bulletin,  serie  v.,  No.  96,  p.  186.  '  Arma  sunt  . .  .oblongi  lignei 
gladii  multis  acutis  silicibus  utrimque  muniti.'  De  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  311. 
'  Sus  Armas  son  Flechas,  y  Macanas.'  Torquemadci,  Moncirq.  2nd.,  torn,  i.,  p. 
681.  Among  the  Comanches:  'Leur  massue  est  une  queue  de  buffle  a  1'ex- 
tremite  de  laquelle  ils  iiiserent  une  boule  en  pierre  ou  en  metal.'  Soc.  Geog., 
Bulletin,  serie  v.,  No.  96,  p.  193;  Mowry,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Sept.,  1857,  p.  302. 

60  '  Mit  vierstreifigen  Strickschleudern  bewaffnet.'  Mexikanische  Zustande, 
toni.  i.,  p.  64.  '  Sie  fechten  mit  'Lanzen,  Biichsen,  Pfeileu  uiid  Tamahaks.' 
Ludecus,  Reise,  p.  104.  '  Une  petite  hache  en  silex.'  Soc.  Geog.,  Bulletin,  serie 
v.,  No.  96,  p.  193;  MuMenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  p.  539;  Treasury  of  Trav., 
p.  31;  Escudero,  Noticias  de  Chihuahua,  p.  230;  Domenech's  Deserls,\ol.  ii., 
p.  272. 

cl  The  Querecho  '  bows  are  made  of  the  tough  and  elastic  wood  of  the 
"bois  d'arc,"  or  Osage  orange  (Maclura  Aurantiaca),  strengthened  and  re- 
enforced  with  the  sinews  of  the  deer  wrapped  firmly  around  them,  and  strung 
with  a  cord  made  of  the  same  material.'  Marcy's  Army  Life,  p.  24.  The 
Tonto  '  bow  is  a  stout  piece  of  tough  wood.  . .  .about  five  feet'long,  strength 
ened  at  points  by  a  wrapping  of  sinew. .  .which  are  joined  by  a  sinew  string.' 
Smart,  in  Smithsonian  Rept.,  1867,  p.  418.  The  Navajo  '  bow  is  about  four 
feet  in  length. . .  .and  is  covered  on  the  back  with  a  kind  of  fibrous  tissue.' 
Letherman,  in  Smithsonian  Rept.,  1855,  p.  293.  The  Yuma  'bow  is  made 
of  willow.'  Emory's  Rept.  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Boundary  Survey,  vol.  i.,  p.  108. 
'  Langen  Bogen  von  Weidenholz.'  Mollhausen,  Reisen  in  die  Felsengeb.,  torn,  i., 
p.  124.  Apaches:  'the  bow  forms  two  semicircles,  with  a  shoulder  in  the 
middle;  the  back  of  it  is  entirely  covered  with  sinews,  which  are  laid  on. ... 
by  the  use  of  some  glutinous  substance.'  Pike's  Explor.  Trav.,  p.  338.  'Los 
tamanos  de  estas  armas  son  differentes,  s§gun  las  parcialidades  que  las  usan.' 
Cordero,  in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  372;  Mollhausen,  Tagebuch,  p.  360; 
Malte-Brun,  Precis  de  la  Geog.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  453;  Whipple,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept., 
vol.  iii.,  p.  98;  Pattie's  Pers.  Nar.,  pp.  117,  149;  Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag., 
vol.  xvii.,  p.  450. 

62  The  Apaches :  '  Tous  portaient  au  poignet  gauche  le  bracelet  de  cuir . . . 
Ce  bracelet  de  cuir  est  une  espece  de  paumelle  qui  entoure  la  main  gauche, 

Le  premier  sert  a  arnortir  le  coup  de  fouet  de  la  corde  de  1'arc  quand  il 

se  detend,  la  seconde  empeche  les  pennes  de  la  fleche  de  declarer  la  peau  de 
la  main. '  Ferry,  Scenes  de  la  vie  Sauvage,  p.  256.  *  With  a  leather  bracelet 
on  one  wrist  and  a  bow  and  quiver  of  arrows  form  the  general  outfit.'  Smai't, 
in  Smithsonian  Rept.,  1867,  p.  418. 


BOW  AND  LANCE.  495 

made  of  acacia,  or  some  other  hard  wood,  and  tipped 
with  obsidian,  agate,  or  iron.  It  is  intended  that  when 
an  object  is  struck,  and  an  attempt  is  made  to  draw  out 
the  arrow,  the  pointed  end  shall  remain  in  the  wound. 
There  is  some  difference  in  the  feathering ;  most  nations 
employing  three  feathers,  tied  round  the  shaft  at  equal 
distances  with  fine  tendons.  The  Tontos  have  their 
arrows  winged  with  four  feathers,  while  some  of  the 
Comanches  use  only  two.  All  have  some  distinguish 
ing  mark  in  their  manner  of  winging,  painting,  or  carv 
ing  on  their  arrows.63  The  quiver  is  usually  made  of 
the  skin  of  some  animal,  deer  or  sheep,  sometimes  of  a 
fox  or  wild-cat  skin  entire  with  the  tail  appended,  or  of 
reeds,  and  carried  slung  at  the  back  or  fastened  to  a  waist- 
belt.64  The  lance  is  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  long,  the 
point  being  a  long  piece  of  iron,  a  knife  or  sword  blade 
socketed  into  the  pole.65  Previous  to  the  introduction 

C3  The  Coyoteros  '  use  very  long  arrows  of  reed,  finished  out  with  some 
hard  wood,  and  an  iron  or  flint  head,  but  invariably  with  three  feathers  at 
the  opposite  end.'  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  103.  Navajoes:  'the  arrow  is  about 
two  feet  long  and  pointed  with  iron.'  Ldherman,  in  Smithsonian  Kept.,  1855, 
p.  293.  The  Querechos'  '  arrows  are  twenty  inches  long,  of  flexible  wood, 
with  a  triangular  point  of  iron  at  one  end,  and  two  feathers ....  at  the  opposite 
extremity.'  Marcy's  Army  Life,  p.  24.  The  Apache  'arrows  are  quite  long, 
very  rarely  pointed  with  flint,  usually  with  iron.  The  feather  upon  the  ar 
row  is  placed  or  bound  down  with  fine  sinew  in  threes,  instead  of  twos. . . . 
The  arrow-shaft  is  usually  made  of  some  pithy  wood,  generally  a  species  of 
yucca.'  Henri/,  in  Schooler -aft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  209.  '  Sagittae  acutis  silicibus 
asperata3.'  De  Laet,  NovusOrbis,  p.  311.  '  Arrows  were .  . .  pointed  with  a  head 
of  stone.  Some  were  of  white  quartz  or  agate,  and  others  of  obsidian.'  Whip- 

ple,  in  Pac.  E.  R.  Kept.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  98.  The  Tonto  'arrows are  three 

feet  long the  cane  is  winged  with  four  strips  of  feather,  held  in  place  by 

threads  of  sinew .  . .  which  bears  on  its  free  end  an  elongated  triangular  piece  of 
quartz,  flint,  or  rarely  iron.'  Smart,  in  Smithsonian  Eept.,  1867,  p.  418.  The 
Lipan  arrows  '  have  four  straight  flutings;  the  Comanches  make  two  straight 
black  flutings  and  two  red  spiral  ones.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  270; 
Sitgreaves'  Zuni  Ex.,  p.  18;  Ternpsky'8  Mitla,  p.  82;  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  p.  270; 
Gander's  Mex.  Guat.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  76;  Mollhausen,  Tagebuch,  p.  360;  Mollhausen, 
Fluchtling,  torn,  iv.,  p.  31;  Pattie's  Pers.  Nar.,  p.  149. 

64  The  Apache  '  quivers  are  usually  made  of  deer-skin,  with  the  hair 
turned  inside  or  outside,  and  sometimes  of  the  skin  of  the  wild-cat,  with  the 
tail  appended.'  Henry,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  210.  '  Quiver  of 
sheep-skin.'  Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xvii.,  p.  461.  '  Quiver  of  fresh- 
cut  reeds.'  Fremont  and  Emory's  Notes  of  Trav.,  p.  39.  'Un  carcax  6  bolsa 
de  piel  de  leopardo  en  lo  general.'  Cordero,  in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p. 
372;  Whipple,  Ewbank,  and  Turner's  Eept.,  p.  31,  in  Pac.  E.  E.  Eept.,  vol. 
iii.;  Tempsky's  Mitla,  p.  80. 

to  '  The  spear  is  eight  or  ten  feet  in  length,  including  the  point,  which  is 
about  eighteen  inches  long,  and  also  made  of  iron.'  Letherntan,  in  ^Snrith- 
sonian  Eept.,  1855,  p.  293.  Should  the  Apaches  possess  any  useless  firearms, 


496  NEW  MEXICANS. 

of  iron,  their  spears  were  pointed  with  obsidian  or  some 
other  flinty  substance  which  was  hammered  and  ground 
to  a  sharp  edge.  The  frame  of  the  shield  is  made  of 
light  basket-work,  covered  with  two  or  three  thicknesses 
of  buffalo-hide;  between  the  layers  of  hide  it  is  usual 
with  the  Comanches  to  place  a  stuffing  of  hair,  thus 
rendering  them  almost  bullet  proof.  Shields  are  painted 
in  various  devices  and  decorated  with  feathers,  pieces 
of  leather,  and  other  finery,  also  with  the  scalps  of 
enemies,  and  are  carried  on  the  left  arm  by  two  straps.6" 
Their  fighting  has  more  the  character  of  assassination 
and  murder  than  warfare.  They  attack  only  when 
they  consider  success  a  foregone  conclusion,  and  rather 
than  incur  the  risk  of  losing  a  warrior  will  for  days  lie 
in  ambush  till  a  fair  opportunity  for  surprising  the  foe 
presents  itself.67  The  ingenuity  of  the  Apache  in  pre 
paring  an  ambush  or  a  surprise  is  described  by  Colonel 
Cremony  as  follows :  l '  He  has  as  perfect  a  knowledge  of 

'  generalmente  vieneii  a  darles  nuevo  uso,  haciendo  cle  ellas  lanzas,  cuchillos, 
lengiietas  de  flechas.'  Cordero,  in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  372.  'La 
lanza  la  usanmuy  larga.'  Garcia  Conde,  in  Soc.  Mex.  Geog.,  Boletin,  torn,  v.,  p. 
315.  'Lance  of  fifteen  feet  in  length.'  Pike's  Explor.  Trav.,  p.  338;  Ilassel, 
Mex.  Guat.,  p.  276;  Holley's  Texas,  p.  153;  Cults'  Conq.  of  Gal.,  p.  242;  Re- 
vista,  Cienti'fica,  torn,  i.,  p.  162;  Parker's  Notes  on  Tex.,  p.  195;  Pattie's  Pers. 
Nar.,  p.  298. 

66  The  Comanche  '  shield  was  round  ....  made  of  wicker-work,  covered 
first  with  deer  skins  and  then  a  tough  piece  of  raw  buffalo-hide  drawn  over, 
. . .  .ornamented  with  a  human  scalp,  a  grizzly  bear's  claw  and  a  mule's  tail 
. . .  .for  the  arm  were  pieces  of  cotton  cloth  twisted  into  a  rope.'  Parker's 
Notes  on  Tex.,  p.  195.     'En  el  brazo  izquierdo  llevaba  el  chimal,  que  es  un 
escudo  ovalado,  cubierto  todo  de  plumas,  espejos,  chaquiras  y  adornos  de 
pano  encarnado.'  Eevista  Cientifica,  torn,  i.,  p.  162.    Their  shield  '  is  generally 
painted  a  bright  yellow.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  268.     '  Shield  of  cir 
cular  form,  covered  with  two  thicknesses  of  hard,  undressed  buffalo  hide, .... 
stuffed  with  hair  . .  .a  rifle-ball  will  not  penetrate  it  unless  it  strikes  perpen 
dicular  to  the  surface.'  Marcy's  Army  Life,  pp.  24-5;  Mollhausen,  Fluchtling, 
torn,  iv.,  p.  31;  Tempsky's  Mitla,  p.  80.     A  '  Navajo  shield. . .  .with  an  image 

of  a  demon  painted  on  one  side border  of  red  cloth,    .     trimmed  with 

feathers.'  Palmer,   in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xvii.,  p.  454;  Linati,    Costumes, 
plate  xxii.;  Shepard's  Land  of  the  Aztecs,  p.  182;  Edwards'  Hist.  Tex,  p.  104. 

67  '  Wherever  their  observations  can  be  made  from  neighboring  heights 
with  a  chance  of  successful  ambush,  the  Apache  never  shows  himself.'    Cre 
mony' s  Apaches,  pp.  79,  189.     '  Attacking  only  when  their  numbers,  and  a 
well-laid  ambush,  promise  a  certainty  of  success.'  Smart,  iuSmWisorian  liept., 
1867,  419.     '  Colocan  de  antemano  una  eniboscada.'    Cordero,  in  Orozco  y 
Berra,   Geografia,  p.  375;   Parker,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1869,  pp.  221-3,  256; 
Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  4;  Emory's  Eeconnoissance,  p.  47;  Emory's  Eept. 
U.  S.  and  Mex.  Boundary  Survey,  p.  107;  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  p.  276;    Soc. 
Geog.,  Bulletin,  serie  v.,  No.  96,  p.  186;  Davis,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1868,  p. 
161. 


APACHE  WAEKIOKS.  497 

the  assimilation  of  colors  as  the  most  experienced  Paris 
modiste.  By  means  of  his  acumen  in  this  respect,  he 
can  conceal  his  swart  body  amidst  the  green  grass, 
behind  brown  shrubs,  or  gray  rocks,  with  so  much  ad 
dress  and  judgment  that  any  but  the  experienced  would 
pass  him  by  without  detection  at  the  distance  of  three  or 
four  yards.  Sometimes  they  will  envelope  themselves 
in  a  gray  blanket,  and  by  an  artistic  sprinkling  of  earth, 
will  so  resemble  a  granite  boulder  as  to  be  passed  \vith- 
]  in  near  range  without  suspicion.  At  others,  they  will 
cover  their  persons  with  freshly  gathered  grass,  and  lying 
prostrate,  appear  as  a  natural  portion  of  the  field.  Again 
they  will  plant  themselves  among  the  Yuccas,  and  so 
closely  imitate  the  appearance  of  that  tree  as  to  pass  for 
one  of  its  species." 

Before  undertaking  a  raid  they  secrete  their  families 
in  the  mountain  fastnesses,  or  elsewhere,  then  two  by 
two,  or  in  greater  numbers,  they  proceed  by  different 
routes,  to  a  place  of  rendezvous,  not  far  from  where  the 
assault  is  to  be  made  or  where  the  ambuscade  is  to  be 
prepared.  When,  after  careful  observation,  coupled  with 
the  report  of  their  scouts,  they  are  led  to  presume  that 
little,  if  any,  resistance  will  be  offered  them,  a  sudden 
assault  is  made,  men,  women  and  children  are  taken 
captives,  and  animals  and  goods  secured,  after  which 
their  retreat  is  conducted  in  an  orderly  and  skillful 
manner,  choosing  pathways  over  barren  and  rugged 
mountains  which  are  known  only  to  themselves.68  Held 
asunder  from  congregating  in  large  bodies  by  a  meager- 
ness  of  provisions,  they  have  recourse  to  a  system  of 
signals  which  facilitates  intercourse  with  each  other. 
During  the  day  one  or  more  columns  of  smoke  are  the 

68  '  Salen . . . .  generalmente  divididos  en  pequenas  partidas  para  ocultar 
mejor  sus  rastros . . . .  Es  imponderable  la  velocidad  con  que  huyen  despues 
que  han  ejecutado  un  crecido  robo. . .  .las  montaiias  que  encumbran,  los  de- 
siertossin  agua  que  atraviesan.'  Garcia  Conde,  in  Soc.  Mex.  Geog.,  Boletin,  torn. 
v.,  p.  316.  'They  steal  upon  their  enemies  under  the  cover  of  night.' 
Emory's  Eept.  U.  8.  and  Mex.  Boundary  Survey,  vol.  i.,  p.  107;  Murr,  Nach- 
richten,  p.  303;  Lachapelle,  Raousset-Boulbon,  p.  83;  Apostolicos  Afanes,  p. 
434;  Cordero,  in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  pp.  375-6;  Browne's  Apache 
Country,  p.  279;  Figuier's  Hum.  Race,  p.  480;  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  p.  276. 
VOL.  I.  32 


498  NEW  MEXICANS. 

signals  made  for  the  scattered  and  roaming  bands  to 
rendezvous,  or  they  serve  as  a  warning  against  approach 
ing  danger.  To  the  same  end  at  night  they  used  a  fire 
beacon  ;  besides  these,  they  have  various  other  means  of 
telegraphing  which  are  only  understood  by  them,  for 
example,  the  displacement  and  arrangement  of  a  few 
stones  on  the  trail,  or  a  bended  twig,  is  to  them  a  note 
,of  warning  as  efficient,  as  is  the  bugle-call  to  disciplined 
troops.69 

They  treat  their  prisoners  cruelly  ;  scalping  them,  or 
burning  them  at  the  stake;  yet,  ruled  as  they  are  by 
greediness,  they  are  always  ready  to  exchange  them  for 
horses,  blankets,  beads,  or  other  property.  When  hotly 
pursued,  they  murder  their  male  prisoners,  preserving 
only  the  females  and  children,  and  the  captured  cattle, 
though  under  desperate  circumstances  they  do  not  hesi 
tate  to  slaughter  the  latter.70  The  Apaches  returning  to 
their  families  from  a  successful  expedition,  are  received 
by  the  women  with  songs  and  feasts,  but  if  unsuccessful 
they  are  met  with  jeers  and  insults.  On  such  occasions 
says  Colonel  Cremony,  "the  women  turn  away  from  them 
with  assured  indifference  and  contempt.  They  are  up- 
.braided  as  cowards,  or  for  want  of  skill  and  tact,  and  are 

69  'La  practica,  que  observan  para  avisarse  los  unos  a  los  otros.  .  .es  levan- 
'tar  humaredas.'  Villa-Senor  y  Sanchez,  Theatro,  torn,  ii.,  p.  394.     '  Smokes  are 
of  various  kinds,   each  one  significant  of  a  particular  object.'    Cremony's 
Apaches,  pp.  183-4.     '  In  token  of  retreate  sounded  on  a  certaine  small  trum 
pet.  .  .  .made  fires,  and  were  answered  againe  afarre  off.  .  .  .to  giue  their  fel- 
lowes  vnderstanding,  how  wee  marched  and  where  we  arriued.'  Coronado,  in 
Hakluyfs  Voy.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  376;  Mollhausen,  Fluchtling,  torn,  ii.,  p.  157;  Smart, 
in  Smithsonian  Eept.,  1867,  p.  419. 

70  «  La  suma  crueldad  con  que  tratan  a  los  vencidos  atenaccandolos  vivoa 
y  comiendose  los  pedazos  de  la  carne  que  la  arrancan.'  Doc.  Hist.  N.  Vizca- 
ya,  MS.,  p.  4.     'Their  savage  and  blood-thirsty  natures  experience  a  rea! 
pleasure  in  tormenting  their  victim.'    Cremony'  s  Apaches,  p.  266.     '  Hang 
their  victims  by  the  heels  to  a  tree  and  put  a  slow  fire  under  their  head.' 
Browne's  Apache  Country,  pp.  201,  93,  96.     Among  the  Navajos,  '  Captives 
taken  in  their  forays   are  usually   treated  kindly.'    Letherman,  in  Smith' 
sonian  Eept.,   1855,  p.  295.     '  Us  scalpent  avec  la  corde  de  leur  arc,  en  In 
tournant  rapidement  autour  de  la  tete  de  leur  victime.'  Lachapelle,  Eaousset- 
Boulbon,  p.  82;    Murr,  Nachrichten,  p.  303;  Stratton's  Capt.  Oatman  Girls,  pp. 

,  138, 


114-118,  138,  149,  218;  Farnham's  Trav.,  p.  32;  Graves,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
1854,  p.  180;  Labadi,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1862,  p.<247;  Malte-Brun,  Precis  d? 
la  Geog.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  453;  Scenes  in  the  Eocky  Mis.,  p.  180;  Stone,  in  Hist. 
Mag.,  vol.  v.,  p.  167;  Henry,  in  Schoolcraft'sArch.,  vol.  v.,.  p.  212;  Doc.  7/ist, 
Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  iii.,  p,  10;  Pattie's  Pers.  Nar.,  p,  118, 


COMANCHE  WARRIORS.  499 

told  that  such  men  should  not  have  wives,  because  they 
do  not  know  how  to  provide  for  their  wants.  When  so 
reproached,  the  warriors  hang  their  heads  and  offer  no 
excuse  for  their  failure.  To  do  so  would  only  subject 
them  to  more  ridicule  and  objurgation ;  but  Indian-like, 
they  bide  their  time  in  the  hope  of  finally  making  their 
peace  by  some  successful  raid."  If  a  Mojave  is  taken 
prisoner  he  is  forever  discarded  in  his  own  nation,  and 
should  he  return  his  mother  even  will  not  own  him.71 

The  Comanches,  who  are  better  warriors  than  the 
Apaches,  highly  honor  bravery  on  the  battle-field. 
From  early  youth,  they  are  taught  the  art  of  war,  and  the 
skillful  handling  of  their  horses  and  weapons ;  and  they 
are  not  allowed  a  seat  in  the  council,  until  their  name 
is  garnished  by  some  heroic  deed.72  Before  going  on 
the  war-path  they  perform  certain  ceremonies,  promi 
nent  among  which  is  the  war-dance.73  They  invariably 
fight  on  horseback  with  the  bow  and  arrow,  spear  and 
shield,  and  in  the  management  of  these  weapons  they 
have  no  superiors. 

Their  mode  of  attack  is  sudden  and  impetuous;  they 
advance  in  column,  and  when  near  the  enemy  form  sub 
divisions  charging  on  the  foe  simultaneously  from  oppo 
site  sides,  and  while  keeping  their  horses  in  constant 
motion,  they  throw  themselves  over  the  side,  leaving 
only  a  small  portion  of  the  body  exposed,  and  in  this 
position  discharge  their  arrows  over  the  back  of  the  ani 
mal  or  under  his  neck  with  great  rapidity  and  precision. 


7-t 


71  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  21G;  WJityple,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.,  p. 

72  '  Obran  en  la  giierra  con  mas  tactica  que  los  apaches.'    Garcia  Conde,  in 
Soc.  Mex.  Geog.,  Boletin,  torn,  v.,  318.     'A  young  man  is  never  considered 
worthy  to  occupy  a  seat  in  council  until  he  has  encountered  an  enemy  in 
battle.'  Marcy's  Army  Life,  p.  34;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  22;  Dome- 
nech,  Jour.,  pp.  140-i;  Foote's  Texas,  vol.  i.,  p.  298;  Kennedy's  Texas,  vol.  i., 
p.  346;  Halliard's  Hist.  Tex.,  p.  243. 

73  '  When  a  chieftain  desires  to  organize  a  war-party,  he ...  rides  around 
through  the  camp  singing  the  war-song.'     Marcy'sArmy  Life,  p.  53.     '  When 
a  chief  wishes  to  go  to  war  . .  the  preliminaries  are  discussed  at  a  war-dance. ' 
Schoolcraft'sArch.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  132;  Armin,  Das  Heutige  Mexiko,  p.  280;  Gregg's 
Com.  Prairies,  vol.  ii.,  p.  315. 

7*  '  They  dart  forward  in  a  column  like  lightning At  a  suitable  distance 

from  their  prey,  they  divide  into  two  squadrons.'  Holley's  Texas,  p.  153.     '  A 
Comanche  will  often  throw  himself  upon  the  opposite  side  of  his  charger,  so 


500  NEW  MEXICANS. 

fA  few  scalps  are  taken,  for  the  purpose  of  being  used  at 
the  war  or  scalp  dance  by  which  they  celebrate  a  vic 
tory.  Prisoners  belong  to  the  captors  and  the  males 
are  usually  killed,  but  women  are  reserved  and  become 
the  wives  or  servants  of  their  owners,  while  children  of 
both  sexes  are  adopted  into  the  tribe.75  Peace  ceremo 
nies  take  place  at  a  council  of  warriors,  when  the  pipe 
is  passed  round  and  smoked  by  each,  previous  to  which 
an  interchange  of  presents  is  customary.76 

Household  utensils  are  made  generally  of  wickerwork, 
or  straw,  which,  to  render  them  watertight,  are  coated 
with  some  resinous  substance.  The  Mojaves  and  a  few 
of  the  Apache  tribes  have  also  burnt-clay  vessels,  such 
as  water-jars  and  dishes.77  For  grinding  maize,  as  before 

as  to  be  protected  from  the  darts  of  the  enemy.'  Gregg's  Com.  Prairies,  vol. 
ii.,  pp.  312-13;  Dewees'  Texas,  p.  23i;  Shepard's  Land  of  the  Aztecs,  p.  182; 
Ludecus,  Reise,  p.  104. 

73 '  Us  tuent  tons  les  prisonniers  adultes,  et  ne  laissent  vivre  que  les  enfants, 
qu'ils  elevent  avec  soin  pour  s'en  servir  comme  d'esclaves.'  Humboldt,  Essai 
PoL,  torn,  i.,  p.  290.  '  Invariably  kill  such  men  as  offer  the  slightest  impedi 
ment  to  their  operations,  and  take  women  and  children  prisoners. '  Marcy's 
Army  Life,  pp.  24,  54.  '  Prisoners  of  war  belong  to  the  captors.'  Burnet,  in 
Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  i.,  p.  232;  Farnham's  Trav.,  p.  32;  Figuier's  Hum. 
Race,  p.  480;  Pottle's  Pers.  Nar.,  p.  41;  Foote's  Texas,  vol.  i.,  p.' 298;  Horn's 
Captivity,  p.  15;  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  p.  205. 

76  '  Ten  chiefs  were  seated  in  a  circle  within  our  tent,  when  the  pipe, 
the  Indian  token  of  peace,  was  produced.  . .  .they  at  first  refused  to  smoke, 
their  excuse  being,  that  it  was  not  their  custom  to  smoke  until  they  had 
received  some  presents.'  Gregg's  Com.  Prairies,  vol.  ii.,  p.  39. 

77  '  I  saw  no  earthenware  vessels  among  them ;  the  utensils  employed  in 
the  preparation  of  food  being  shallow  basins  of  closely  netted  straw.     They 
carried  water  in  pitchers  of  the  same  material,  but  they  were  matted  all  over 
with  a  pitch.'  Smart,  in  Smithsonian  Rept.,  1867,  p.  419.     'Aus  Binsen  und 
Weiden  geflochtene  Gefasse,  mitunter  auch  einige  ausThon  geformte;'. . .  .by 
the  door  stood  '  einbreiter  Stein.  . .  .auf  welchem  mittelst  eineskleineren  die 
Mehlfriichte  zerrieben  wurden.'  Mollhausen,  Tagebuch,  pp.  396,  404.    '  Panniers 
of  wicker-work,  for  holding  provisions,  are  generally  carried  on  the  horse  by 
the  women.'  Henry,  in  Schoolcraft' s  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  210;  Neighbors,  in  School- 
craft's  Arch.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  129.     'Their  only  implements  are  sticks.'  Greene, 
in  'Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1870,  p.  140.      <  They  (the  Axuas  of  Colorado  Kiver)  had 
a  beautiful  fishing-net  made  out  of  grass.' . . . . '  They  had  also  burnt  earthen 
jars,  extremely  well  made.    The  size  of  each  of  them  might  be  about  two  feet 
in  diameter  in  the  greatest  swell;  very  thin,  light,  and  well  formed.'  Hardy's 
Trav.,  p.  338.      'Nets  wrought  with  the  bark  of  the  willow.'   Domenec'h's 
Deserts,  vol.  i.,  p.  220;  Broivne's  Apac.he  Country,  p.  200.     '  Tienen  mucha 
loza  de  las  coloradas,  y  pintadas  y  negras,  platos,  caxetes,  saleros;  almofias, 
xicaras  muy  galanas:  alguna  de  la  loza  esta  vidriada.     Tienen  mucho  aper- 
cibimiento  de  lena,  e  de  madera,  para  hacer  sus  casas,  en  tal  manera,  a  lo 
que  nos  dieron  a  entender,  que  cuando  uno  queria  hacer  casa,  tiene  aquella 
madera  alii  de  puesto  para  el  efecto,  y  hay  mucha  cantidad.     Tiene  dos 
guaxexes  a  los  lados  del  pueblo,  que  le  sirven  para  se  banar,  porque  de  otros 
ojos  de  agua,  a  tiro  de  arcabuz,  beben  y  se  sirven.     A  un  cuarto  de  legua 


IMPLEMENTS.  501 

stated,  a  kind  of  metate  is  used,  which  with  them  is 
nothing  more  than  a  convex  and  a  concave  stone.78  Of 
agricultural  implements  they  know  nothing;  a  pointed 
stick,  crooked  at  one  end,  which  they  call  Jcishishai,  does 
service  as  a  corn-planter  in  spring,  and  during  the  later 
season  answers  also  for  plucking  fruit  from  trees,  and 
again,  in  times  of  scarcity,  to  dig  rats  and  prairie  dogs 
from  their  subterranean  retreats.  Their  cradle  is  a 
flat  board,  padded,  on  which  the  infant  is  fastened; 
on  the  upper  part  is  a  little  hood  to  protect  the  head, 
and  it  is  carried  by  the  mother  on  her  back,  suspended 
by  a  strap.79  Their  saddles  are  simply  two  rolls  of  straw 
covered  with  deer  or  antelope  skin,  which  are  connected 
by  a  strap;  a  piece  of  raw  hide  serves  for  girths  and 
stirrups.  In  later  years  the  Mexican  saddle,  or  one 
approaching  it  in  shape,  has  been  adopted,  and  the 
Navajos  have  succeeded  in  making  a  pretty  fair  imita 
tion  of  it,  of  hard  ash.  Their  bridles,  which  consist  of  a 
rein  attached  to  the  lower  jaw,  are  very  severe  on  the 
animal.80  Although  not  essentially  a  fish-eating  people, 

va  el  rio  Salado,  que  decimos,  por  donde  fue  nuestro  camino,  aunque  el  agua 
salada  se  pierde  de  muchas  leguas  atras.'  Castano  de  Sosa,  in  Pacheco,  Col. 
Doc.  Ine'd.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  331;  Taylor,  in  Cal.  Farmer,  Feb.  14th,  1862;  Browne's 
Apache  Country,  p.  200.  '  Their  only  means  of  farming  are  sharpened  sticks. ' 
Colyer,  in  2nd.  Aff.  Kept.,  1871,  p.  50. 

78  '  Their  utensils  for  the  purpose  of  grinding  breadstuff,  consist  of  two 
stones;  one  flat,  with  a  concavity  in  the  middle;  the  other  round,  fitting  partly 
into  the  hollow  of  the  flat  stone.'    Henry,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p. 
209;  Smart,  in  Smithsonian  Sept..  1867,  p.  418;   Velasco,  Noticias  de  Sonora,  p. 
282. 

79  '  The  cradle  of  the  Navajo  Indians  resembles  the  same  article  made  by 
the  Western  Indians.     It  consists  of  a  flat  board,  to  support  the  vertebral 
column  of  the  infant,  with  a  layer  of  blankets  and  soft  wadding,  to  give  ease 
to  the  position,  having  the  edges  of  the  frame-work  ornamented  with  leather 
fringe.     Around  and  over  the  head  of  the  child,  who  is  strapped  to  this  plane, 
is  an  ornamented  hoop,  to  protect  the  face  and  cranium  from  accident.     A 
leather  strap  is  attached  to  the  vertebral  shell-work,  to  enable  the  mother  to 
sling  it  on  her  back.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  435-6,  and  plate  p.  74. 

so  '  The  saddle  is  not  peculiar  but  generally  resembles  that  used  by  the 
Mexicans.  They  ride  with  a  very  short  stirrup,  which  is  placed  further  to 
the  front  than  on  a  Mexican  saddle.  The  bit  of  the  bridle  has  a  ring  at 
tached  to  it,  through  which  the  lower  jaw  is  partly  thrust,  and  a  powerful 
pressure  is  exerted  by  this  means  when  the  reins  are  tightened.'  Letherman, 
in  Smithsonian  Rept.,  1855,  p.  292.  '  Sa  selle  est  faite  de  deux  rouleaux  de 
paille  relies  par  une  courroie  et  maintenus  par  une  sangle  de  cuir.'  Lacha- 
pelle,  Raousset-Boulbon,  p.  82;  Tempsky's  Mitla,  p.  80.  The  Navajos  have 
'  aus  za'hem  Eschenholz  gefertigten  Sattelbogen.'  Mollhausen,  Fluchtting,  torn, 
iv.,  p.  39. 


502  NEW  MEXICANS. 

the  Mojaves  and  Axuas  display  considerable  ingenuity 
in  the  manufacture  of  fishing-nets,  which  are  noted  for 
their  strength  and  beauty.  Plaited  grass,  or  the  fibry 
bark  of  the  willow,  are  the  materials  of  which  they  are 
made.81  Fire  is  obtained  in  the  old  primitive  fashion  of 
rubbing  together  two  pieces  of  wood,  one  soft  and  the 
other  hard.  The  hard  piece  is  pointed  and  is  twirled 
on  the  softer  piece,  with  a  steady  downward  pressure 
until  sparks  appear.82 

The  Navajos  excel  all  other  nations  of  this  family  in 
the  manufacture  of  blankets.83  The  art  with  them  is 
perhaps  of  Mexican  origin,  and  they  keep  for  this  in 
dustry  large  flocks  of  sheep.84  Some  say  in  making 
blankets  cotton  is  mixed  with  the  wool,  but  I  find  no 
notice  of  their  cultivating  cotton.  Their  looms  are  of 
the  most  primitive  kind.  Two  beams,  one  suspended 
and  the  other  fastened  to  the  ground,  serve  to  stretch  the 
warp  perpendicularly,  and  two  slats,  inserted  between 
the  double  warp,  cross  and  recross  it  and  also  open  a 
passage  for  the  shuttle,  which  is  simply  a  short  stick 
with  some  thread  wound  around  it.  The  operator  sits 

81  '  Das  Netz  war  weitmaschig,  aus  feinen,  aber  sehr  starken  Bastfiiden 
geflochten,  vier  Fuss  hoch,  und  ungefahr  dreissig  Fuss  lang.  Von  vier  zu 
vier  Fuss  befandeii  sich  laiige  Sta'be  an  demselben,  mittelst  welcher  es  im 
Wasser,  zugleich  aber  auch  auf  dem  Boden  und  aufrecht  gehalten  wurde.' 
Mollhausen,  Eeisen  in  die  Felsengeb,  torn,  i.,  p.  227;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  i., 
p.  220. 

82  'El  apache  para  sacar  lumbre,  usa. . .  .un  pedazo  de  sosole  y  otro  de 
lechuguilla  bien  secos.  Al  primero  le  forman  una  puuta,  lo  que  frotan  con 
la  segunda  con  cuanta  velocidad  pueden  a  la  manera  del  ejercicio  de  nues- 
tros  molinillos  para  hacer  el  chocolate :  luego  que  ambos  palos  se  calientaii 
con  la  frotacion,  se  encienden  y  producen  el  fuego.'  Velasco,  Noticias  de 
Sonora,  p.  282. 

83  The  Navajos  '  manufacture  the  celebrated,  and,  for  warmth  and  dura 
bility,    unequaled,   Navajo  blanket.     The  Navajo  blankets  are  a  wonder 
of  patient  workmanship,   and  often  sell  as   high   as  eighty,    a  hundred, 
or  a  hundred  and  fifty   dollars.'     Walker,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1872,  p.  53. 
'  Navajo  blankets  have  a  wide  and  merited  reputation  for  beauty  and  excel 
lence.'  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  305;    Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  Spec.  Com.,  1867,  p.  341; 
Turner,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des    Voy.,  1852,  torn,  cxxxv.,  p.  314;  Whipple, 
Ewbank,  and  Turner's  Eept.,  pp.  13,  32,  in  Pac.  E.  E.  Eept.,  vol.  iii.;  Davis' 
El  Gringo,  p.  411;  Hughes'  Doniphan's  Ex.,  p.  203;  Scenes  in  the  Eocky  Mis., 
p.  180;  'Figuier's  Hum.  Eace,  p.  481;  Peters'  Life  of  Carson,  p.  125;  Pritchard's 
Nat.  Hist.  Man,  vol.  ii.,  p.  567;  Farnham's  Life  in  CaL,  pp.  373-4. 

84  '  This  art  may  have  been  acquired  from  the  New  Mexicans,  or  the  Pueblo 
Indians.'  Eaton,  in  SchoolcrafVs  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  217.     '  This  manufacture 
of  blankets ....  was  originally  learned  from  the  Mexicans  when  the   two 
people,  lived  on  amicable  terms.'  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  307. 


NAVAJO  BLANKETS.  503 

% 

on  the  ground ,  and  the  blanket,  as  the  weaving  pro 
gresses,  is  wound  round  the  lower  beam.85  The  wool, 
after  being  carded,  is  spun  with  a  spindle  resembling  a 
boy's  top,  the  stem  being  about  sixteen  inches  long  and 
the  lower  point  made  to  revolve  in  an  earthen  bowl  by 
being  twirled  rapidly  between  the  forefinger  and  thumb. 
The  thread  after  being  twisted  is  wound  on  the  spindle, 
and  though  not  very  even,  it  answers  the  purpose  very 
well.86  The  patterns  are  mostly  regular  geometrical 
figures,  among  which  diamonds  and  parallels  predomi 
nate.87  Black  and  red  are  the  principal  variations  in 
color,  but  blue  and  yellow  are  at  times  seen.  Their 
colors  they  obtain  mostly  by  dyeing  with  vegetable  sub 
stances,  but  in  later  years  they  obtain  also  colored  manu 
factured  materials  from  the  whites,  which  they  again 
unravel,  employing  the  colored  threads  obtained  in  this 
manner  in  their  own  manufactures.88  They  also  weave 

85  '  The  blanket  is  woven  by  a  tedious  and  rude  process,  after  the  manner 
of  the  Pueblo  Indians. ..  .The   manner   of   weaving  is  peculiar,  and  is,  no 
doubt,  original  with  these  people  and  the  neighboring  tribes.'  Letherman,  in 
Smithsonian  Kept.,  1855,  p.  291;  Schooler aft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,'p.  437. 

86  '  The  spinning  and  weaving  is  done. . .  .by  hand.     The  thread  is  made 
entirely  by  hand,   and   is   coarse  and  uneven.'    Letherman,  in  Smithsonian 
Eept.,  1855,  p.  291.     'The  wool  or  cotton  is  first  prepared  by  carding.     It 
is  then  fastened  to  the  spindle  near  its  top,  and  is  held  in  the  left  hand.     The 
spindle  is  held  between  the  thumb  and  the  first  finger  of  the  right  hand,  and 
stands  vertically  in  the  earthen  bowl.     The  operator  now  gives  the  spindle  a 
twirl,  as  a  boy  turns  his  top,  and  while  it  is  revolving,  she  proceeds  to  draw 
out  her  thread,  precisely  as  is  done  by  our  own  operatives,  in  using  the  com 
mon  spinning-wheel.     As  soon  as  the  thread  is  spun,  the  spindle  is  turned 
in  an  opposite  direction,  for  the  purpose  of  winding  up  the  thread  on  the 
portion  of  it  next  to  the  wooden  block.'    Backus,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol. 
iv.,  p.  436. 

87  Backus,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  436.     'The  colors  are  woven 
in  bands  and  diamonds.     We  have  never  observed  blankets  with  figures 
of  a  complicated  pattern.'  Letherman,  in  Smithsonian  Eept.,  1855,  p.  291. 

88  '  The  colors,  which  are  given  in  the  yarn,  are  red,  black,  and  blue. 
The  juice  of  certain  plants  is  employed  in  dyeing,  but  it  is  asserted  by  recent 
authorities  that  the  brightest  red  and  blue  aVe  obtained  by  macerating  strips 
of  Spanish  cochineal,  and  altamine  dyed  goods,  which  have  been  purchased 
at  the  towns.'  Backus,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  436.     'The  colors 
are  red,  blue,  black,  and  yellow;  black  and  red  being  the  most  common.    The 
red  strands  are  obtained  by  unravelling  red  cloth,  black  by  using  the  wool 
of  black  sheep,  blue  by  dissolving  indigo  in  feimented  urine,  and  yellow  is 
said  to  be  by  coloring  with  a  particular  flower.'  Lethtrman,  in  Smithsonian 
Kept.,  1855,  p.  291.     The  women  '  Welche  sich  in  der  wahl  der  Farben  und 
der  Zusammenstellung  von  bunten  Streifen  und  phantastischen  Figuren  in 
dem  Gewebe  gegenseitig  zu  iibertreffen  suchen.     Ursprimglich  trugen  die 
Decken  nur  die  verschiedenen  Farben  der  Schaafe  in  breiten  Streifen,  doch 
seit  die  Navahoes  farbige,  wollene  Stoffe  von  Neu-Mexiko  beziehen  konnen, 


504  NEW  MEXICANS. 

a  coarse  woolen  cloth,  of  which  they  at  times  make  shirts 
and  leggins.89  Besides  pottery  of  burnt  clay,  wicker- 
work  baskets,  and  saddles  and  bridles,  no  general  in 
dustry  obtains  in  this  family.90  Featherwork,  such  as 
sewing  various  patterns  on  skins  with  feathers,  and 
other  ornamental  needlework,  are  also  practiced  by  the 
N  avajps.91 

Of  the  Comanches,  the  Abbe  Domenech  relates  that 
they  extracted  silver  from  some  mines  near  San  Saba, 


verschaffen  sie  sicla  solche,  um  sie  in  Faden  aufzulosen,  und  diese  dann 
zu  ihrer  eigeuen  Weberei  zu  verwenden.'  Mollhausen,  Reisen  in  die  Felsengeb., 
torn,  ii.,  p.  235;  Ruxton's  Adven.  Mex..  p.  195. 

89  'Us  (the  Apaches)  travaillent  bien  les  cuirs,  font  de  belles  brides.' 
Lachapelle,    Raousset-Boulbon,   p.   82.      'They  manufacture  rough  leather.' 
Pike's  Explor.  Trav.,  p.  335.     'Man  macht  Leder.'  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  p. 
195.     '  It  has  been  represented  that  these  tribes  (the  Navajos)  wear  leather 
shoes ....  Inquiry  from  persons  who  have  visited  or  been  stationed  in  New 
Mexico,  disaffirms  this  observation,  showing  that  in  all  cases  the  Navajo 
shoes  are  skins,  dressed  and  smoked  after  the  Indian  method.'  Schoolcraft's 
Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  204;  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  305;  Gregg's  Com.  Prairies,  vol. 
i.,  p.  286.     They  'knit  woolen  stockings.'  Davis'  El  Gringo,  p.  411.     'They 
also  manufacture ....  a  coarse  woolen  cloth   with  which  they  clothe  them 
selves.'  Clark,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  viii.,  p.  280;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  i.,  p. 
403,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  244-5.     "The  Navajoes  raise  no  cotton.'  Backus,  in  School- 
craft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  212.     Sie  sind  '  noch  inner  in  einigen  Baumwollen- 
geweben  ausgezeichnet.'  Thummel,  Mexiko,  p.  349.     '  These  people  (the  in 
habitants  of  Arizona  in  1540)  had  cotton,  but  they  were  not  very  carefull 
to  vse  the  same:  because  there  was  none  among  them  that  knew  the   arte 
of  weauing,  and  to  make  apparel  thereof.'  Alarchon,  in  HakluyVs  Voy.,  vol. 
iii.,  p.  433;  Bent,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  i.,  p.  243;  Ten  Broeck,  in  School- 
craft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  89;    Torquemada,  Monarq.  Ind.,  torn,  i.,  p.  680;  Al~ 
cedo,  Diccionario,  torn,  iii.,  p.  184. 

90  The  Xicarillas,   '  manufacture  a  sort  of  pottery  which  resists  the  action 
of  fire.'   Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  8;     Graves,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1854, 
p.  177.     The  Yuma   '  women  make  baskets  of  willow,  and  also  of  tule,  which 
are  impervious  to  water;  also  earthen  ollas  or  pots,  which  are  used  for  cook 
ing  and  for  cooling  water.'  Emory's  Kept.  U.  S.  and  Mtx.  Boundary  Survey, 
vol.  i.,  p.  Ill;    Revillagigedo,  Carta,  MS.,  p.  21.     '  Figure  4.     A  scoop  or 
dipper,  from  the  Mohave  tribe,  and  as  neat  and  original  an  article  in  earthen 
ware  as  could  well  be  designed  by  a  civilized  potter.'   Whipple,  Ewbank,  and 
Turner's  Kept.,  p.  46,  in  Pac.  E.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.     '  Professor  Cox  was  in 
formed  that  the  New  Mexican  Indians  colored  their  pottery  black  by  using 
the  gum  of  the  mezquite,  which  has  much  the  appearance  and  properties  of 
gum  arabic,  and  then  baking  it.     Much  of  the  ancient  pottery  from  the  Colo 
rado  Chiquito  is  colored,  the  prevailing   tints  being  white,  black,  and  red.' 
Foster's  Pre-Hist.  Races,  p.  250;  Ruxton's  Adven.  Mex.,  p.  195.     The  Yampais 
had    '  some  admirably  made  baskets  of  so  close  a  texture  as  to  hold  water;  a 
wicker  jar  coated  with  pine  tree  gum.'   Sitgreaves'  Zuni.  Ex.,  p.  10;  Bent,  in 
Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  i.,  p.  243.  • 

91  Gregg's  Com.  Prairies,  p.  286.     '  In  regard  to  the  manufacture  of  plum 
age,  or  feather-work,  they  certainly  display  a  greater  fondness  for  decora 
tions  of  this  sort  than  any  Indians  we  have  seen. . .  .1  saw  no  exhibition  of 
it  in  the  way  of  embroidery.'  Simpson's  Jour.  Mil.  Recon.,  p.  79;   Thummel, 
Mexiko,  p.  349. 


PROPEKTY.  505 

from  which  they  manufactured  ornaments  for  themselves 
and  their  saddles  and  bridles.92 

They  have  no  boats,  but  use  rafts  of  wood,  or  bundles 
of  rushes  fastened  tightly  together  with  osier  or  willow 
twigs,  and  propelled  sometimes  with  poles;  but  more 
frequently  they  place  upon  the  craft  their  property  and 
wives,  and,  swimming  alongside  of  it,  with  the  greatest 
ease  push  it  before  them.93  For  their  maintenance, 
especially  in  latter  days,  they  are  indebted  in  a  great 
measure  to  their  horses,  and  accordingly  they  consider 
them  as  their  most  valuable  property.  The  Navajos 
are  larger  stock  owners  than  any  of  the  other  nations, 
possessing  numerous  flocks  of  sheep,  and  herds  of  cattle 
as  well  as  horses  and  mules.  These,  with  their  blankets, 
their  dressed  skins,  and  peaches  which  they  cultivate, 
constitute  their  chief  wealth.9*  Certain  bands  of  the 
Apache  nation  exchange  with  the  agriculturists  pottery 
and  skins  for  grain.95  Among  the  Navajos,  husband  and 
wife  hold  their  property  separate,  and  at  their  death  it 

92  '  Mines  cV argent  exploiters  par  les  Comanches,  qui  en  tirent  des  oriie- 
mentspour  eux  et  pour  leurs  chevaux,  ainsi  que  des  balles  pour  leurs  fusils.' 
Domenech,  Jour.,  p.  132. 

93  The  Mescaleros  had  '  a  raft  of  bulrush  or  cane,  floated  and  supported 
by  some  twenty  or  thirty  hollow  pumpkins  fastened  together.'    Mulchings' 
Cal.  Mag.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  56.     The  Yumas  had  'batteaus  which  could  hold  200 
or  300  pounds  weight.'  Id.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  540.     The  Mojaves  had  "  Flossen,  die 
von  Binsen-Biindeln  zusammengefugt  waren  (die  einzige  Art  von  Fahrzeug, 
welche  ich  bei  den  Bewolmern  des  Colorado-Thales  bemerkte).'  MdQhavsen, 
Tagebuch,  p.  401.     '  Merely  bundles  of  rushes  placed  side  by  side,  and  se 
curely  bound  together  with  willow  twigs. .  .their  owners  paddled  them  about 
with  considerable  dexterity.'   Whipple,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  117, 
and  plate.  Mollhausen,  Reisen  in  die  Felsengeb.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  238,  254;  Ives'  Col 
orado  Riv.,  p.  69. 

94  '  Immense  numbers  of  horses  and  sheep,  attesting  the  wealth  of  the 
tribe.'  Ives'  Colorado  Riv.,  pp.  128,  130.     'They  possess  more  wealth  than 
all  the  other  wild  tribes  in  New  Mexico  combined.'  Graves,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept., 
1854,  p.  179.     'They  are  owners  of  large  flocks  and  herds.'  Bent,  in  School" 
craft's  Arch.,  vol.  i.,  p.  243;  Eaton,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  217; 
Backus,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  211,  212;  Scenes  in  the  Rocky  Mts., 
p.  180;  Davis'  El  Gringo,  p.  411;  Lelherman,  in  Smithsonian  Rept.,  1855,  pp. 
291-2;    Gallatin,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des   Voy.,  1851,  torn,  cxxxi.,  p.  289; 
Prichard's  Nat.  Hist.  Man,  vol.  ii.,  p.  567;  Hughes'  Doniphan's  Ex.,  p.  173; 
Peters'  Life  of  Carson,  p.  124;  Thiimmel,   Mexiko,   p.   349;  Simpson's  Jour. 
Mil.  Recon.,  p.  79;  Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xvii.,  p.  460;  Cremony's 
Apaches,  p.  254;  Emory's  Reconnoissance,  p.  60. 

95  The  Jicarilla  Apaches  '  manufacture  a  species  of  coarse  earthenware, 
which  they  exchange  for  corn  and  wheat.'  Keithly,  in  Ind.  Aff '." Rept.,  1863, 
p.  115.  Stratlon's  Capt.  Oatman  Girls,  p.  123. 


506  NEW  MEXICANS. 

becomes  the  inheritance  of  the  nephew  or  niece.  This 
law  of  entail  is  often  eluded  by  the  parents,  who  before 
death  give  their  goods  to  their  children.96  Their  ex 
changes  are  governed  by  caprice  rather  than  by  estab 
lished  values.  Sometimes  they  will  give  a  valuable 
blanket  for  a  trifling  ornament.  The  Mojaves  have  a 
species-  of  currency  which  they  call  pook,  consisting  of 
strings  of  shell  beads,  whose  value  is  determined  by  the 
length.97  At  the  time  of  Coronado's  expedition,  in  1540, 
the  Comanches  possessed  great  numbers  of  dogs,  which 
they  employed  in  transporting  their  buffalo- skin  tents 
and  scanty  household  utensils.98  When  a  buffalo  is 
killed,  the  successful  hunter  claims  only  the  hide;  the 
others  are  at  liberty  to  help  themselves  to  the  meat  ac 
cording  to  their  necessities.99  In  their  trading  transac 
tions  they  display  much  shrewdness,  and  yet  are  free 
from  the  tricks  usually  resorted  to  by  other  nations.100 
Their  knowledge  of  decorative  art  is  limited,  paint- 

96  '  Das  Eigenthum  des  Vaters  nicht  auf  den  Sohn  iibergeht,  sondern  dass 
Neffen  mid  Nichten  als  die  rechtmassigen  Erben  anerkaunt  werden  wenn 
nicht  der  Vater  bei  Lebzeiten  schon  seine  Habe  an  die  eigenen  Kinder  ge- 
schenkt  hat.'  Mollhausen,  Reisen  in  die  Felsengeb.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  234.     'The  hus 
band  has  no  control  over  the  property  of  his  wife. . .  .Property  does  not  de 
scend  from  father  to  son,  but  goes  to  the  nephew  of  the  decedent,  or,  in 
default  of  a  nephew,  to  the  niece.  . .  .but  if,  while  living,  he  distributes  his 
property  to  his  children,  that  disposition  is  recognised.'  Letherman,  in  Smith 
sonian  Kept.,  1855,  pp.  294-5.      'When  the  father  dies. . .  .a  fair  division  is 
not  made;  the  strongest  usually  get  the  bulk  of  the  effects.'  Bristol,  in  Ind. 
Aff.  Rept.  Spec.  Com.,  1867,  p.  357. 

97  'The  blankets,  though  not  purchasable  with  money. ..  .were  sold,  in 
some  instances,  for  the  most  trifling  article  of  ornament  or  clothing.'  Simp 
son's  Jour.  Mil.  Recon.,  p.  81.     Shell  beads,  which  they  call  'pook,'  are  their 
substitute  for  money.'    Wkipple,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  115. 

98  The  Querechos  encountered  by  Coronado  had  with  them  '  un  grand  trou- 
peau  de  chiens  qui  portaient  tout  ce  qu'ils  possedaient.'  Castaneda,  in  Ter- 
naux-Compans,    Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  p.  117.     'The  only  property  of  these 
people,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  articles  belonging  to  their  domestic  econ- 
onay,  consists  entirely  in  horses  and  mules.'  Marcy's  Army  Life,  p.  22;  Dom- 
enech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  23;  Kennedy's  Texas,  vol.  i.,  p.  347;  Marcy's  Kept., 
p.  188;  Mollhausen,  Tagebuch,  pp.  116-17. 

99  '  There  are  no  subdivisions  of   land  acknowledged  in  their  territory, 
and  no  exclusive  right  of  game.'  Neighbors,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch  ,  vol.  ii.,  p. 
131.     '  Their  code  is  strictly  Spartan.'  Marcy's  Army  Life,  p.  23. 

100  « They  are  sufficiently  astute  in  dealing.'  Burnet,  in  Schoolcraft's  A rch., 
vol.  i.,  p.  232.      'Le  chef  des  Indiens  choisit,  parmi  ces  objets,  ceux  qui 
sont  necessaires  a  sa  tribu.'  Soc.  Geog.,  Bulletin,  serie  v.,  No.  96,  p.  193.     'In 
Coinanche  trade  the  main  trouble  consists  in  fixing  the  price  of  the  first 
animal.     This  being  settled  by  the  chiefs.'  Gregg's  Com.  Prairies,  vol.  ii.,  p. 
45;  Parker's  Notes  on  Tex.,  pp.  190,  234;  Burnet,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol. 
i.,  p.  232;  Domenech,  Jour.,  p.  130;  Deicees'  Texas,  p.  36. 


ART  AND  CALENDAR.  507 

ings  and  sculptures  of  men  and  animals,  rudely  exe 
cuted  on  rocks  or  walls  of  caverns  are  occasionally  met 
with;  whether  intended  as  hieroglyphical  representa 
tions,  or  sketched  during  the  idle  moments  of  some  bud 
ding  genius,  it  is  difficult  to  determine,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  statements  of  the  various  authors  who  have  in 
vestigated  the  subject  are  conflicting.101  The  Comanches 
display  a  certain  taste  in  painting  their  buffalo-robes, 
shields,  and  tents.  The  system  of  enumeration  of  the 
Apaches  exhibits  a  regularity  and  diffusiveness  seldom 
met  with  amongst  wild  tribes,  and  their  language  con 
tains  all  the  terms  for  counting  up  to  ten  thousand.102  In 
this  respect  the  Comanches  are  very  deficient ;  what  little 
knowledge  of  arithmetic  they  have  is  decimal,  and  when 
counting,  the  aid  of  their  fingers  or  presence  of  some 
actual  object  is  necessary,  being,  as  they  are,  in  total  ig 
norance  of  the  simplest  arithmetical  calculation.  The 
rising  sun  proclaims  to  them  a  new  day;  beyond  this 
they  have  no  computation  or  division  of  time.  They 
know  nothing  of  the  motions  of  the  earth  or  heavenly 
bodies,  though  they  recognise  the  fixedness  of  the  polar 
star.103 

Their  social  organization,  like  all  their  manners  and 
customs,  is  governed  by  their  wild  and  migratory  life. 
Government  they  have  none.  Born  and  bred  with  the 

101  Mr  Bartlett,  describing  an  excursion  he  made  to  the  Sierra  Waco  near 
the  Copper  Mines  in  New  Mexico,  says,  he  saw  '  an  overhanging  rock  ex 
tending  for  some  distance,  the  whole  surface  of  which  is  covered  with  rude 
paintings  and  sculptures,  representing  men,  animals,  birds,  snakes,  and  fan 
tastic   figures ....  some  of   them,   evidently  of   great  age,   had  been  partly 
defaced  to  make  room  for  more  recent  devices.'  Bartlett' s  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  i., 
pp.  170-4,  with  cuts.     In  Arizona,  Emory  found  '  a  mound  of  granite  boul 
ders.  . .  covered  with  unknown  characters. . .  .On  the  ground  near  by  were 
also  traces  of  some  of  the  figures,  showing  some  of  the  hieroglyphics,  at 
least,  to  have  been  the  work  of  modern  Indians.'  Emory's  Reconnaissance, 
pp.  89,  90,  with  cut.     The  Comanches  '  aimaient  beaucoup  les  images,  qu'ils 
ne  se  lassaient  pas  d'admirer.'  Domenech,  Jour.,  p.  136. 

102  « The  Apaches  count  ten  thousand  with  as  much  regularity  as  we  do. 
They  even  make  use  of  the  decimal  sequences.'  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  237. 

103  «They  have  no  computation  of  time  beyond  the  seasons the  cold 

and  hot  season. . .  .frequently  count  by  the  Caddo  mode — from  one  to  ten, 
and  by  tens  to  one  hundred,  &c .  . . .  They  are  ignorant  of  the  elements  of 
figures.'  Neighbors,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  129-30.      'Ce  qu'ils 

savent  d'astronomie  se  borne  a  la  connaissance  de  1'etoile  polaire L'ar- 

ithrnetique  des  sauvages  est  sur  leurs  doigts;. . .  .11  leur  faut  absolument  un 
objet  pour  nombrer.'  Ilartmann  and  Millard,  Tex.,  pp.  112-13. 


508  NEW  MEXICANS. 

idea  of  perfect  personal  freedom,  all  restraint  is  unen 
durable.104  The  nominal  authority  vested  in  the  war 
chief,  is  obtained  by  election,  and  is  subordinate  to  the 
council  of  warriors.105  Every  father  holds  undisputed 
sway  over  his  children  until  the  age  of  puberty.  His 
power,  importance,  and  influence  at  the  council-fire  is 
determined  by  the  amount  of  his  slaves  and  other  prop 
erty.106  Those  specially  distinguished  by  their  cunning 
and  prowess  in  war,  or  success  in  the  chase,  are  chosen 
as  chiefs. 

A  chief  may  at  any  time  be  deposed.107  Sometimes 
it  happens  that  one  family  retains  the  chieftaincy  in  a 
•tribe  during  several  generations,  because  of  the  bravery 
or  wealth  of  the  sons.108  In  time  of  peace  but  little  au 
thority  is  vested  in  the  chief;  but  on  the  war  path,  to 
ensure  success,  his  commands  are  implicitly  obeyed.  It 

10*  The  Navajos  have  no  tribal  government,  and  in  reality  no  chiefs.  Lether- 
man,  in  Smithsonian  Rept.,  1855,  p.  288.  '  Their  form  of  government  is  so 
exceedingly  primitive  as  to  be  hardly  worthy  the  name  of  a  political  organi 
zation.'  Davis'  El  Gringo,  pp.  412,  413;  Ives'  Colorado  Riv.,  p.  71.  'Us  n'ont 
jamais  connu  de  domination.'  Soc.  Ge'og.,  Bulletin,  serie.  v.,  No.  96,  p.  187. 
'Each  is  sovereign  in  his  own  right  as  a  warrior.'  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  177. 

105  '  It  is  my  opinion  that  the  Navajo  chiefs  have  but  very  little  influence 
with  their  people.'  Bennett,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1869,  p.  238,  and  1870,  p.  152; 
Bristol,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.  Spec.  Com.,  1867,  p.  357. 

106  '  Los  padres  de  familia  ejercen  esta  autoridad  en  tanto  que  los  hijos 
no  salen  de  la  infancia,  porque  poco  antes  de  salir  de  la  pubertad  son  como 
libres  y  no  reconocen  mas  superioridad  que  sus  propias  fuerzas,  6  la  del 
indio  que  los  manda  en  la  campana.'    Velasco,  Noticias  de  Sonora,  pp.  282-3. 
'  Every  rich  man  has  many  dependants,  and  these  dependants  are  obedient 
to  his  will,  in  peace  and  in  war.'  Backus,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p. 
211;  Ten  Broeck,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  89.     'Every  one  who  has 
a  few  horses  and  sheep  is  a  "head  man."  '  Letherman,  in  Smithsonian  Rept., 
1855,  p.  288;  Mollhausen,  Reisen  in  die  Felsengeb.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  233.     The  rule 
of  the  Querechos  is  'essentially  patriarchal.'  Marcy's  Army  Life,  p.  20. 

107  'When  one  or  more  (of  the  Navajos)  are  successful  in  battle  or  fortu 
nate  in  their  raids  to  the  settlements  on  the  Rio  Grande,  he  is  endowed  with 
the  title  of  captain  or  chief.'  Bristol,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1867,  p.  357.     'En 
cualquiera  de  estas  incorporaciones  toma  el  mando  del  todo  por  comun  con- 
sentimiento  el  mas  acreditado  de  valiente.'  Cordero,  in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geo- 
firafta,  p.  373.     The  Comanches  have  'a  right  to  displace  a  chief,  and  elect 
his'  successor,  at  pleasure.'  Kennedy's  Texas,  vol.  i.,  p.  346.     A  chief  of  the 
Comanches  is  never  degraded  '  for  any  private  act  unconnected  with  the  wel 
fare  of  the  whole  tribe.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  130. 

108  The  office  of  chief  is  not  hereditary  with  the  Navajos.  Cremony's  Apach- 
?,  p.  307.     The  wise  old  men  of  the  Querechos  '  curb  the  impetuosity  of  ani- 

Colorado  Riv.,  pp. 

f,  and  assumes  the 

command  of  the  tribe  on  the  death  of  his  father, '  among  the  Apaches.  Henry, 
in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  210. 


COMANCHE  GOVEKNMENT.  509 

also  frequently  happens  that  chiefs  are  chosen  to  lead 
some  particular  war  or  marauding  expedition,  their  au 
thority  expiring  immediately  upon  their  return  home.109 

Among  the  Comanches  public  councils  are  held  at 
regular  intervals  during  the  year,  when  matters  pertain 
ing  to  the  common  weal  are  discussed,  laws  made,  thefts, 
seditions,  murders,  and  other  crimes  punished,  and  the 
quarrels  of  warrior-chiefs  settled.  Smaller  councils  are 
also  held,  in  which,  as  well  as  in  the  larger  ones,  all  are 
free  to  express  their  opinion.110  Questions  laid  before 
them  are  taken  under  consideration,  a  long  time  fre 
quently  elapsing  before  a  decision  is  made.  Great  care 
is  taken  that  the  decrees  of  the  meeting  shall  be  in  ac 
cordance  with  the  opinion  and  wishes  of  the  majority. 
Laws  are  promulgated  by  a  public  crier,  who  ranks  next 
to  the  chief  in  dignity.111 

Ancestral  customs  and  traditions  govern  the  decisions 
of  the  councils;  brute  force,  or  right  of  the  strongest, 
with  the  law  of  talion  in  its  widest  acceptance,  direct 
the  mutual  relations  of  tribes  and  individuals.112  Murder, 

109  The  Mescaleros  and  Apaches  '  choose  a  head-man  to  direct  affairs  for 
the  time  being.'  Carldon,  in  Smithsonian  Kept.,  Ib54,  p.  315.  'Es  gibt  auch 
Stamme,  an  deren  Spitze  em  Kriegs- sowie  ein  Friedens-Hauptling  steht.' 
Armin,  Das  Heutiye  Mexiko,  p.  279;  Garcia  Conde,  in  Soc.  Mex.  (leog.,  Boktin, 
torn,  v.,  p.  315. 

no  When  Col.  Langberg  visited  the  Comanches  who  inhabit  the  Bolson 
de  Mapimi,  '  wurde  dieser  Stamm  von  einer  alten  Fran  angefuhrt.'  Froebd, 
Aus  Amerika,  torn,  ii.,  p.  222;  Id.,  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  352;  Hardy's  Trav.,  p.  348. 
'I  have  never  known  them  (Comanches)  to  make  a  treaty  that  a  portion  of 
the  tribe  do  not  violate  its  stipulations  before  one  year  rolls  around.'  Neigh 
bors,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Bept.,  1857,  p.  267. 

111  The  chiefs  of  the  Comanches  'are  in  turn  subject  to  the  control  of  a 
principal  chief.'  Kennedy's  Texas,  vol.  i.,  p.  345.     'La  autoridad  central  de 
su  gobierno  reside  en  un  gefe  supremo.'  Revista  Cientt'fica,  torn,  i.,  p.  57;  Es- 
cudero,  Noticias  de  Chihuahua,  p.  229.     The  southern 'Comanches  'do  not  of 
late  years  acknowledge  the  sovereignty  of  a  common  ruler  and  leader  in  their 
united  councils  nor  in  war.'  Marcy's  Army  Life,  p.  43.     The  Gila  Apaches 
acknowledge  'no  common  head  or  superior.'  Merriwether,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept., 
1854,  pp.  170,  172. 

112  The  Comanches  '  hold  regular  councils  quarterly,  and  a  grand  council 
of  the  whole  tribe  once  a  year.'  Edwards'  Hist.   Tex.,  p.  108.     'At  these 
councils  prisoners  of  war  are  tried,  as  well  as  all  cases  of  adultery,  theft,  sedi 
tion  and  murder,  which  are  punished  by  death.    The  grand  council  also  takes 
cognizance  of  all  disputes  between  the  chiefs,  and  other  matters  of  import 
ance.'  MaUlard's  Hist.  Tex.,  p.  244.     'Their  decisions  are  of  but  little  mo 
ment,  unless  they  meet  the  approbation  of  the  mass  of  the  people;  and  for 
this  reason  these  councils  are  exceedingly  careful  not  to  run  counter  to  the 
wishes  of  the  poorer  but  more  numerous  class,  being  aware  of  the  difficulty, 
if  not  impossibility,  of  enforcing  any  act  that  would  not  command  their 


510  NEW  MEXICANS. 

adultery,  theft,  and  sedition  are  punished  with  death  or 
public  exposure,  or  settled  by  private  agreement  or  the 
interposition  of  elderly  warriors.  The  doctor  failing  to 
cure  his  patient  must  be  punished  by  death.  The  court 
of  justice  is  the  council  of  the  tribe,  presided  over  by 
the  chiefs,  the  latter  with  the  assistance  of  sub-chiefs, 
rigidly  executing  judgment  upon  the  culprits.113  All 
crimes  may  be  pardoned  but  murder,  which  must  pay 
blood  for  blood  if  the  avenger  overtake  his  victim.11* 

All  the  natives  of  this  family  hold  captives  as  slaves  ;115 
some  treat  them  kindly,  employing  the  men  as  herders 

approval.'  Collins,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1857,  p.  274.  '  Singulis  pagis  sui  Eeguli 
erant,  qui  per  praecones  suos  edicta  populo  demmtiabaut.'  De  Lad,  Novus 
Orbis,  p.  311.  '  Tienen  otra  Persona,  que  llaman  Pregonero,  y  es  la  segunda 
Persona  de  la  Kepiiblica;  el  oficio  de  este,  es  manifestar  al  Pueblo  todas  las 
cosas  que  se  han  de  hacer.'  Torquemada,  Monarq.  Ind.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  337;  Id., 
torn,  i.,  p.  680.  They  recognize  'no  law  but  that  of  individual  caprice.' 
Steck,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1863,  p.  109.  The  Comanches  'acknowledge  no 
right  but  the  right  of  the  strongest.'  Schooler aft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  575.  '  La 
loi  du  talion  est  la  base  fondamentale  du  code  politique,  civil  et  criminel  de 
ces  diverses  peuplades,  et  cette  loi  re^oit  line  rigoureuse  application  de  na 
tion  a  nation,  de  famille  a  famille,  d'individu  a  individu.'  Hartmann  and 
Millard,  Tex.,  p.  114. 

113  The  Comanches  punish  '  Adultery,  theft,  murder,  and  other  crimes .  . . 
by  established  usage.'  Kennedy's  Texas,  vol.  i.,  p.  347.     Among  the  Navajos, 
'  Lewdness  is  punished  by  a  public  exposure  of  the  culprit. '  Scenes  in  the 
Rocky  Mis,  p.  180.     Marcy's  Army  Life,  pp.  26,  59.     Navajoes  '  regard  each 
other's  right  of  property,  and  punish  with  great  severity  any  one  who  in 
fringes  upon  it.     In  one  case  a  Navajo  was  found  stealing  a  horse;  they  held 
a  council  and  put  him  to  death.'  Bristol,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.  Spec.  Com.,  1867, 
p.  344.     A  Cuchano  young  boy  who  frightened  a  child  by  foretelling  its 
death,  which  accidentally  took  place  the  next  day,  '  was  secretly  accused  and 
tried  before  the  council  for  "being  under  the  influence  of  evil  spirits,"  '  and 
put  to  death.  Emory's  Rept.  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Boundary  Survey,  vol.  i.,  p.  iii.; 
Feudge,  in  Ind.  Af.  Rept.,  1868,  p.  137.     Among  the  Yumas,  'Each  chief 
punishes  delinquents  by  beating  them  across  the  back  with  a  stick.     Crimi 
nals  brought  before  the  general  council  for  examination,  if  convicted,  are 
placed  in  the  hands  of  a  regularly  appointed  executioner  of  the  tribe,  who 
inflicts  such  punishment  as  the  council  may  direct.'  Emory's  Rept.  U.  S.  and 
Mex.  Boundary  Survey,  vol.  i.,  p.  iii. 

114  The  Apache  chief  Ponce,  speaking  of  the  grief  of  a  poor  woman  at 
the  loss  of  her  son,  says:     'The  mother  of  the  dead  brave  demands  the  life 

of  his  murderer.     Nothing  else  will  satisfy  her Would  money  satisfy  me 

for  the  death  of  my  son?    No!  I  would  demand  the  blood  of  the  murderer. 
Then  I  would  be  satisfied.'  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  69.     '  If  one  man  (Apache) 
kills  another,  the  next  of  kin  to  the  defunct  individual  may  kill  the  murderer 
— if  he  can.     He  has  the  right  to  challenge  him  to  single  combat. . .  .There 
is  no  trial,  no  set  council,  no  regular  examination  into  the  crime  or  its  causes; 
but  the  ordeal  of  battle  settles  the  whole  matter.'  Id.,  p.  293. 

n-5  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  7;  Letherman,  in  Smithsonian  Rept.,  1855, 
p.  294.  'Us  (Comanches)  tuent  tous  les  prisonniers  adultes,  et  ne  laissent 
vivre  que  les  enfans.'  Dillon,  Hist.  Mex.,  p.  98.  The  Navajos  'haVe  in  their 
possession  many  prisoners,  men,  women,  and  children, ....  whom  they  hold 
and  treat  as  slaves.'  Bent,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  i.,  p.  244. 


TKEATMENT  OF  WOMEN.  511 

and  marrying  the  women ;  others  half-starve  and  scourge 
them,  and  inflict  on  them  the  most  painful  labors.116 
Nothing  short  of  crucifixion,  roasting  by  a  slow  fire,  or 
some  other  most  excruciating  form  of  death,  can  atone  the 
crime  of  attempted  escape  from  bondage.  They  not  only 
steal  children  from  other  tribes  and  sell  them,  but  carry 
on  a  most  unnatural  traffic  in  their  own  offspring.117 

Womankind  as  usual  is  at  a  discount.  The  female 
child  receives  little  care  from  its  mother,  being  only  of 
collateral  advantage  to  the  tribe.  Later  she  becomes 
the  beast  of  burden  and  slave  of  her  husband.  Some 
celebrate  the  entry  into  womanhood  with  feasting  and 
dancing.118  Courtship  is  simple  and  brief;  the  wooer 

116  One  boy  from  Mexico  taken  by  the  Comanches,  said,  'dass  sein  Ge- 
schaft  in  der  Gefangenschaft  darin  bestehe  die  Pferde  seines  Herrn  zu  wei- 
deu.'  Froebel,  Aus  Amerika,  torn,  ii.,  p.  10'2;  Gregg's  Com.  Prairies,  vol.  ii.,  p. 
313.     The  natives  of   New  Mexico  take  the  women  prisoners  'for  wives.' 
Marcy's  Rept.,  p.  187.     Some  prisoners  liberated  from  the  Comonches,  were 
completely  covered  with  stripes  and  bruises.    Devices'  Texas,  p.  232.     Miss 
Olive  Oatman  detained  among  the  Mohaves  says:  '  They  invented  modes  and 
seemed  to  create  necessities  of  labor  that  they  might  gratify  themselves  by 
taxing  us  to  the  utmost,  and  even  took  unwarranted  delight  in  whipping  us 
on  beyond  our  strength.     And  all  their  requests  and  exactions  were  couched 
in  the  most  insulting  and  taunting  language  and  manner,  as  it  then  seemed, 
and  as  they  had  the  frankness  soon  to  confess,  to  fume  their  hate  against 
the  race  to  whom  we  belonged.     Often  under  the  frown  and  lash  were  we 
compelled  to  labor  for  whole  days  upon  an  allowance  amply  sufficient  to 
starve  a  common  dandy  civilized  idler.'  Stratton's  Cant.  Oatman  Girls,  pp. 
114-18,  130. 

117  'It  appeared  that  the  poor  girl  had  been  stolen,  as  the  Indian  (Axua) 
said,  from  the  Yurna  tribe  the  day  before,  and  he  now  offered  her  for  sale.' 
Hardy's  Trav.,  p.  379.     'The  practice  of  parents  selling  their  children  is 
another  proof  of  poverty  '  of  the  Axuans.  Id.,  p.  371. 

118  'According  to  their  (Tontos')  physiology  the  female,  especially  the 
young  female,  should  be  allowed  meat  only  when  necessary  to  prevent  star 
vation.'  Stratton's  Capt.  Oatman  Girls,  p.  115.     The  Comanches  'enter  the 
marriage  state  at  a  very  early  age  frequently  before  the  age  of  puberty.' 
Neighbors,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  132.     Whenever  a  Jicarilla  female 
arrives  at  a  marriageable  age,  in  honor  of  the  '  event  the  parents  will  sac 
rifice  all  the  property  they  possess,  the  ceremony  being  protracted  from  five 
to  ten  days  with  every  demonstration  of  hilarity.'  Steck,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept., 
1863,  p.  109;  Marcy's  Army  Life,  p.  28-9.     Among  the  Yumas,  the  applicant 
for  womanhood  is  placed  in  aii  oven  or  closely  covered  hut,  in  which  she  is 
steamed  for  three  days,  alternating  the  treatment  with  plunges  into  the  near 
river,  and  maintaining  a  fast  all  the  time.'    Emory's  Rept.  U.  8.  and  Mex. 
Boundary  Survey,  vol.  i.,  pp.  110-11.     The  Apaches  celebrate  a  feast  with 
singing,  dancing,  and  mimic  display  when  a  girl  arrives  at  the  marriageable 
state,  during  which,  time  the  girl  remains  '  isolated  in  a  huge  lodge  '  and 
'listens  patiently  to  the  responsibilities  of  her  marriageable  condition,'  re 
counted  to  her  by  the  old  men  and  chiefs.     '  After  it  is  finished  she  is  di 
vested  of  her  eyebrows. . .   A  month  afterward  the  eye  lashes  are  pulled  out.' 
Cremony's  Apaches,  pp.  143,  243-6. 


512  NEW  MEXICANS. 

pays  for  his  bride  and  takes  her  home.119  Every  man 
may  have  all  the  wives  he  can  buy.  There  is  generally 
a  favorite,  or  chief  wife,  who  exercises  authority  over 
the  others.  As  polygamy  causes  a  greater  division 
of  labor,  the  women  do  not  object  to  it.120  Some 
times  a  feast  of  horse-flesh  celebrates  a  marriage.121  All 
the  labor  of  preparing  food,  tanning  skins,  cultivating 
fields,  making  clothes,  and  building  houses,  falls  to  the 
women,  the  men  considering  it  beneath  their  dignity  to 
do  anything  but  hunt  and  fight.  The  women  feed  and 
saddle  the  horses  of  their  lords;  oftentimes  they  are 
cruelly  beaten,  mutilated,  and  even  put  to  death.122  The 

119  There  is  no  marriage  ceremony  among  the  Navajoes  '  a  young  man 
wishing  a  woman  for  his  wife  ascertains  who  her  father  is;  he  goes  and 
states  the  cause  of  his  visit  and  offers  from  one  to  fifteen  horses  for  the 
daughter.  The  consent  of  the  father  is  absolute,  and  the  one  so  purchased 
assents  or  is  taken  away  by  force .  All  the  marriageable  women  or  squaws 
in  a  family  can  be  taken  in  a  similar  manner  by  the  same  individual;  i.  e., 
he  can  purchase  wives  as  long  as  his  property  holds  out.'  Bristol,  in  Ind. 
Aff.  Eept.  Spec.  Com.,  1867,  p.  357;  Marcy's  Army  Life,  p.  49;  Backus,  in 
Schooler -aft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  214;  Parker's  Notes  on  Tex.,  p.  233. 

la'J  Among  the  Apaches,  the  lover  '  stakes  his  horse  in  front  of  her  roost 
....  Should  the  girl  favor  the  suitor,  his  horse  is  taken  by  her,  led  to  water, 
fed,  and  secured  in  front  of  his  lodge ....  Four  days  comprise  the  term 
allowed  her  for  an  answer. . . .  A  ready  acceptance  is  apt  to  be  criticised  with 
some  severity,  while  a  tardy  one  is  regarded  as  the  extreme  of  coquetry.' 
Cremony's  Apaches,  pp.  245-9;  Ten  Broeck,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv., 
p.  89;  Marcy's  Army  Life,  pp.  30,  51.  The  Apache  'who  can  support  or 
keep,  or  attract  by  his  power  to  keep,  the  greatest  number  of  women,  is  the 
man  who  is  deemed  entitled  to  the  greatest  amount  of  honor  and  respect.' 
Cremony's  Apaches,  pp.  44,  85.  Un  Conianche,  '  peut  epouser  autant  de 
femmes  qu'il  veut,  a  la  seule  condition  de  donner  a  chacune  un  cheval.' 
Domenech,  Jour.,  p.  135.  Among  the  Navajoes,  '  The  wife  last  chosen  is 
always  mistress  of  her  predecessors.'  Whipple,  Eucbank,  and  Turner's  Kept., 
p.  42,  in  Pac.  E.  R.  Kept.,  vol.  iii.  They  seldom,  if  ever,  marry  out  of  the 
tribe.  Ward,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.  Spec.  Com.,  1867,  p.  455.  '  In  general,  when 
an  Indian  wishes  to  have  many  wives  he  chooses  above  all  others,  if  he  can, 
sisters,  because  he  thinks  he  can  thus  secure  more  domestic  peace.'  Dome- 
nech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  306.  '  I  think  that  few,  if  any,  have  more  than 
one  wife,'  of  the  Mojaves.  Ives'  Colorado  Eiv.,  p.  71. 

121  '  The  Navajo  marriage-ceremony  consists  simply  of  a  feast  upon  horse 
flesh.'  Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xvii.,  p.  460.     When  the  Navajos  de 
sire  to  marry,  '  they  sit  down  on  opposite  sides  of  a  basket,  made  to  hold 
water,  filled  with  atole  or  some  other  food,  and  partake  of  it.     This  simple 
proceeding  makes  them  husband  and  wife.'  Davis'  El  Gringo,  p.  415. 

122  The  Conianche  women  'are  drudges.'   Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p. 
575;   Dufey,  Resume  de  I'Hist.,  torn,  i.,  p.  4;   Neighbors,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept., 
1857,  p.  265;  Escudero,  Noticias  de  Chihuahua,  p.  230;  Bartlett's  Pers.  Nar.t 
vol.  i.,  p.  308.     Labor  is  considered  degrading  by  the  Comanches.  Kennedy's 
Texas,  vol.  i.,  p.  347.     The  Apache  men  'no  cuidan  de  otras  cosas,  sino  de 
cazar  y  divertirse.'  Sonora,  Descrip.  Geog.,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn. 
iv.,  p.  563;   Marcy's  Army  Life,  pp.  29,  49,  56.     '  La  femme  (du  Comanche) 
son  esclave  absolue,  doit  tout  faire  pour  lui.     Souvent  il  n'apporte  pas  memo 


MARKIAGE  AND  CHILD-BIRTH.  513 

marriage  yoke  sits  lightly;  the  husband  may  repudiate 
his  wife  at  will  and  take  back  the  property  given  lor  her ; 
the  wife  may  abandon  her  husband,  but  by  the  latter 
act  she  covers  him  with  such  disgrace  that  it  may  only 
be  wiped  out  by  killing  somebody123  —anybody  whom 
he  may  chance  to  meet.  In  the  event  of  a  separation 
the  children  follow  the  mother.  They  are  not  a  prolific 
race;  indeed,  it  is  but  seldom  that  a  woman  has  more 
than  three  or  four  children.  As  usual  parturition  is 
easy ;  but  owing  to  unavoidable  exposure  many  of  their 
infants  soon  die.  The  naming  of  the  child  is  attended 
with  superstitious  rites,  and  on  reaching  the  age  of 
puberty  they  never  fail  to  change  its  name.124  Imme 
diately  after  the  birth  of  the  child,  it  is  fastened  to  a 
small  board,  by  bandages,  and  so  carried  for  several 

le  gibier  qu'il  a  tue,  mais  il  envoie  sa  femme  le  chercher  au  loin.'  Dubitis, 
in  Domenech,  Jour.,  p.  459,  The  Navajos  'treat  their  women  with  great 
attention,  consider  them  equals,  and  relieve  them  from  the  drudgery  of 
menial  work.'  Hughes'  Doniphan's  Ex.,  p.  203.  The  Navajo  women  'are 
the  real  owners  of  all  the  sheep. . .  .They  admit  women  into  their  councils, 
who  sometimes  control  their  deliberations;  and  they  also  eat  with  them.' 
Davis'  El  Gringo,  p.  412;  Whipple,  Eubank,  and  Turner's  Kept.,  p.  101.  in 
Pac.  R.  /?.  Eept.,  vol.  iii.  'De  aqui  proviene  que  sean  arbitros  de  sus  mu- 
geres.  dandoles  un  trato  servilisirno,  y  alguuas  veces  les  quitan  hasta  la  vida 
por  celos.'  Velasco,  Noticias  de  Sonora,  p.  268.  'Les  Comanches,  obligent  le 
prisonnier  blanc,  dont  ils  out  admire  le  valeur  dans  le  combat,  a  s'unir  aux 
leurs  pour  perpetuer  sa  race.'  Fossey,  Mexique,  p.  462. 

123  Among  the  Apaches,   '  muchas  veces  suele  disolverse  el   contrato  por 
unanime  consentimiento  de  los  desposados,  y  volviendo  la  mujer  a  su  padre, 
entrega  este  lo  que  recibid  por  ella.'  Cordero,  in  Orozco  y  Btrra,  Geografia, 
p.  373.     When  the  Navajo  women  abandon  the  husband,  the  latter  '  asks 
to  wipe  out  the  disgrace  by  killing  some  one.'  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.  Spec.  Com., 
1867,  p.  334;  Eaton,  in  Schoolcraft' s  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  217. 

124  Navajo  women,  '  when  in  parturition,  stand  upon  their  feet,  holding  to 
a  rope  suspended  overhead,  or  upon  the  knees,  the  body  being  erect. '  Lether- 
man,  in  Smithsonian  Kept.,  1855,  p.  290.     'Previous  to  a  birth,  the  (Yuma) 
mother  leaves  her  village  for  some  short  distance  and  lives  by  herself  until  a 
month  after  the  child  is  born;  the  band  to  which  she  belongs  then  assemble 
and  select  a  name  for  the  little  one,  which  is  given  with  some  trivial  cere 
mony.'  Emory's  Eept.y  vol.  i.,  p.  110;  Mar cy's  Army  Life,  p.  31.     '  Si  el  parto 
es  en  marcha,  se  hacen  a  un  lado  del  camino  debajo  de  un  arbol,  en  donde 
salen  del  lance  con  la  mayor  facilidad  y  sin  apuro  ninguno,  continuando 
la  marcha  con  la  criatura  y  algun  otro  de   sus  chiquillos,  dentro  de  una 
especie  de  red,  que  a  la  manera  de  una  canasta  cargan  en  los  hombros,  pen- 
diente  de  la  frente  con  una  tira  de  cuero  6  de  vaqueta  que  la  contiene,  en 
donde  llevan  ademas  alunos  trastos  6  cosas  que  comer.'    Velasco,  Noticias  de 
Sonora,  p.  281;  Fossey,  Mexique,  p.  462.     '  Luego  que  sale  a  luz  esta,  sale  la 
vieja  de  aquel  lugar  con  la  mano  puesta  en  los  ojos,  y  no  se  descubre  hasta 
que  no  haya  dado  una  vuelta  fuera  de  la  casa,  y  el  objeto  que  primero  se  le 
presenta  a  la  vista,  es  el  nombre  que  se  le  pone  a  la  criatura.'  Alegre,  Hist. 
Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  i.,  p.  335. 

VOL.  I.    33 


514  NEW  MEXICANS. 

months  on  the  back  of  the  mother.  Later  the  child 
rides  on  the  mother's  hip,  or  is  carried  on  her  back  in  a 
basket  or  blanket,  which  in  travelling  on  horseback  is 
fastened  to  the  pommel  of  the  saddle.  Boys  are  early 
taught  the  use  of  weapons,  and  early  learn  their  superi 
ority  over  girls,  being  seldom  or  never  punished.125 

It-  is  a  singular  fact  that  of  all  these  people  the  thiev 
ish  meat-eating  Apache  is  almost  the  only  one  who 
makes  any  pretentions  to  female  chastity.  All  authori 
ties  agree  that  the  Apache  women  both  before  and  after 
marriage  are  remarkably  pure.126 

Yuma  husbands  for  gain  surrender  not  only  their 
slaves,  but  their  wives.  Hospitality  carries  with  it  the 
obligation  of  providing  for  the  guest  a  temporary  wife. 
The  usual  punishment  for  infidelity  is  the  mutilation  of 
the  nose  or  ears,  which  disfigurement  prevents  the  of 
fender  from  marrying,  and  commonly  sends  her  forth  as 
a  public  harlot  in  the  tribe.127  The  seducer  can  appease 

125  Pattie's  Pers.  Nar.,  p.  92;  Mollhausen,  Reisen  in  die  Felsmgeb.,  torn. 
i.,  p.  320;  /yes'  Colorado  River,  pp.  66,  71;  Henry,  in  Schoolcrqft' s  Arch.,  vol. 
v.,  p.  211.  '  Quand  les  Indiennes  (Coinanches)  voyagent  avec  leurs  enfants 
en  bas  age,  elles  les  suspendent  a  la  selle  avec  des  courroies  qu'elles  leur 
passent  entre  les  jambes  et  sous  les  bras.  Les  soubresauts  du  cheval,  les 
branches,  les  broussailles  beurtent  ces  pauvres  petits,  les  dechirent,  les 
meurtrissent:  peu  importe,  c'est  uue  fac^on  de  lesaguerrir.'  Domenech,  Journ 
p.  135;  Emory's  Reconnaissance,  p.  52.  'A  la  edad  de  siete  anos  de  los 
apaches,  6  antes,  lo  primero  que  hacen  los  padres,  es  poner  a  sus  hijos  el 
carcax  en  la  maiio  enseilandoles  a  tirar  bien,  cuya  tactica  enipiezan  a  apren- 
der  en  la  caza.'  Velasco,  Noticias  de  iSonora,  p.  283.  The  Apaches,  'juventu- 
tem  sedulo  instituunt  castigaut  quod  aliis  barbaris  insolitum.'  De  Laet, 
Novus  Orbis,  p.  316.  Male  children  of  the  Comanches  '  are  even  privileged  to 
rebel  against  their  parents,  who  are  not  entitled  to  chastise  them  but  by  con 
sent  of  the  tribe.'  Kennedy's  Texas,  vol.  i.,  p.  346-7.  In  fact,  a  Navajo  Indi 
an  has  said,  '  that  he  was  afraid  to  correct  his  own  boy,  lest  the  child  should 
wait  for  a  convenient  opportunity,  and  shoot  him  with  an  arrow.'  Letherman, 
in  Smithsonian  Rept.,  1855,  p.  294. 

!26  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.  Spec.  Com.,  1867,  p.  354;  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  307; 
Mollhausen,  Tagebuch,  p.  399;  Pattie's  Pers.  Nar..  p.  119. 

127  '  The  Navajo  women  are  very  loose,  and  do  not  look  upon  fornication 
as  a  crime.'  Guyther,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.  Spec.  Com.,  1867,  p.  339;  Cremony's 
Apaches,  p.  244.  '  Prostitution  is  the  rule  among  the  (Yuma)  women,  not 
the  exception.'  Mowry,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1857,  p.  301;  Froebel,  Aus 
Arnerika,  torn,  ii.,  p.  476;  Browne's  Apache  Country,  p.  96.  'Prostitution 
prevails  to  a  great  extent  among  the  Navajoes,  the  Maricopas,  and 
the  Yuma  Indians;  and  its  attendant  diseases,  as  before  stated,  have 
more  or  less  tainted  the  blood  of  the  adults;  and  by  inheritance  of 
the  children.'  Carleton,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.  Spec.  Com.,  1867,  p.  433. 
Among  the  Navajoes,  '  the  most  unfortunate  thing  which  can  befall  a 
captive  woman  is  to  be  claimed  by  two  persons.  In  this  case,  she  is  either 
shot  or  delivered  up  for  indiscriminate  violence.'  Emory's  Reconnois- 


AMUSEMENTS.  515 

the  anger  of  an  injured  husband  by  presents,  although 
before  the  law  he  forfeits  his  life.  Even  sodomy  and 
incestuous  intercourse  occur  among  them.  Old  age  is 
dishonorable.128 

They  are  immoderately  fond  of  smoking,  drinking, 
feasting,  and  amusements  which  fill  up  the  many  hours 
of  idleness.  Dancing  and  masquerading  is  the  most 
favorite  pastime.  They  have  feasts  with  dances  to  cele 
brate  victories,  feasts  given  at  marriage,  and  when  girls 
attain  the  age  of  puberty;  a  ceremonial  is  observed  at 
the  burial  of  noted  warriors,  and  on  other  various  occa 
sions  of  private  family  life,  in  which  both  men  and 
women  take  part.  The  dance  is  performed  by  a  single 
actor  or  by  a  number  of  persons  of  both  sexes  to  the 
accompaniment  of  instruments  or  their  own  voices.129 

sance,  p.  50.  The  Colorado  River  Indians  '  barter  and  sell  their  women 
into  prostitution,  with  hardly  an  exception.'  Safford,  in  Ind.  Aft'.  Kept.,  1870, 
p.  139.  '  The  Comanche  women  are,  as  in  many  other  wild  tribes,  the  slaves 
of  their  lords,  and  it  is  a  common  practice  for  their  husbands  to  lend  or 
sell  them  to  a  visitor  for  one,  two,  or  three  days  at  a  time.'  Marcy's  Kept.,  p. 
187;  Arricivita,  Cronica  Serdjica,  p.  419.  'Las  faltas  conyugales  no  se  casti- 
gan  por  la  prirnera  vez;  pero  a  la  seguiida  el  marido  covta  la  punta  de  la  nariz 
a  su  infiel  esposa,  y  la  despide  de  su  lado.'  Revista  Cientifica,  vol.  i.,  p.  57;  Soc. 
Ge'og.,  Bulletin,  serie  v.,  No.  96,  p.  192.  '  The  squaw  who  has  been  mutilated  for 
such  a  cause,  is  ipso  facto  divorced,  and,  it  is  said,  for  ever  precluded  from 
marrying  again.  The  consequence  is,  that  she  becomes  a  confirmed  harlot 
in  the  tribe/  Gregg's  Com.  Prairies,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  43,  308-10,  313.  'El  culpa 
ble,  segun  dicen,  jamas  es  castigado  por  el  marido  con  la  muerte;  solamente 
se  abroga  el  derecho  de  darle  alguuos  golpes  y  cogerse  sus  mulas  o  caballos.' 
Berlandier  y  Thovel,  Diario,  p.  253;  Marcy's  Army  Life,  p.  49.  'These  yung 
men  may  not  haue  carnall  copulation  with  any  woman:  but  all  the  yung  men 
of  the  countrey  which  are  to  marrie,  may  company  with  them ....  I  saw  like 
wise  certaine  women  which  liued  dishonestly  among  men.'  Alarchon,  in  Hak- 
luyt's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  436. 

128  'They  tolde  mey  that. . .  .such  as  remayned  widowes,  stayed  halfe  a 
yeere,  or  a  whole  yeere  before  they  married.'  Alarchon,  in  Hakluyt's  Voy., 
vol.  iii.,  p.  431;  Emory's  Kept.  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Boundary  Survey,  vol.  i.,  p. 
110;  Marcy's  Army  Life,  p.  54;  Mollhausen,  Reisen  in  die  Felsengeb.,  torn,  ii., 
p.  234;  Garcia  Conde,  in  6'oc.  Mex.  Geog.,  Boletw,  torn,  v.,  p.  315. 

129  <En  las  referidas  reuniones  los  bailes  son  sus  diversiones  favoritas. 
Los  hacen  de  noche  al  son  de  una  olla  cubierta  la  boca  con  una  piel  tirante, 
que  suenan  con  un  palo,  en  cuya  estremidad  lian  un  boton  de  trapos.     Se 
iiiterpolan  ambos  secsos,  saltan  todos  a  un  mismo  tiempo,  dando  alaridos  y 
haciendo  miles  de  ademanes,  en  que  mueven  todos  los  miembros  del  cuerpo 
con  una  destreza  estraordinaria,  arremedando  al  coyote  y  al  venado.     Desta 
manera  forman  diferentes  grupos  simetricamente.'    Velasco,  Noticias  de  So- 
nora,  p.  269;  Marcy's  Army  Life,  p.  177;  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  285.     'Este 
lo  forma  una  junta  de  truhanes  vestidos  de  ridfculo  y  autorizados  por  los 
viejos  del  pueblo  para  cometer  los  mayores  desordenes,  y  gustan-  tanto  de 
estos  hechos,  que  ni  los  maridos  reparan  las  infamias  que  cometen  con  sus 
mugeres,  ni  las  que  resultan  en  perjuicio  de  las  hijas.'  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de 


516  NEW  MEXICANS. 

All  festivities  are  incomplete  without  impromptu  songs, 
the  music  being  anything  but  agreeable,  and  the  accom 
paniment  corn-stalk  or  cane  flutes,  wooden  drums,  or 
calabashes  filled  with  stone  and  shaken  to  a  constantly 
varying  time.130  They  also  spend  much  time  in  gamb 
ling,  often  staking  their  whole  property  on  a  throw,  in 
cluding  everything  upon  their  backs.  One  of  these 
games  is  played  with  a  bullet,  which  is  passed  rapidly 
from  one  hand  to  the  other,  during  which  they  sing,  as 
sisting  the  music  with  the  motion  of  their  arms.  The 
game  consists  in  guessing  in  which  hand  the  bullet  is 
held.  Another  Comanche  game  is  played  with  twelve 
sticks,  each  about  six  inches  in  length.  These  are 
dropped  on  the  ground  and  those  falling  across  each 
other  are  counted  for  game,  one  hundred  being  the  lim 
it.131  Horse-racing  is  likewise  a  passion  with  them;132 
as  are  also  all  other  athletic  sports.133  When  smoking, 

Jesus,  torn,  i.,  p.  335.  '  The  females  (of  the  Apaches)  do  the  principal  part 
of  the  dancing.'  Henry,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  212.  'Among  the 
Abenakis,  Chactas,  Coinanches,  and  other  Indian  tribes,  the  women  dance 
the  same  dances,  but  after  the  men,  and  far  out  of  their  sight. . .  .they  are  sel 
dom  admitted  to  share  any  amusement,  their  lot  being  to  work.'  Domenech's 
Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  199,  214.  '  De  estos  vinieron  cinco  danzas,  cada  una 
compuesta  de  treinta  iiidias;  de  estas,  veintiseis  como  de  15  a  20  anos,  y  las 
cuatro  restantes  de  mas  edad,  que  eran  las  que  cuidaban  y  dirigian  a  las  j<5- 
venes.'  Museo  Mex.,  torn.  i..  p.  288.  '  The  dance  (of  the  Tontos)  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  California  Indians;  a  stamp  around,  with  clapping  of  hands 
and  slapping  of  thighs  in  time  to  a  drawl  of  monotones.'  Smart,  in  Smith 
sonian  Kept.,  1867,  p.  419. 

130  Stratton's  Capt.  Oatman  Girls,  p.  180.  The  Yumas  'sing  some  few  mo 
notonous  songs,  and  the  beaux  captivate  the  hearts  of  their  lady-loves  by 
playing  on  a  flute  made  of  cane.'  Emory's  Kept.  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Boundary 
Survey,  vol.  i.,  p.  iii.  'No  tienen  mas  orquesta  que  sus  voces  y  una  olla  6 
casco  de  calabazo  a  que  se  amarra  una  piel  tirante  y  se  toca  con  un  palo.' 
Cordero,  in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  pp.  373-4;  Arricivita,  Cronica  Serdfica, 
p.  419;  lues'  Colorado  Biv.,  pp.  71-2;  Garcia  Conde,  in  Album  Mex.,  torn,  i., 
pp.  166,  168. 

isi  Stanley's  Portraits,  p.  55;  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  133.  'Yel 
vicio  que  tienen  estos  Indies,  es  jugar  en  las  Estufas  las  Mantas,  y  otras 
Preseas  con  vnas  Canuelas,  que  hechan  en  alto  (el  qual  Juego  vsaban  estos 
Indios  Mexicanos)  y  al  que  no  tiene  mas  que  vna  Manta,  y  la  pierde,  se  la 
buelven;  con  condicion,  que  ha  de  andar  desnudo  por  todo  el  Pueblo,  pinta 
do,  y  embijado  todo  el  cuerpo,  y  los  Muchachos  dandole  grita.'  Torquemada, 
Monarq.  Ind.,  torn,  i.,  p.  680. 

132  Kennedy's  Texas,  vol.  i.,  p.  347. 

133  « The  players  generally  take  each  about  ten  arrows,  which  they  hold 
with  their  bows  in  the  left  hand;  he  whose  turn  it  is  advances  in  front  of 
the  judges,  and  lances  his  first  arrow  upwards  as  high  as  possible,  for  he 
must  send  off  all  the  others  before  it  comes  down.     The  victory  belongs  to 
him  who  has  most  arrows  in  the  air  together;  and  he  who  can  make  them 


SMOKING  AND  DKINKING.  517 

the  Comanches  direct  the  first  two  puffs,  with  much  cer 
emony  and  muttering,  to  the  sun,  and  the  third  puff 
with  a  like  demonstration  is  blown  toward  the  earth. 
When  short  of  tobacco,  they  make  use  of  the  dried 
leaves  of  the  sumach,  of  willow-bark,  or  other  plants.13* 

The  Comanches  are  remarkable  for  their  temperance, 
or  rather  abhorence  for  intoxicating  drink ;  all  the  other 
nations  of  this  family  abandon  themselves  to  this  subtle 
demoralization,  and  are  rapidly  sinking  under  it.  They 
make  their  own  spirits  out  of  corn  and  out  of  agave 
americana,  the  pulque  and  mescal,  both  very  strong  and 
intoxicating  liquors.135 

Of  all  North  American  Indians  the  Comanches  and 
Cheyennes  are  said  to  be  the  most  skillful  riders,  and 
it  would  be  difficult  to  find  their  superiors  in  any  part 

all  fly  at  once  is  a  hero.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  198.  '  The  Indians 
amuse  themselves  shooting  at  the  fruit  (pitaya),  and  when  one  misses  his 
aim  and  leaves  his  arrow  sticking  in  the  top  of  the  cactus,  it  is  a  source  of 
much  laughter  to  his  comrades.'  Browne's  Apache  Country,  p.  78;  Armin,  Das 
Heutiye  Mexiko,  p.  309.  The  hoop  and  pole  game  of  the  Mojaves  is  thus 
played.  'The  hoop  is  six  inches  in  diameter,  and  made  of  elastic  cord;  the 
poles  are  straight,  and  about  fifteen  feet  in  length.  Rolling  the  hoop  from  one 
end  of  the  course  toward  the  other,  two  of  the  players  chase  it  half-way,  and 
at  the  same  time  throw  their  poles.  He  who  succeeds  in  piercing  the  hoop 
wins  the  game.'  Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xvii.,  p.  463;  Emory's  Kept. 
U.  8.  and  M>'x.  Boundary  Survey,  vol.  i.,  p.  iii.;  Whipple,  in  Pac.  E.  E.  Kept., 
vol.  iii.,  p.  114;  MoUhausen,  Reisen  in  die  Felsenyeb.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  210,  223;  Moll- 
hausen,  Tagebuch,  p.  395;  Backus,  in  Schoolcrafi's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  2 14.  '  Tie- 
nen  unas  pelotas  de  materia  negra  como  pez,  embutidas  en  ella  varias  con- 
chuelas  pequenas  del  mar,  con  que  juegan  y  apuestan  arrojaudola  con  el  pie.' 
Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  iii.,  p.  Ill;  Sedelmair,  Eelacion,  in  Doc.  Hist. 
Mex.,  serie  iii.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  851. 

134  '  Los  salvages  recogen  sus  hojas  generalmente  en  el  Otono,  las  que  en- 
tcmces  estan  rojas  y  muy  oxidadas:  para  hacer  su  provision,  la  secau  al  fuego 
6  al  sol,  y  para  fumarlas,  las  mezclau  con  tabaco.'  Berlandiery  Thovel,  Diario, 
p.  257.     The  Comanches  smoke  tobacco,  '  mixed  with  the  dried  leaves  of  the 
sumach,  inhaling  the  smoke  into  their  lungs,  and  giving  it  out  through  their 
nostrils.'  Marcy's  Army  Life,  pp.  29,  32;  Alarchon,  in  Hakluyt's  Voy.t  vol. 
iii.,  p.  432;  Letherman,  in  Smithsonian  Rept.,  1855,  p.  285. 

135  Thiimmel,  Mexiko,  p.  352.     The  Comanches  '  avoid  the  use  of  ardent 
spirits,  which  they  call  "fool's  water."  '  Kennedy's   Texas,  vol.  i.,  p.  347; 
Gregg's  Com.  Prairies,  vol.  ii.,  p.  307.  Dubuis,  in  Domenech,  Jour.,  p.  469. 
'  In  order  to  make  an  intoxicating  beverage  of  the  mescal,  the  roasted  root  is 
macerated  in  a  proportionable  quantity  of  water,  which  is  allowed  to  stand 
several  days,  when  it  ferments  rapidly.    The  liquor  is  boiled  down  and  pro 
duces  a  strongly  intoxicating  fluid.'  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  217.     '  When  its 
stem  (of  the  maguey)  is  tapped  there  flows  from  it  a  juice  which,  on  being 
fermented,  produces  the  pulque.'   Bartlett's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  290.     The 
Apaches  out  of  corn  make  an  intoxicating  drink  which  they  called  "  tee- 
swin,"  made  by  boiling  the  corn  and  fermenting  it:  Murphy,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
Eept.  Spec.  Com.,  1867,  p.  347;  Hardy's  Trav.,  pp.  334,  337. 


518  NEW  MEXICANS. 

of  the  world.  Young  children,  almost  infants,  are  tied 
by  their  mothers  to  half- wild,  bare-backed  mustangs, 
which  place  thenceforth  becomes  their  home.  They 
supply  themselves  with  fresh  horses  from  wild  droves 
wandering  over  the  prairies,  or  from  Mexican  rancherias. 
A  favorite  horse  is  loved  and  cherished  above  all  things 
on  earth,  not  excepting  wives  or  children.  The  women 
are  scarcely  behind  the  men  in  this  accomplishment. 
They  sit  astride,  guide  the  horses  with  the  knee  like  the 
men,  and  catch  and  break  wild  colts.  In  fighting,  the 
Comanches  throw  the  body  on  one  side  of  the  horse,  hang 
on  by  the  heel  and  shoot  with  great  precision  and  rapidity. 
It  is  beneath  the  dignity  of  these  horsemen  to  travel  on 
foot,  and  in  their  sometimes  long  and  rapid  marches, 
they  defy  pursuit.136  Before  horses  were  known  they 
used  to  transport  their  household  effects  on  the  backs  of 
dogs,  which  custom  even  now  prevails  among  some  na 
tions.137 

136  Jones,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1869,  p.  223;  Emory's  Eept.  U.  S.  and  Mex. 
Boundary  Survey,  vol.  i.,  p.  108;  Domenech,  Jour,  p.  137;  Turner,  in  Nouvelles 
Annales  des  Voy.,  1852,  torn.  135,  p.  307;  Backus,  in  Schoolcraft'sArch.,  vol.  iv., 
p.  212;  Garcia  Conde,  in  Album  Mex.,  1849,  torn,  i.,  p.  165;  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat., 
p.  277;  Shepard's  Land  of  the  Aztecs,  p.  182;  Mollhausen,   Tagcbuch,  p.  114-6; 
Emory's  Reconnaissance,  p.  61;  Malte-Brun,  Precis  de  la  Geog.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  399. 
The  Apache  women,  '  Son  tan  buenas  ginetas,  que  brincan  en  un  potro,  y 
sin  mas  riendas  que  un  cabrestillo,  saben  arrendarlo.'  Sonora,  Descrip.  Geog., 
in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  564;  Pattie's  Pcrs.  Nar.,  p.  298; 
Marcy's  Army  Life,  p.  28;  Figuier's  Hum.  Race,  p.  480;  'A  short  hair  halter 
was  passed  around  under  the  neck  of  the  horse,  and  both  ends  tightly  braided 
into  the  mane,  on  the  withers,  leaving  a  loop  to  hang  under  the  neck,  and 
against  the  breast,  which,  being  caught  up  in  the  hand,  makes  a  sling  into 
which  the  elbow  falls,  taking  the  weight  of  the  body  on  the  middle  of  the 
upper  arm.     Into  this  loop  the  rider  drops  suddenly  and  fearlessly,  leaving 
his  heel  to  hang  over  the  back  of  the  horse,  to  steady  him,  and  also  to  restore 
him  when  he  wishes  to  regain  his  upright  position  on  the  horse's  back.' 
Brownell's  Ind.  Races,  p.  540;  Davis'  El  Gringo,  p.  412.     Les  Comanches 
'regardent  comme  un  deshonneur  d'aller  a  pied.'  Soc.  Geog.,  Bulletin,  serie 
v.,  no.  96,  p.  192;  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  282.    The  Comanches,  for  hardening 
the  hoofs  of  horses  and  mules,  have  a  custom  of  making  a  fire  of  the  wild 
rosemary — artemisia — and  exposing  their  hoofs  to  the  vapor  and  smoke  by 
leading  them  slowly  through  it.  Parker's  Notes  on  Tex.,  p.  203. 

137  Marcy's  Army  Life,  p.  18;  Humboldt,  Essai  Pol.,  torn,  i.,  p.  290;  Cor- 
doue,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  x.,  p.  443;  Malte-Brun,  Precis 
de  la  Geog.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  454;  Montanus,  Nieuwe  Weereld,  p.  209.     'Les  Teyas 
et  Querechos  ont  de  grands  troupeaux  de  chiens  qui  portent  leur  bagage; 
ils  1'attachent  sur  le  dos  de  ces  animaux  au  moyen  d'une  sangle  et  d'un  petit 
bat.     Quand  la  charge  se  derange  les  chiens  se  mettent  a  hurler,  pour  avertir 
leur  maitre  de  1'arranger.'  Castaneda,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i., 
torn,  ix.,  pp.  117,  125,  190.     '  On  the  top  of  the  bank  we  struck  a  Camanche 
trail,  very  broad,  and  made  by  the  lodge  poles,  which  they  transport  from 


COMANCHE  CUSTOMS.  519 

The  Comanche  observes  laws  of  hospitality  as  strictly 
as  the  Arab,  and  he  exacts  the  observance  of  his  rules 
of  etiquette  from  strangers.  When  a  visitor  enters  his 
dwelling,  the  master  of  the  house  points  to  him  a  seat, 
and  how  to  reach  it,  and  the  host  is  greatly  offended  if 
his  directions  are  not  strictly  followed.  Meeting  on  the 
prairie,  friends  as  well  as  enemies,  if  we  may  believe 
Colonel  Marcy,  put  their  horses  at  full  speed.  "  When 
a  party  is  discovered  approaching  thus,  and  are  near 
enough  to  distinguish  signals,  all  that  is  necessary  to 
ascertain  their  disposition  is  to  raise  the  right  hand 
with  the  palm  in  front,  and  gradually  push  it  forward 
and  back  several  times.  They  all  understand  this  to  be 
a  command  to  halt,  and  if  they  are  not  hostile,  it  will 
at  once  be  obeyed.  After  they  have  stopped,  the  right 
hand  is  raised  again  as  before,  and  slowly  moved  to  the 
right  and  left,  which  signifies,  I  do  not  know  you.  Who 
are  you  ?  They  will  then  answer  the  inquiry  by  giving 
their  signal."  Then  they  inflict  on  strangers  the  hug 
ging  and  face-rubbing  remarked  among  the  Eskimos, 
demonstrating  thereby  the  magnitude  of  their  joy  at 
meeting.138  The  various  tribes  of  the  Yuma  and  Mo- 
jave  nations  hold  communication  with  one  another  by 
means  of  couriers  or  runners,  who  quickly  disseminate 
important  news,  .and  call  together  the  -various  bands  for 
consultation,  hunting,  and  war.  Besides  this,  there  is 
used  everywhere  on  the  prairies,  a  system  of  telegraphy, 
which  perhaps  is  only  excelled  by  the  wires  themselves. 
Smoke  during  the  day,  and  fires  at  night,  perched  on 
mountain-tops,  flash  intelligence  quickly  and  surely  across 
the  plains,  giving  the  call  for  assistance  or  the  order  to 

place  to  place by  fastening  them  on  each  side  of  their  pack  horses,  leav 
ing  the  long  ends  trailing  upon  the  ground.'  Parker's  Notes  on  Ttx.,  p.  154. 
'  Si  carecen  de  cabalgaduras,  cargan  los  muebles  las  mujeres  igualniente  que 
sus  criaturas.'  Garcia  Conde,  in  Soc.  Mex.  Geog.,  Boletin,  torn,  v.,  p.  317;  Ives' 
Colorado  Riv.,  p.  128. 

138  Neighbors,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  132;  Mollhausen,  Peisen  in 
die  Felsengeb.,  p.  234;  Marcy 's  Army  Life,  pp.  29,  33,  189;  Marcy' s  Eept.,  p. 
187;  Gregg's  Com.  Prairies,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  38,  46;  Arricivita,  Crunica  Serdfica, 
pp.  473,  475;  Cordero,  in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  378.  When  the  Yam- 
pais  '  wish  to  parley  they  raise  a  firebrand  in  the  air  as  a  sign  of  friend 
ship.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  i.,  p.  218. 


520  NEW  MEXICANS. 

disperse  when  pursued.  The  advanced  posts  also  inform 
the  main  body  of  the  approach  of  strangers,  and  all  this 
is  done  with  astonishing  regularity,  by  either  increasing 
or  diminishing  the  signal  column,  or  by  displaying  it 
only  at  certain  intervals  or  by  increasing  the  number.139 
In  cold  weather  many  of  the  nations  in  the  neighbor 
hood  -  of  the  Colorado,  carry  firebrands  in  their  hands, 
as  they  assert  for  the  purpose  of  warming  themselves, 
which  custom  led  the  early  visitors  to  name  the  Colo 
rado  the  Rio  del  Tizon.140 

The  Cornanches  stand  in  great  dread  of  evil  spirits, 
which  they  attempt  to  conciliate  by  fasting  and  absti 
nence.  When  their  demons  withhold  rain  or  sunshine, 
according  as  they  desire,  they  whip  a  slave,  and  if  their 
gods  prove  obdurate,  their  victim  is  almost  flayed  alive. 
The  Navajos  venerate  the  bear,  and  as  before  stated,  nev 
er  kill  him  nor  touch  any  of  his  flesh. m  Although  early 

139  <  These  messengers  ( of  the  Mohaves)  were  their  news-carriers  and  senti 
nels.     Frequently  two  criers  were  employed  (sometimes  more)  one  from  each 
tribe.     These  would  have  their  meeting  stations.     At  these  stations  these 
criers  would  meet  with  promptness,  and  by  word  of  mouth,  each  would  de 
posit  his  store  of  news  with  his  fellow  expressman,  and  then  each  would 
return  to  his  own  tribe  with  the  news.'  Stratton's  Capt.  Oatman  Girls,  pp. 
220,  283.     'El  modo  de  darse  sus  avisos  para  reunirse  en  casos  de  urgeucia 
de  ser  perseguidos,  es  por  medio  de  sus  telegrafos  de  humos  que  forrnaii  eu 
los  cerros  mas  elevados  formando  hogueras  de  los  palos  mas  humientos  que 
ellos  conocen  muy  bien.'  Velasco,  Noticias  de  Sonora,  p.  281.  Domenech's  Des 
erts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  5.     '  Para  no  detenerse  en  hacer  los  humos,  llevan  los  mas  de 
los  hombres  y  mujeres,  los  instrumentos  necessaries  para  sacar  lumbre;  pre- 
fieren  la  piedra,  el  eslabon,  y  la  yesca;  pero  si  no  tienen  estos  utiles,  suplen 
su  falta  con  palos  preparados  al  efecto  bien  secos,  que  frotados  se  inflaman.' 
Garcia  Conde,  in  Soc.  Mex.  Geog.,  Boletin,  torn,  v.,  p.  317. 

140  Eaton,  in  Schoolcraft' 's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  217;  Sitgreaves'  Zuni  Ex.,  p. 
18.     '  Su  frazada  en  tiempo  de  frio  es  uu  tizon  eiicendido  que  aplicandolo  a 
la  boca  del  estomago  caminan  por  los  mananas,  y  calentando  ya  el  sol  como 
a  las  ocho  tiran  los  tizones,  que  por  muchos  que  hayaii  tirado  por  los  cami- 
nos,  pueden  ser  guias  de  los  caminantes.'  Sedelmair,  Eelacion,  in  Doc.  Hist. 
Hex.,  serie  iii.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  851. 

141  The  Comanches  '  have  yearly  gatherings  to  light  the  sacred  fires;  they 
build  numerous  huts,  and  sit  huddled  about  them,  taking  medicine  for  puri 
fication,  and  fasting  for  seven  days.     Those  who  can  endure  to*  keep  the  fast 
unbroken  become  sacred  in  the  eyes  of  the  others.'  Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag., 
vol.  xvii.,  p.  451.     If  a  Yuma  kills  one  of  his  own  tribe  he  keeps  '  a  fast  for 
one  moon;  on.  such  occasions  he  eats  no  meat -only  vegetables — drinks  only 
water,  knows  no  woman,  and  bathes  frequently  during  the  day  to  purify  the 
flesh.'     Emory's  Rept.  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Boundary  Survey,  vol.  i.,  p.  110.     'It 
was  their  (Mojaves, )  custom  never  to  eat  salted  meat  for  the  next  moon  after 
the  coming  of  a  captive  among  them.'  Stratton's  Capt.  Oatman  Girls,  p.  180; 
Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  402;  Dornenech,  Jour,  p.  13;  Mollhausen,  Tage- 
fcuc/i,  pp.  125-6. 


DISEASES  AND  MEDICINE.  521 

writers  speak  of  cannibalism  among  these  people,  there 
is  no  evidence  that  they  do  or  ever  did  eat  human 
flesh.142  In  their  intercourse  they  are  dignified  and  re 
served,  and  never  interrupt  a  person  speaking.  Unless 
compelled  by  necessity,  they  never  speak  any  language 
but  their  own,  it  being  barbarous  in  their  eyes  to  make 
use  of  foreign  tongues.143 

Although  endowed  generally  with  robust  and  healthy 
constitutions,  bilious  and  malarial  fever,  pneumonia, 
rheumatism,  dysentery,  ophthalmia,  measles,  small-pox, 
and  various  syphilitic  diseases  are  sometimes  met  among 
them;  the  latter  occurring  most  frequently  among  the 
Navajos,  Mojaves,  Yumas,  and  Comanches.  Whole 
bands  are  sometimes  affected  with  the  last-mentioned 
disease,  and  its  effects  are  often  visible  in  their  young. 
A  cutaneous  ailment,  called  pintos,  also  makes  its  ap 
pearance  at  times.144  For  these  ailments  they  have  dif 
ferent  remedies,  consisting  of  leaves,  herbs,  and  roots,  of 
which  decoctions  or  poultices  are  made  •  scarification  and 
the  hunger  cure  are  resorted  to  as  well.  Among  the  Mo 
javes  the  universal  remedy  is  the  sweat-house,  employed 
by  them  and  the  other  nations  not  only  as  a  remedy  for 
diseases,  but  for  pleasure.  There  is  no  essential  differ 
ence  between  their  sweat-houses  and  those  of  northern 
nations — an  air-tight  hut  near  a  stream,  heated  stones, 
upon  which  water  is  thrown  to  generate  steam,  and  a 
plunge  into  the  water  afterward.  As  a  cure  for  the  bite 
of  a  rattlesnake  they  employ  an  herb  called  euphorbia. 
Broken  or  wounded  limbs  are  encased  in  wooden  splints 

142  « Entre  cuyas  tribus  hay  algunas  que  se  comen  a  sus  enemigos.'  Alegre, 
Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  i.,  p.  332.     '  Los  chirumas,  que  me  parecen  ser  los 
yumas,  no  se  que  coman  carne  humana  como  dijo  el  indio  cosnina.'  Garces, 
in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  ii.,  torn,  i.,  p.  363.     'Among  the  spoil  which  we 
took  from  these  Camanches,  we  found  large  portions  of  human  flesh  evi 
dently  prepared  for  cooking.'  Dewees'  Texas,  p.  232-3.     Certain  Europeans 
have  represented  the  Comanches  'as  a  race  of  cannibals;  but  according  to 
the  Spaniards ....  they  are  merely  a  cruel,  dastardly  race  of  savages. '  Pages' 
Travels,  vol.  i.,  p.  107. 

143  Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xvii.,  p.  451;  Berlandiery  Thovel,  Diario, 
p.  253;  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  34;  Davis'  El  Gringo,  p.  407. 

144  Smart,  in  Smithsonian  E^pt.,  1867,  p.  418.     'Gonorrhoea  and  syphilis 
are  not  at  all  rare '  ^rnong  the  Navajos.   Letherman,  in  Smithsonian  Kept., 
1855,  p.  290;  Marcy's  Army  Life,  p.  31. 


522  NEW  MEXICANS, 

until  healed.  But  frequently  they  abandon  their  sick  and 
maimed,  or  treat  them  with  great  harshness.145  Priests 
or  medicine-men  possess  almost  exclusively  the  secrets 
of  the  art  of  healing.  When  herbs  fail  they  resort  to 
incantations,  songs,  and  wailings.  They  are  firm  be 
lievers  in  witchcraft,  and  wear  as  amulets  and  charms, 
feathers,  stones,  antelope-toes,  crane's  bills,  bits  of  charred 
wood  and  the  like.  Their  prophets  claim  the  power  of 
foretelling  future  events,  and  are  frequently  consulted 
therefor.140  Most  of  the  nations  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Colorado,  burn  their  dead  as  soon  as  possible  after  death, 
on  which  occasion  the  worldly  effects  of  the  deceased 
are  likewise  spiritualized;  utensils,  property,  sometimes 
wives,  are  sent  with  their  master  to  the  spirit  land.147 

!45  Hardy's  Trav.,  p.  442-3.  'Los  comanches  la  llaman  Puip;  y  cuando 
uno  de  entre  ellos  esta  herido,  mascan  la  raiz  (que  es  muy  larga)  y  esprimen 
el  yugo  y  la  saliva  en  la  llaga.'  Berlandier  y  Thovel,  Diario,  p.  257;  Letherman, 
in  Smithsonian  Kept.,  1855,  p.  290;  Pattie's  Pers.  Ndr.,  p.  118;  Stration's  Capt. 
Oatman  Girls,  p.  156;  Letherman,  in  Smithsonian  Eept.,  1855,  p.  289;  Browne's 
Apache  Country,  p.  63;  Mollhausen,  Tagebuch,  p.  142;  Id.,  Eeisen  in  die  Felsen- 
geb.,  torn,  i.,  p.  118;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  335;  Neighbors,  in  School- 
craft's  Arch.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  130;  Parker's  Notes  on  Tex.,  p.  193.  The  Apaches: 
'  Cuando  se  enferma  alguno  a  quien  no  hail  podido  hacer  efecto  favorable  la 
aplicacion  de  las  yerbas,  vinico  antidoto  con  que  se  curan,  lo  abandonan,  sin 
rnas  diligeiicia  ulterior  que  ponerle  un  nionton  de  brasas  a  la  cabecera  y  una 
poca  de  agua,  sin  saberse  hasta  hoy  que  significa  esto  6  con  que  fin  la  hacen.' 
Velasco,  Noticias  de  Sonora,  p.  280. 

146  Eaton,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  217;  Domenech,  Jour.,  pp.  13, 
139;  Wfdpple,  Ewbank,  and  Turner's  Kept.,  p.  42,  in  Pac.  E.  E.  Eept.,  vol.  iii.; 
Henry,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  212;  Parker's  Notes  on  Tex.,  p.  240-1. 
Among  the  Comanches  during  the  steam  bath,  '  the  shamans,  or  medicine 
men,  who  profess  to  have  the  power  of  communicating  with  the  unseen  world, 
and  of  propitiating  the  malevolence  of  evil  spirits,  are  performing  various  in 
cantations,  accompanied  by  music  011  the  outside.'  Marcy's  Army  Life,  p.  60; 
Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  576;  Bristol,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.  Spec.  Com.,  1867, 
p.  358.     '  De  aquf  ha  sucedido  que  algunos  indios  naturalmente  astutos,  se 
han  convertido  en  adivinos,  que  han  llegado  a  sostener  como  a  sus  orac- 
ulos.     Estos  mismos  adivinos  hacen  de  medicos,  que  por  darse  importancia 
a  la  aplicacion  de  ciertas  yerbas,  agregan  porcioii  de  ceremonias  supersti- 
ciosas  y  ridiculas,  con  canticos  estranos,  en  que  hablan  a  sus  enfernios  miles 
de  embustes  y  patranas.'    Velasco,  Noticias  de  Sonora,  p.  280. 

147  At  the  Colorado  river  they  'burned  those  which  dyed.'  Alarchon,  in 
Hakluyt's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  432;  Mollhausen,  Tagebuch,  p.  404;  Browne's  Apache 
Country,  p.  97;  Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xvii.,  p.  467;  Stratton's  Capt.  Oat 
man  Girls,  p.  240-1.     '  It  is  the  custom  of  the  Mojaves  to  burn  their  property 
when  a  relation  dies  to  whose  memory  they  wish  to  pay  especial  honor.' 
Ives'  Colorado  Eiv.,  p.  69.     'Die  Comanches  todteten  friiher  das  Lieblings- 
weib  des  gestorbenen  Hauptlings.'  Mutter,  Amerikanische  Urreligionen,  p.  88. 
'  No  Navajo  will  ever  occupy  a  lodge  in  which  a  person  has  died.     The  lodge 
is  burned.'   Backus,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  213;  Letherman,   in 
Smithsonian  Eept.,  1855,  p.  289.     'When  a  death  occurs  they  (Yumas)  move 
their  villages,  although  sometimes  only  a  short  distance,  but  never  occupy- 


BURIAL  OF  THE  DEAD.  523 

Those  that  do  not  burn  the  dead,  bury  them  in  caves  or 
in  shallow  graves,  with  the  robes,  blankets,  weapons, 
utensils,  and  ornaments  of  the  deceased.  The  Coman- 
ches  frequently  build  a  heap  of  stones  over  the  grave  of 
a  warrior,  near  which  they  erect  a  pole  from  which  a 
pair  of  moccasins  is  suspended.148  After  burying  the 
corpse,  they  have  some  mourning  ceremonies,  such  as 
dances  and  songs  around  a  fire,  and  go  into  mourning 
for  a  month.  As  a  sign  of  grief  they  cut  off  the  manes 
and  tails  of  their  horses,  and  also  crop  their  own  hair 
and  lacerate  their  bodies  in  various  ways;  the  wom 
en  giving  vent  to  their  affliction  by  long  continued 
bowlings.  But  this  applies  only  to  warriors ;  children, 
and  old  men,  are  not  worth  so  ostentatious  a  funeral.149 


ing  exactly  the  same  locality.'  Emory's  Rept.  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Boundary  Sur 
vey,  vol.  i.,  p.  110. 

us  « When  a  Comanche  dies ....  he  is  usually  wrapped  in  his  best  blankets 
or  robes,  and  interred  with  most  of  his  "jewelry,"  and  other  articles  of 
esteem.'  Gregg's  Com.  Prairies,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  317,  243.  '  Cuando  muere  algun 
indio, . . .  juntando  sus  deudos  todas  las  alhajas  de  su  peculio,  se  las  ponen 
y  de  esta  mariera  lo  envuelven  en  una  piel  de  ci'bolo  y  lo  llevan  a  enterrar.' 
Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  i.,  p.  336;  Kennedy's  Texas,  vol.  i.,  p.  347; 
Wislizenus'  Tour,  p.  69.  The  Comanches  cover  their  tombs  '  with  grass  and 
plants  to  keep  them  concealed.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  363;  Id.,  Jour., 
p.  14.  The  Apaches:  'probably  they  bury  their  dead  in  caves;  no  graves 
are  ever  found  that  I  ever  heard  of.'  Henry,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p. 
212.  See  also  James'  Exped.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  305.  'On  the  highest  point  of  the 
hill,  was  a  Comanche  grave,  marked  by  a  pile  of  stones  and  some  remnants 
of  scanty  clothing.'  Parker's  Notes  on  Tex.,  pp.  137,  151.  The  custom  of 
the  Mescalero  Apaches  'heretofore  has  been  to  leave  their  dead  unburied 
in  some  secluded  spot.'  Curtis,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1871,  p.  402;  Cremony's 
Apaches,  p.  50;  Mollhausen,  Reisen  in  die  Felsenyeb.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  233;  Pattie's 
Pers.  Nar.,  p.  119. 

149  Among  the  Navajos  '  Immediately  after  a  death  occurs  a  vessel  con 
taining  water  is  placed  near  the  dwelling  of  the  deceased,  where  it  remains 
over  night;  in  the  morning  two  naked  Indians  come  to  get  the  body  for 
burial,  with  their  hair  falling  over  and  upon  their  face  and  shoulders.  When 
the  ceremony  is  completed  they  retire  to  the  water,  wash,  dress,  do  up  their 
hair,  and  go  about  their  usual  avocations.'  Bristol,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.  Spec. 
Com.,  1867,  p.  358.  The  Navajos  'all  walked  in  solemn  procession  round  it 
(the  grave)  singing  their  funeral  songs.  As  they  left  it,  every  one  left  a 
present  on  the  grave;  some  an  arrow,  others  meat,  moccasins,  tobacco,  war- 
feathers,  and  the  like,  all  articles  of  value  to  them.'  Pattie's  Pers.  Nar.,  p. 
119;  Revista  Cientifica,  torn,  i.,  p.  57.  '  A  los  ninos  y  ninas  de  pecho  les  llevan 
en  una  jicara  la  leche  ordenada  de  sus  pechos  las  mismas  madres,  y  se  las 
echan  en  la  sepultura;  y  esto  lo  hacen  por  algunos  dias  continues.'  Sonora, 
Descrip.  Geog.,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  543;  Neighbors,  in 
SchoolcrafVs  Arch.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  133;  Velasco,  Noticias  de  Sonora,  p.  280;  Froebel, 
Aus  Amerilca,  torn,  ii.,  p.  100;  Mollhausen,  Reisen  in  die  Felsengeb.-,  torn,  i.,  p. 
304;  Marcy's  Army  Life,  p.  56.  '  When  a  young  warrior  dies,  they  mourn  a 
long  time,  but  when  an  old  person  dies,  they  mourn  but  little,  saying  that 


524  NEW  MEXICANS. 

The  name  of  a  deceased  person  is  rarely  mentioned,  and 
the  Apaches  are  shy  of  admitting  strangers  to  a  celebra 
tion  of  funeral  ceremonies,  which  mostly  take  place  at 
night.  In  general  they  are  averse  to  speaking  upon  the 
subject  of  death  at  all.  The  Navajos,  says  Mr  Davis, 
"have  a  superstitious  dread  of  approaching  a  dead  body, 
and  will  never  go  near  one  when  they  can  avoid  it."150 
In  the  character  of  the  several  nations  of  this  divi 
sion  there  is  a  marked  contrast.  The  Apaches  as  I  have 
said,  though  naturally  lazy  like  all  savages,  are  in  their 
industries  extremely  active, — their  industries  being  theft 
and  murder,  to  which  they  are  trained  by  their  mothers, 
and  in  which  they  display  consummate  cunning,  treach 
ery,  and  cruelty.151  The  Navajos  and  Mojaves  display 
a  more  docile  nature ;  their  industries,  although  therein 
they  do  not  claim  to  eschew  all  trickery,  being  of  a 

they  cannot  live  forever,  and  it  was  time  they  should  go.'  Parker's  Notes  on 
Tex.,  pp.  192,  236. 

"0  Davis'  El  Gringo,  pp.  414-5;  Cremony's  Apaches,  pp.  250,  297. 

151  'The  quality  of  mercy  is  unknown  among  the  Apaches.'  Cremony's 
Apaches,  pp.  33-4,  193,  215-16,  227-8.  '  Perfectly  lawless,  savage,  and  brave.' 
Marcy's  Eept.,  p.  197.  '  For  the  sake  of  the  booty,  also  take  life. '  Schoolcraft's 
Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  202.  '  Inclined  to  intemperance  in  strong  drinks.'  Henry, 
in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  211.  '  Ferocfsimos  de  condicion,  de  natur- 
aleza  sangrientos.'  Almanza,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  824. 
'  Sumamente  vengativo.'  Velasco,  Noticias  de  Sonora,  p.  283.  'Alevoso  y 
vengativo  caracte. .  .rastutos  ladrones,  y  sanguinarios.'  Bustamante,  in  Cavo, 
Tres  Siglos,  torn,  iii.,  p.  78.  'I  have  not  seen  a  more  intelligent,  cheerful, 
and  grateful  tribe  of  Indians  than  the  roving  Apaches.'  Colyer,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
Eept.,  1871,  pp.  15,  47,  51;  Garcia  Conde,  in  Soc.  Mex.  Geog.,  Boletin,  torn, 
v.,  pp.  314-15,  317;  Doc.  Hist.  N.  Viscaya,  MS.,  p.  4;  Cordero,  in  Orozco 
y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  371;  Bartlett's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  322,  326-7; 
Smart,  in  Smithsonian  Eept.,  1867,  p.  419;  Apostolicos  A  fanes,  p.  430;  Lacha- 
pelle,  Eaousset-Boulbon,  p.  83;  Turner,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1852, 
torn,  cxxxv.,  pp.  307,  314;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.ii.,pp.  5,  6,  8;  Mollhausen, 
Eeisen  in  die  Felsengeb.,  torn,  i.,  p.  294;  Mollhausen,  Tagebuch,  pp.  330,  361; 
Bent,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  i.,  p.  243;  Ward's  Mexico,  vol.  i.,  p.  580; 
Mowry's  Arizona,  pp.  31-2;  Pope,  in  Pac.  E.  E.  Eept.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  13;  Whip- 
pie,  Ewbank,  and  Turner's  Eept.,  p.  14,  in  Pac.  K.  E.  Eept.,  vol.  iii.;  Gal- 
latin,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1851,  torn,  cxxxi.,  p.  273;  Gregg's  Com. 
Prairies,  vol.  i.,  pp.  291,  295;  Hist.  Chretienne  de  la  Cal,  p.  99;  Edward's 
Hist.  Tex.,  p.  95;  Peters'  Life  of  Carson,  p.  323;  Soc.  Geog.,  Bulletin,  serie  v., 
No.  96,  p.  187;  Pike's  Explor.  Trav.,  p.  341;  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  p.  276; 
Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xvii.,  pp.  462-3;  Figuier's  Hum.  Eace,  pp. 
482,  484;  Arricivita,  Cronica  Serdfica,  p.  419;  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus, 
toin.  ii.,  p.  4U4;  Ives'  Colorado  Eiv.,  p.  44;  Emory's  Eept.  U.  S.  and  Mex. 
Boundary  Survey,  vol.  i.,  p.  Ill;  Froebel,  Aus  Amerika,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  475-6, 
and  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  527;  Pattie's  Pers.  Nar.,  p.  117;  Whipple,  in  Pac.  E.  E. 
Eept.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  99;  Sedelmair,  Eelacion,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn. 
iv.,  p.  850;  see  further,  2nd.  Aff.  Eepts.,  from  1854  to  1872;  Stratton's  Capt. 
Oatman  Girls,  pp.  116,  122. 


KEW  MEXICAN  CHARACTEE.  525 

more  peaceful,  substantial  character,  such  as  stock-rais 
ing,  agriculture,  and  manufactures.  Professional  thiev 
ing  is  not  countenanced.  Though  treacherous,  they  are 
not  naturally  cruel ;  and  though  deaf  to  the  call  of  grati 
tude,  they  are  hospitable  and  socially  inclined.  They 
are  ever  ready  to  redeem  their  pledged  word,  and  never 
shrink  from  the  faithful  performance  of  a  contract. 
They  are  brave  and  intelligent,  and  possess  much  nat 
ural  common  sense.152  The  Tamajabs  have  no  inclina 
tion  to  share  in  marauding  excursions.  Though  not 
wanting  in  courage,  they  possess  a  mild  disposition,  and 
are  kind  to  strangers.153  The  Comanches  are  dignified 
in  their  deportment,  vain  in  respect  to  their  personal 
appearance,  ambitious  of  martial  fame,  unrelenting  in 
their  feuds,  always  exacting  blood  for  blood,  yet  not 
sanguinary.  They  are  true  to  their  allies,  prizing  highly 
their  freedom,  hospitable  to  strangers,  sober  yet  gay, 
maintaining  a  grave  stoicism  in  presence  of  strangers, 
and  a  Spartan  indifference  under  severe  suffering  or  mis 
fortune.  Formal,  discreet,  and  Arab-like,  they  are 
always  faithful  to  the  guest  who  throws  himself  upon 
their  hospitality.  To  the  valiant  and  brave  is  awarded 
the  highest  place  in  their  esteem.  They  are  extremely 
clannish  in  their  social  relations.  Quarrels  among  rel 
atives  and  friends  are  unheard  of  among  them.154 

152  The  Navajos:  '  Hospitcality  exists  among  these  Indians  to  a  great  ex 
tent.  . .  .Nor  are  these  people  cruel. . .  .They  are  treacherous.'  Lelherman,  in 
Smithsonian  Kept.,  1855,  pp.  292,  295.     'Brave,  hardy,  industrious.'  Colyer, 
in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1869,  p.  89;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  40.     '  Tricky  and 
unreliable.'  Simpson's  Jour.  Mil.  Eecon.,  p.  56.     The  Mojaves:  'They  are 
lazy,  cruel,  selfish;. . .  .there  is  one  good  quality  in  them,  the  exactitude  with 
which  they  fulfil  an  agreement.'  Ives'  Colorado  Riv.,  pp.  20,  71-2;  Backus, 
in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  211;  BartletVs  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  329; 
Mollhausen,  Eeiscn  in  die  Felsengeb.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  234;  Eaton,  in  Schoolcraft's 
Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  217-18;  Hughes'  Donipharis  Ex.,  p.  203;  Mollhausen,  Tage- 
buch,  p.  384. 

153  Cortez,  in  Pac.  E.  E.  Eept.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  124.     'Estos  indios  se  aventa- 
jan  en  muchas  circunstancias  a  los  yumas  y  demas  naciones  del  Eio  Colora 
do;  son  menos  molestos  y  nada  ladrones.'  Garces,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie 
ii.,  torn,  i.,  p.  273;  also  in  Arricivita,  Cronica  Serdfica,  p.  472;  Domenech's 
Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  62. 

154  '  Grave   and  dignified. . .  .implacable  and  unrelenting. . .  .hospitable, 
and  kind. ..  .affectionate  to  each  other. ..  .jealous  of   their  own  freedom.' 
Marcy's  Army  Life,  pp.  25,  30-1,  34,  36-9,  41,  60.     'Alta  estima  hacen  del 
valor  estas  razas  nomadas.'  Museo  Mex.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  34.     '  Loin  d'etre  cruels, 


526         .  NEW  MEXICANS. 

THE  non-nomadic  semi-civilized  town  and  agricultural 
peoples  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  the  second  division 
of  this  group,  I  call  the  PUEBLOS,  or  Towns-people,  from 
pueblo,  town,  population,  people,  a  name  given  by  the 
Spaniards  to  such  inhabitants  of  this  region  as  were 
found,  when  first  discovered,  permanently  located  in 
comparatively  well-built  towns.  Strictly  speaking,  the 
term  Pueblos  applies  only  to  the  villagers  settled  along 
the  banks  of  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte  and  its  tributa 
ries,  between  latitudes  34°  45'  and  36°  30',  and  although 
the  name  is  employed  as  a  general  appellation  for 
this  division,  it  will  be  used,  for  the  most  part,  only  in 
its  narrower  and  popular  sense.  In  this  division,  be 
sides  the  before-mentioned  Pueblos  proper,  are  embraced 
the  MoquiSj  or  villagers  of  eastern  Arizona,  and  the 
non-nomadic  agricultural  nations  of  the  lower  Gila 
River, — the  Pimas,  Maricopas,  Pdpagos,  and  cognate 
tribes.  The  country  of  the  Towns-people,  if  we  may 
credit  Lieutenant  Simpson,  is  one  of  ll  almost  universal 
barrenness,"  yet  interspersed  with  fertile  spots;  that  of 
the  agricultural  nations,  though  dry,  is  more  generally 
productive.  The  fame  of  this  so-called  civilization 
reached  Mexico  at  an  early  day;  first  through  Alvar 
Nunez  Cabeza  de  Yaca  and  his  companions,  who  be 
longed  to  the  expedition  under  the  unfortunate  Pamphilo 
de  Narvaez,  traversing  the  continent  from  Florida  to  the 
shore  of  the  gulf  of  California ;  they  brought  in  exagger 
ated  rumors  of  great  cities  to  the  north,  which  prompted 
the  expeditions  of  Marco  de  Niza  in  1539,  of  Coronado 
in  1540,  and  of  Espejo  in  1586/  These  adventurers 
visited  the  north  in  quest  of  the  fabulous  kingdoms  of 
Quivira,  Tontonteac,  Marata  and  others,  in  which  great 
riches  were  said  to  exist.  The  name  of  Quivira  was 

ils-sont  tres-doux  et  tres-fideles  dans  leurs  amities.'  Castaneda,  in  Tcrnaux- 
Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  p.  191;  Payno,  in  Eevista  Cientifica,  torn,  i., 
p,  57;  Escudero,  Noticias  de  Chihuahua,  pp.  229-30;  Domenech,  Jour.,  pp.  13, 
137,  469;  Hoc.  Geog.,  Bulletin,  torn,  v.,  No.  96,  p.  193;  Neighbors,  in  School- 
craft's  Arch.,  vol.  ii,,  pp.  132-3;  Gregg's  Com.  Prairies,  vol.  i.,  pp.  293,  295; 
vol.  ii.,  pp.  307,  313;  Gallatin,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1851,  torn,  cxxxi., 
p.  273;  Shepard's  Land  of  the  Aztecs,  p.  182;  Pages'  Travels,  vol.  i.,  p.  107; 
Calderon  de  la  Barca's  Life  in  Mex.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  308. 


THE  PUEBLOS.  527 

afterwards  applied  by  them  to  one  or  more  of  the  pueblo 
cities.  The  name  Cibola,  from  cibolo,  Mexican  bull,  bos 
bison,  or  wild  ox  of  New  Mexico,  where  the  Spaniards 
first  encountered  buffalo,  was  given  to  seven  of  the  towns 
which  were  afterwards  known  as  the  seven  cities  of  Ci- 
bola.  But  most  of  the  villages  known  at  the  present 
day  were  mentioned  in  the  reports  of  the  early  expedi 
tions  by  their  present  names.  The  statements  in  regard 
to  the  number  of  their  villages  differed  from  the  first. 
Castafieda  speaks  of  seventy  cities.155  The  following  list, 
according  to  Lieutenant  Whipple's  statement,  appears  to 
be  the  most  complete.  Commencing  north,  and  follow 
ing  the  southward  course  of  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte; 
Shipap,  Acoti,  Taos,  Picuris,  San  Juan,  Pojuaque,  Santa 
Clara,  San  Ildefonso,  Narnbe,  Tesuque,  Cochite,  Pecos, 
Santo  Domingo,  Cuyamanque,  Silla,  Jemez,  San  Felipe, 
Galisteo,  Santa  Ana,  Zandia,  Laguna,  Acoma,  Zufii, 
Isleta,  and  Chilili.150  The  Moquis  who  speak  a  distinct 
language,  and  who  have  many  customs  peculiar  to  them- 

155  <  Tiguex  est  situe  vers  le  nord,  a  environ  quarante  lieues,'  from  Cibola. 
Castafieda,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  p.  165.  'La  pro 
vince  de  Cibola  contient  sept  villages;  le  plus  grand  se  nomme  Muzaque.' 
Id.,  p.  1G3.  Of  two  provinces  north  of  Tiguex,  '  1'une  se  nommait  Heraes,  et 
renfermait  sept  villages:  1'autre  Yuque-Yunque.'  Id.,  p.  138.  'Plus  au  nord 
(of  Tiguex)  est  la  province  de  Quirix. . .  et  celle  de  Tutabaco.'  Id.,  p.  168. 
From  Cicuye  to  Quivira,  'On  compte  sept  autres  villages.'  Id.,  p.  179.  'II 

existe  aussi,  d'  apres  le  rapport un  autre  royaume  tres-vaste,  nomine 

Acus;  car  il  y  a  Abacus  et  Acus;  Abacus  avec  1'aspiration  est  une  des  sept 
villes,  et  la  capitale.  Acus  sans  aspiration  est  un  royaume.'  Niza,  in  Ter 
naux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  p.  271.  'The  kiugdome  of  Toton- 
teac  so  much  extolled  by  the  Father  prouiuciall, . . .  .the  Indians  say  is  a  botte 
lake,  about  which  are  fiue  or  sixe  houses;  and  that  there  were  certaine  other, 
but  that  they  are  ruinated  by  warre.  The  kingdome  of  Marata  is  not  to  be 
found,  neither  haue  the  Indians  any  knowledge  thereof.  The  kingdome  of 
Acus  is  one  onely  small  citie,  where  they  gather  cotton  which  is  called  Acucu, 
and  I  say  that  this  is  a  towne.  For  Acus  with  an  aspiration  nor  without,  is 
no  word  of  they  couutrey.  And  because  I  gesse  that  they  would  deriue 
Acucu  of  Acus,  I  say  that  it  is  this  towne  whereinto  the  kingdom  of  Acus  is 
conuerted.'  Coronado,  in  Hakluyt's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  378;  Espeio,  in  Id.,  pp. 
386-394;  Mendoza,  Lettre,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  p. 
296;  De  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  315;  Salmeron,  Relaciones,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex., 
serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  100;  Escalante,  in  Id.,  pp.  124-5;  Pike's  Explor.  Trav., 
pp.  341-2;  Miihlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  pp  528-9;  Eaton,  in  School- 
craft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  220;  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  p.  197. 

'156  Whipple,  Ewbank,  and  Turner's  Rept.,  pp.  10-12,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.t 
vol.  iii.;  Simpson's  Jour.  Mil.  Recon.,  pp.  128-130;  Hezio,  Noticia  de  las  Misi- 
ones,  in  Meline's  Two  Thousand  Miles,  pp.  208-9;  Chacon,  in  Id., .pp.  210-11; 
Akncaster,  in  Id.,  p.  212;  Davis'  El  Gringo,  p.  115;  Calhoun,  in  Schoolcra/t's 
Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  633. 


528  NEW  MEXICANS. 

selves,  inhabit  seven  villages,  named  Oraibe,  Shumuth- 
pa,  Mushaiina,  Ahlela,  Gualpi,  Siwinna,  and  Tegua.157 

By  the  Spanish  conquest  of  New  Mexico  the  natives 
were  probably  disturbed  less  than  was  usually  the  case 
with  the  vanquished  race;  the  Pueblos  being  well-domi 
ciled  and  wrell-behaved,  and  having  little  to  be  stolen, 
the  invaders  adopted  the  wise  policy  of  permitting  them 
to  work  in  peace,  and  to  retain  the  customs  and  tradi 
tions  of  their  forefathers  as  they  do,  many  of  them,  to 
this  day.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  prove  a  relation 
ship  with  the  civilized  Aztecs  of  Mexico,  but  thus  far 
without  success.  No  affinities  in  language  appear  to 
exist;  that  of  the  Moquis,  indeed,  coiltains  a  few  faint 
traces  of  and  assimilations  to  Aztec  words,  as  I  shall 
show  in  the  third  volume  of  this  work,  but  they  are  not 
strong  enough  to  support  any  theory  of  common  origin 
or  relationship.158 

The  Pimas  inhabit  the  banks  of  the  Gila  River  about 
two  hundred  miles  above  its  confluence  with  the  Colo 
rado.  •  Their  territory  extends  from  about  the  bend  of 
the  Gila  up  the  river  to  a  place  called  Maricopa  Copper 
mine;  northward  their  boundary  is  the  Salt  River,  and 
south  the  Picacho.  They  are  generally  divided,  and 

157  Whipple,  Eicbank,  and  Turner's  Rept.,  p.  13,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol. 
iii.     'Los  nombres  de  los  pueblos  del  Moqui  son,  segun  lengua  de  los  Ya- 
vipais,   Sesepaulaba,    Masagneve,    Janogualpa,  Muqui,  Concabe  y  Muca  a 
quien  los  zunis  llaman  Oraive,  que  es  en  el  que  estuve.'   Garces,   in  Doc. 
Hist.  Mex.,  serie  ii.,  torn,  i.,  p.  332;  Ruxtoris  Adven.  Mex.,  p.  195;  Ives'  Col 
orado  Riv.,  p.  127. 

158  Affirmations  are  abundant  enough,  but  they  have  no  foundation  what 
ever  in  fact,  and  many  are  absurd  on  their  face.     '  Nous  affirmons  que  les 
Indiens  Pueblos  et  les  anciens  Mexicains  sont  issus  d'  une  seule  et  meme 
souche.'  Ruxton,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des   Voy.,   1850,  torn,  cxxvi.,  p.  44. 
'  These  Indians  claim,  and  are  generally  supposed,  to  have  descended  from 
the  ancient  Aztec  race.'  Merriwether,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  p.  174.     'They 
are  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  rulers  of  the  country.'  Davis'  El  Gringo, 
p.  114.     'Thev  are  the  remains  of  a  once  powerful  people.'   Walker,  in  Ind. 
Aff.  Rept.,  187"2,  p.  55;  Colyer,  in  Id.,  1869,  p.  90.     'They  (Moquis)  are  sup 
posed  by  some  to  be  descended  from  the  band  of  Welsh,  which  Prince  Madoc 
took  with  him  on  a  voyage  of  discovery,  in  the  twelfth  century;  and  it  is  said 
that  they  weave  peculiarly  and  in  the  same  manner  as  the  people  of  Wales.' 
Ten  Broeck,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  81.     '  II  est  assez  singulier  que 
les  Moquis  soient  designes  par  les  trappers  et  les  chasseurs  americains,  qui 
penetrent  dans  leur  pays.... sous  le  nom  d'Indiens  Welches.'    Ruxton,  in 
Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1850,  torn,  cxxvi.,  p.  55.     '  Moques,  supposed  to  be 
vestiges  of  Aztecs.'  Amer.  Quart.  Register,  vol.  i.,  p.  173;  Prichard's  Researches, 
vol.  v.,  p.  431. 


PIMAS  AND  PAPAGOS.  529 

known  as  the  upper  and  lower  Pimas,  which  branches 
show  but  slight  dialectic  differences.  When  first  seen 
their  territory  extended  further  southward  into  Sonora. 
The  Papagos,  their  neighbors,  are  closely  allied  to  them 
by  language.  In  nowise  related  to  them,  but  very  simi 
lar  in  their  manners  and  customs,  are  the  Maricopas,  who 
reside  in  their  immediate  vicinity,  and  who  claim  to  have 
migrated  to  that  place  some  centuries  ago,  from  a  more 
westerly  territory. 

All  these  people,  although  not  dwelling  in  houses  built, 
like  those  of  the  Pueblos,  of  solid  materials,  have  settled 
villages  in  which  they  reside  at  all  times,  and  are  en 
tirely  distinct  from  the  roving  and  nomadic  tribes  de 
scribed  in  the  Apache  family.  When  first  found  by  the 
Spaniards,  they  cultivated  the  soil,  and  knew  how  to 
weave  cotton  and  other  fabrics ;  in  fact  it  was  easily  ob 
servable  that  they  had  made  a  step  toward  civilization. 
I  therefore  describe  them  together  with  the  Pueblos.  The 
region  occupied  by  them,  although  containing  some  good 
soil,  is  scantily  provided  with  water,  and  to  enable  them 
to  raise  crops,  they  are  obliged  to  irrigate,  conducting  the 
water  of  the  Gila  to  their  fields  in  small  canals.  The 
water  obtained  by  digging  wells  is  frequently  brackish, 
and  in  many  places  they  are  forced  to  carry  all  the  water 
needed  for  household  purposes  quite  a  long  distance.  The 
climate  is  claimed  to  be  one  of  the  hottest  on  the  Amer 
ican  continent. 

The  Pueblos,  and  Moqui  villagers,  are  a  race  of  small 
people,  the  men  averaging  about  five  feet  in  height,  with 
small  hands  and  feet,  well-cut  features,  bright  eyes,  and 
a  generally  pleasing  expression  of  countenance.159  Their 
hair  is  dark,  soft,  and  of  fine  texture,  and  their  skin  a. 

159  'Les  homines  sont  petits.'  Mendoza,  Lettre,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy., 
serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  p.  294.  The  Moquis  are  'of  medium  size  and  indifferently 
proportioned,  their  features  strongly  marked  and  homely,  with  an  expression 
generally  bright  and  good-natured.'  Ives'  Colorado  Riv.,  pp.  120-2,  126-7. 
The  Keres  '  sind  hohen  Wuchses.'  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p. 
528;  Malte-Brun,  Precis  de  la  Geog.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  453;  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  p. 
197;  Mollhausen,  Reisen  in  die  Felsengeb.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  240;  De  Laet,  Novus 
Orbis,  p.  301;  Simpson's  Jour.  Mil.  Recon.,  p.  93;  Castaneda,  in  Ternaux-Com 
pans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  pp.  67-8;  Ruxton,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  desVoy., 
1850,  torn,  cxxvi.,  pp.  52-3;  Pike's  Explor.  Trav.,  p.  342. 
VOL.  I.  34 


530  NEW  MEXICANS. 

clear  shade  of  brown.160  The  women  seldom  exceed  four 
feet  in  height,  with  figure  rotund,  but  a  graceful  carriage, 
and  face  full,  with  pretty,  intelligent  features  and  good 
teeth.161  Albinos  are  at  times  seen  amongst  them,  who 
are  described  as  having  very  fair  complexions,  light  hair, 
and  blue  or  pink  eyes.162 

The  Pimas  and  their  neighbors  are  men  of  fine  phy 
sique,  tall  and'  bony,  many  of  them  exceeding  six  feet 
in  height,  broad-chested,  erect,  and  muscular,  but  fre 
quently  light-limbed  with  small  hands,  though  the  feet 
of  both  sexes  are  large.  They  have  large  features,  ex 
pressive  of  frankness  and  good  nature,  with  prominent 
cheek-bones  and  aquiline  nose,  those  of  the  women  being 
somewhat  retrpuss4&163  )  ^TJle  females  are  symmetrically 
formed,  with  beautifully  tapered  limbs,  full  busts,  pleas 
ing  features,  embellished  with  white  and  evenly  set 
teeth.164  Their  coarse  hair  grows  to  a  great  length  and 
^thickness,  and  their  dark  complexion  becomes  yet  darker 
itoward  the  south.165  The  ordinary  dress  of  the  Pueb- 

ico  'The  people  are  somewhat  white.'  Niza,  in  Hakluyt's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p. 
372.  '  Much  fairer  in  complexion  than  other  tribes.'  Raxton's  Adven.  Mex., 
.p.  195;  Kendall's  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  379;  Mo'llhausen,  Tagebuch,  p.  230;  Prich- 
ard's  Researches,  vol.  v.,  pp.  423,  431;  Walker,  in  S.  F.  Herald,  Oct.  15,  1853; 
Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  41. 

lei  «  Prettiest  squaws  I  have  yet  seen.'  Marcy's  Army  Life,  p.  111.  Good- 
looking  and  symmetrical.  Davis'  El  Gringo,  pp.  421-2. 

16-2  Ten  Broeck,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  81.  'Many  of  the  in- 
'habitants  have  white  skin,  fair  hair,  and  blue  eyes.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol. 
i.,  p.  210,  vol.  ii.,  p.  66;  Eaton,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  220-1; 
Mo'llhausen,  Tagebuch,  p.  285;  Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xvii.,  p.  456. 

163  <  A  robust  and  well-formed  race.'  Cremony's  Apaches,  pp.  90,  103.  '  Well 
built,  generally  tall  and  bony.'  Walker's  Pimas,  MS.  The  Maricopas  '  sont 
de  stature  plus  haute  et  plus  athletique  que  les  Pijinos.'  Gallatin,  in  Nouvellcs 
Annales  des  Voy.,  1851,  torn,  cxxxi.,  p.  290;  see  also  Emory,  in  Fremont  and 

;  Id., 


Emory's  Notes  of  Trav.,  pp.  49,  50;  Id.,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  12; 
Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  19;  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  iii.,  p 
103;  Murr,  Nachrichten,  p.  196;  Emory's  Reconnoissance,  p.  132;  Bighr's  Early 
Days  in  Utah  and  Nevada,  MS.;  Johnson's  Hist.  Arizona,  p.  11;  Brackett,  in 
Western  Monthly,  p.  169;  Froebel,  Aus  Amerika,  torn,  ii.,  p.  448;  San  Francisco 
Bulletin,  July,  1860. 

16i  '  Las  mujeres  hermosas.'  Mange,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  i., 
pp.  298,  364.  'Rather  too  much  inclined  to  embonpoint.'  Ires'  Colorado 
Rio.,  pp.  31,  33,  39;  Bartlett's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  229. 

165  '  Ambos  secsos.  .  .  .no  mal  parecidos  y  muy  melermdos.'  Velasco,  No- 
ticias  de  Sonora,  pp.  116,  161.  'Triguenos  de  color.'  Sedelmair,  Relacion,  in 
Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  851.  'Die  Masse,  Dicke  und  La'nge 
ihres  Haupthaares  grenzt  an  das  Unglaubliche.'  Froebel,  Aus  Amerika,  torn. 
ii.,  p.  455;  'Id.,  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  513;  Prichard's  Nat.  Hist.  Man,  vol.  ii.,  p. 
657;  Pattie's  Ptrs.  Nar.,  pp.  143-5,  149;  Stratton's  Capt.  Oatman  Girls,  p.  180. 


DKESS  OF  THE  PUEBLOS.  531 

los  is  the  breech-cloth  and  blanket;  some  add  a  blouse 
of  cotton  or  deer-skin,  a  waist-belt,  and  buckskin  leg- 
gins  and  moccasins.  The  women  wear  a  long,  cot 
ton,  sleeveless  tunic,  confined  round  the  waist  by  a  col 
ored  girdle,  a  species  of  cape  bordered  in  different 
colors,  fastened  round  the  neck  at  the  two  corners,  and 
reaching  down  to  the  waist,  while  over  the  head  a  shawl 
is  thrown.  The  feet  are  protected  by  neat  moccasins  of 
deer-skin  or  woolen  stuff,  surmounted  by  leggins  of  the 
same  material.  They  have  a  habit  of  padding  the  leg- 
gins,  which  makes  them  appear  short-legged  with  small 
feet.166  The  men  bind  a  handkerchief  or  colored  band 
round  the  head.  Young  women  dress  the  hair  in  a  pe 
culiarly  neat  and  becoming  style.  Parting  it  at  the 
back,  they  roll  it  round  hoops,  when  it  is  fastened  in 
two  high  bunches,  one  on  each  side  of  the  head,  placing 
sometimes  a  single  feather  in  the  center  ;  married  women 
gather  it  into  two  tight  knots  at  the  side  or  one  at  the 
back  of  the  head  ;  the  men  cut  it  in  front  of  the  ears, 
and  in  a  line  with  the  eye-brows,  while  at  the  back  it  is 
plaited  or  gathered  into  a  single  bunch,  and  tied  with  a 
band.166  On  gala  occasions  they  paint  and  adorn  them 
selves  in  many  grotesque  styles  ;  arms,  legs,  and  exposed 
portions  of  the  body  are  covered  with  stripes  or  rings, 

166  'Heads  are  uncovered.'  Ruxton's  Adven.  Mex.,  p.  196.  'Los  hombres 
visten,  y  calgan  de  cuero,  y  las  mugeres,  que  se  precian  de  largos  cabellos, 
cubren  sns  cabe^-as  y  verguen^as  con  lo  mesrao.'  Gomara,  Hist.  Ind.,  fol.  275. 
'De  kleeding  bestond  uit  kotoene  mantels,  huiden  tot  broeken,  genaeyt, 
schoenen  en  laerzen  van  goed  leder.'  Montanus,  Nieuwe,  Weereld,  pp.  209, 
217-18.  The  women  '  having  the  calves  of  their  legs  wrapped  or  stuffed  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  give  them  a  swelled  appearance."  Simpson's  Jour.  Mil. 


Recon.,  pp.  14,  115;  De  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  pp.  297-8,  301,  303,  312-13;  Coro- 
nado,  in  Hakluyt's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  377,  380;  Espejo,  in  Id.,  pp.  384-96;  Niza, 
in  Id.,  pp.  368,  370;  Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xvii.,  p.  457;  Whipple, 
Euobank,  and  Turner's  Kept.,  pp.  30,  122,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.;  Bottle 
neck's  Deserts,  vol.  i.,  pp.  197,  203,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  213,  281;  Ten  Broeck,  in  School- 
craft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  73-88;  Wislizenus'  Tour,  p.  26;  Larenaudiere,  Mex. 
et  Guat.,  p.  147;  Warden,  Recherches,  p.  79;  Marcy's  Army  Life,  pp.  99-100, 
105-6;  Foster's  Pre-Hist.  Races,  p.  394;  Castaneda,  in  Temaux-Compans,  Voy., 
serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  pp.  61-68,  76,  163,  173,  177;  Jaramillo,  in  Id.,  pp.  369-371; 
Ives'  Colorado  Riv.,  pp.  119-127;  Ruxton,  in  Nouvettes  Annales  des  Voy.,  1850, 
torn,  cxxvi.,  p.  53;  Eaton,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  220;  Alert,  in 
Emory's  Reconnoissance,  p.  471;  Mayer's  Mex.,  Aztec,  etc.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  359;  Moll- 
hausen,  Tagebuch,  pp.  217,  283;  Kendall's  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  379;  Revilla-Gigedo, 
Carta,  MS.;  Alcedo,  Diccionario,  torn,  iv.,  p.  388;  Arricivita,  Cronica  Serdfica, 
p.  479;  Gregg's  Com.  Prairies,  vol.  i.,  pp.  248,  279-80;  Mollhausen,  Reisen  in 
die  Felsengeb.,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  195,  239. 


532  NEW  MEXICANS. 

and  comical-shaped  head-dresses;  feathers,  sheep-skin 
wigs,  and  masks,  are  likewise  employed.167  The  habili 
ments  of  the  Pimas  are  a  cotton  serape  of  their  own 
manufacture,  a  breech-cloth,  with  sandals  of  raw-hide 
or  deer- skin.  Women  wear  the  same  kind  of  serape, 
wound  round  the  loins  and  pinned,  or  more  frequently 
tucked  in  at  the  waist,  or  fastened  with  a  belt  in  which 
different-colored  wools  are  woven;  some  wear  a  short 
petticoat  of  deer-skin  or  bark.168  They  wear  no  head 
dress.  Like  the  Pueblos,  the  men  cut  the  hair  short 
across  the  forehead,  and  either  plait  it  in  different  coils 
behind,  which  are  ornamented  with  bits  of  bone,  shells, 
or  red  cloth,  or  mix  it  with  clay,  or  gather  it  into  a  tur 
ban  shape  on  top  of  the  head,  leaving  a  few  ornamented 
and  braided  locks  to  hang  down  over  the  ears.169  Each 
paints  in  a  manner  to  suit  the  fancy;  black,  red,  and 
yellow  are  the  colors  most  in  vogue,  black  being  alone 
used  for  wTar  paint.  Some  tattoo  their  newly  born  chil 
dren  round  the  eyelids,  and  girls,  on  arriving  at  the 
age  of  maturity,  tattoo  from  the  corners  of  the  mouth  to 
the  chin.  Some  tribes  oblige  their  women  to  cut  the 
hair,  others  permit  it  to  grow.170  For  ornament,  shell 

!67  Both  sexes  go  bareheaded.  '  The  hair  is  worn  long,  and  is  done  up  in 
a  great  queue  that  falls  down  behind.'  Davis'  El  Gringo,  pp.  147,  154-5,  421. 
The  women  'trencan  los  cabellos,  y  rodeanse  los  a  la  cabe<ja,  por  sobre  las 
orejas.'  Gomara,  Hist.  Ind.,  fol.  273.  'Llevan  las  viejas  el  pelo  hecho  dos 
trenzas  y  las  mozas  un  mono  sobre  cada  oreja.'  Garces,  Diario,  in  Doc.  Hist. 
Mex.,  serie  ii.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  328-9;  Eaton,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p. 
220. 

168  '  Van  vestidos  estos  indios  con  frazadas  de  algodon,  que  ellos  fabrican, 
y  otras  de  lana.'  Garces,  Diario,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  ii.,  torn,  i.,  p.  235. 
Their  dress  is  cotton  of  domestic  manufacture.   Emory's  Eeconnoissance,  p. 
132.     'Kunstreich  dagegen  sind  die  bunten  Giirtel  gewebt,  mit  denen  die 
Madchen  ein  Stuck  Zeug  als  Kock  um  die  Hiiften  binden.'  Froebel,  AusAmeri- 
ka,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  440,  447;   Browne's  Apache  Country,  p.  68;  Emory's  Kept. 
U.  S.  and  Mex.  Boundary  Survey,  vol.  i.,  p.  123;  Bartlett's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  i., 
p.  452,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  216-7,  219;  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  104;  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp. 
de  Jesus,  torn,  iii.,  p.  103;  Ives'  Colorado  Riv.,  pp.  31,  33;  Mowry's  Arizona,  p. 
30;  Mange,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  364-5;   Velasco,  Noticias 
de  Sonor'a,  p.  116;  Brief e  aus  den  Verein.  Staat.,  torn,  ii,  p  322. 

169  <  Men  never  cut  their  hair.'  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  90.     They  plait  and 
wind  it  round  their  heads  in  many  ways;  one  of  the  most  general  forms  a 
turban  which  they  smear  with  wet  earth.  Froebel,  Aus  Amerika,  torn,  ii.,  pp. 
454-6;  Fremont  and  Emory's  Notes  of  Trav.,  p.  47;  Emory,  in  Pac.  K.  R.  Kept., 
vol.  ii.,  p.  9;  Pattie's  Pers.  Nar.,  pp.  143,  145,  149;  Browne's  Apache  Country, 
p.  107;  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  296. 

170  Sonora,  Descrip.  Geog.,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  542. 


PIMA  AND  MAKICOPA  DWELLINGS.  533 

and  bead  necklaces  are  used;  also  ear-rings  of  a  blue 
stone  found  in  the  mountains.171  The  dwellings  of  the 
agricultural  Pimas,  Maricopas,  and  Papagos  consist  of 
dome-shaped  huts,  either  round  or  oval  at  the  base. 
There  are  usually  thirty  or  more  to  a  village,  and  they 
are  grouped  with  some  regard  to  regularity.  .Strong 
forked  stakes  are  firmly  fixed  in  the  ground  at  regular 
distances  from  each  other,  the  number  varying  accord 
ing  to  the  size  of  the  hut,  cross-poles  are  laid  from  one 
to  the  other,  around  these  are  placed  cotton-wood  poles, 
which  are  bent  over  and  fastened  to  the  transverse  sticks, 
the  structure  is  then  wattled  with  willows,  reeds,  or 
coarse  straw,  and  the  whole  covered  with  a  coat  of  mud. 
The  only  openings  are  an  entrance  door  about  three  feet 
high,  and  a  small  aperture  in  the  center  of  the  roof  that 
serves  for  ventilation.  Their  height  is  from  five  to  seven 
feet,  and  the  diameter  from  twenty  to  fifty.  Outside 
stands  a  shed,  open  at  all  sides  with  a  roof  of  branches 
or  corn-stalks,  under  which  they  prepare  their  food. 
Their  houses  are  occupied  mainly  during  the  rainy  sea 
son  ;  in  summer  they  build  light  sheds  of  twigs  in  their 
corn-fields,  which  not  only  are  more  airy,  but  are  also 
more  convenient  in  watching  their  growing  crops.  Be 
sides  the  dwelling-place,  each  family  has  a  granary, 
similar  in  shape  and  of  like  materials  but  of  stronger 
construction;  by  frequent  plastering  with  mud  they  are 
made  impervious  to  rain.172  The  towns  of  the  Pueblos 

'  All  of  them  paint,  using  no  particular  design ;  the  men  mostly  with  dark 
colors,  the  women,  red  and  yellow.'  Walker's  Pimas,  MS.;  Johnson's  Hist. 
Arizona,  p.  11.  'The  women  when  they  arrive  at  maturity,.  . .  .draw  two 
lines  with  some  blue-colored  dye  from  each  corner  of  the  mouth  to  the 
chin.'  Bartlett's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  228. 

171  *  Adornanse  con  gargantillas  de  caracolillos  del  mar,  entreverados  de 
ptras  cuentas  de  concha  colorada  redonda.'  Mange,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie 
iv.,  torn,  i.,  p.  299.     'They  had  many  ornaments  of  sea  shells.'  Emory's 
Reconnaissance,  p.  132.     'Some  have  long  strings  of  sea-shells.'    Bartlett's 
Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  230-1.     '  Karely  use  ornaments.'  Walker's  Pimas,  MS.; 
Murr,  Nachrichten,  pp.  252-6;  Sedelmair,  Relation,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie 
iii.,  torn,  iv.,  pp.  850-1. 

172  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  91;  Gallatin,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1851, 
torn.  131,  p.  292;  Browne's  Apache  Country,  p.  108.     The  Maricopas  'occu 
py  thatched  cottages,  thirty  or  forty  feet  in  diameter,  made  of  the  twigs  of 
cotton-wood   trees,   interwoven  with  the  straw  of  wheat,   corn-stalks,   and 
cane.'  Emory's  Reconnaissance,  p.  132;  Emory's  Rept.  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Bound- 


534  NEW  MEXICANS. 

are  essentially  unique,  and  are  the  dominant  feature  of 
these  aboriginals.  Some  of  them  are  situated  in  valleys, 
others  on  mesas;  sometimes  they  are  planted  on  eleva 
tions  almost  inaccessible,  reached  only  by  artificial  grades 
or  by  steps  cut  in  the  solid  rock.  Some  of  the  towns  are 
of  an  elliptical  shape,  while  others  are  square,  a  town 
being  frequently  but  a  block  of  buildings.  Thus  a 
Pueblo  consists  of  one  or  more  squares,  each  enclosed  by 
three  or  four  buildings  of  from  three  to  four  hundred 
feet  in  length,  and  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in 
width  at  the  base,  and  from  two  to  seven  stories  of  from 
eight  to  nine  feet  each  in  height.  The  buildings  form 
ing  the  square  do  not  meet,  but  in  some  cases  are  con 
nected  by  bridges  or  covered  gangways,  and  in  some 
instances  the  houses  project  over  the  streets  below, 
which  being  narrow,  are  thus  given  an  underground 
appearance.  The  stories  are  built  in  a  series  of  grada 
tions  or  retreating  surfaces,  decreasing  in  size  as  they 
rise,  thus  forming  a  succession  of  terraces. 

In  some  of  the  towns  these  terraces  are  on  both 
sides  of  the  building;  in  others  they  face  only  toward 
the  outside;  while  again  in  others  they  are  on  the  in 
side.  In  front  of  the  terraces  is  a  parapet,  which  serves 
as  a  shelter  for  the  inhabitants  when  forced  to  defend 
themselves  against  an  attack  from  the  outside.  These 
terraces  are  about  six  feet  wide,  and  extend  round  the 
three  or  four  sides  of  the  square,  forming  a  walk  for 

ary  Survey,  vol.  i.,  p.  117;  Mange,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  i.,  pp. 
277,  365-6.  'Leurs  (Papagos)  maisons  sont  de  formes  coniques  et  con- 
struites  en  jonc  et  enbois.'  Soc.  Geog.,  Bulletin,  serie  v.,  No.  96,  p.  188;  Walk 
er's  Pimas,  MS.;  Villa-Senor  y  Sanchez,  Theatre,  torn,  ii.,  p.  395;  Sedel- 
mair,  Relation,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  851;  Velasco,  Noticias 
de  Sonora,  pp.  115,  161.  'Andere,  besonders  die  dunimen  Papagos,  machten 
Locker  und  scliliefen  des  Nachts  hierinnen;  ja  im  Winter  machten  sie  in 
ihren  Dachslochern  zuvor  Feuer,  und  hitzten  dieselben.'  Murr,  Nachrichten, 
p.  245.  '  Their  summer  shelters  are  of  a  much  more  temporary  nature,  being 
constructed  after  the  manner  of  a  common  arbor,  covered  with  willow  rods, 
to  obstruct  the  rays  of  the  vertical  sun.'  Hughes'  Doniphan's  Ex.,  p.  222. 
In  front  of  the  Pimo  house  is  usually  '  a  large  arbor,  on  top  of  which  is 
piled  the  cotton  in  the  pod,  for  drying.'  Emory,  in  Fremont  and  Emory's  Notes 
of  Trav.,  p.  48.  The  Papagos'  huts  were  '  fermees  par  des  peaux  de  buffles.' 
Ferry,  Scenes  de  la  Vie  Sauvage,  p.  107.  Granary  built  like  the  Mexican  jakals. 
They  are  better  structures  tfian  their  dwellings,  more  open,  in  order  to  give 
a  free  circulation  of  air  through  the  grain  deposited  in  them.  BartkWs  Pers. 
Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  382,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  233-5. 


PUEBLO  HOUSES.  535 

the  occupants  of  the  story  resting  upon  it,  and  a  roof  for 
the  story  beneath ;  so  with  the  stories  above.  As  there 
is  no  inner  communication  with  one  another,  the  only 
means  of  mounting  to  them  is  by  ladders  which  stand 
at  convenient  distances  along  the  several  rows  of  ter 
races,  and  they  may  be  drawn  up  at  pleasure,  thus  cut 
ting  off  all  unwelcome  intrusion.  The  outside  walls  of 
one  or  more  of  the  lower  stories  are  entirely  solid,  hav 
ing  no  openings  of  any  kind,  with  the  exception  of,  in 
some  towns,  a  few  loopholes.  All  the  doors  and  win 
dows  are  on  the  inside  opening  on  the  court.  The  sev 
eral  stories  of  these  huu;e  structures  are  divided  into 

O 

multitudinous  compartments  of  greater  or  lesser  size, 
which  are  apportioned  to  the  several  families  of  the 
tribe.  Access  is  had  to  the  different  stories  by  means 
of  the  ladders,  which  at  night  and  in  times  of  danger 
are  drawn  up  after  the  person  entering.  To  enter  the 
rooms  on  the  ground  floor  from  the  outside,  one  must 
mount  the  ladder  to  the  first  balcony  or  terrace,  then 
descend  through  a  trap  door  in  the  floor  by  another  ladder 
on  the  inside.  The  roofs  or  ceilings,  which  are  nearly 
flat,  are  formed  of  transverse  beams  which  slope  slightly 
outward,  the  ends  resting  on  the  side  walls;  on  these,  to 
make  the  floor  and  terrace  of  the  story  above,  is  laid 
brush  wood,  then  a  layer  of  bark  or  thin  slabs,  and  over 
all  a  thick  covering  of  mud  sufficient  to  render  them 
water-tight.  The  windows  in  the  upper  stories  are  made 
of  flakes  of  selenite  instead  of  glass.  The  rooms  are 
large,  the  substantial  partitions  are  made  of  wood,  and 
neatly  whitewashed.  The  apartments  on  the  ground 
floor  are  gloomy,  and  generally  used  as  store-rooms; 
those  above  are  sometimes  furnished  with  a  small  fire 
place,  the  chimney  leading  out  some  feet  above  the  ter 
race.  Houses  are  common  property,  and  both  men  and 
women  assist  in  building  them ;  the  men  erect  the  wooden 
frames,  and  the  women  make  the  mortar  and  build  the 
walls.  In  place  of  lime  for  mortar,  they  mix  ashes  with 
earth  and  charcoal.  They  make  adobes  or  sun-dried 
bricks  by  mixing  ashes  and  earth  with  water,  which  is 


536  NEW  MEXICANS. 

then  moulded  into  large  blocks  and  dried  in  the  sun. 
Some  of  the  towns  are  built  with  stones  laid  in  mud. 
Captain  Simpson  describes  several  ruined  cities,  which 
he  visited,  which  show  that  the  inhabitants  formerly  had 
a  knowledge  of  architecture  and  design  superior  to  any 
that  the  Pueblos  of  the  present  day  possess.  Yet  their 
buildings  are  even  now  well  constructed,  for  although 
several  stories  in  height,  the  walls  are  seldom  more  than 
three  or  four  feet  in  thickness.  The  apartments  are 
well  arranged  and  neatly  kept;  one  room  is  used  for 
cooking,  another  for  grinding  corn  and  preserving  winter 
supplies  of  food,  others  for  sleeping-rooms.  On  the  bal 
conies,  round  the  doors  opening  upon  them,  the  vil 
lagers  congregate  to  gossip  and  smoke,  while  the  streets 
below,  when  the  ladders  are  drawn  up,  present  a  gloomy 
and  forsaken  appearance.  Sometimes  villages  are  built  in 
the  form  of  an  open  square  with  buildings  on  three  sides, 
and  again  two  or  more  large  terraced  structures  capable 
of  accommodating  one  or  two  thousand  people  are  built 
contiguous  to  each  other,  or  on  opposite  banks  of  a  stream. 
In  some  instances  the  outer  wall  presents  one  unbroken 
line,  without  entrance  or  anything  to  indicate  the  busy 
life  within;  another  form  is  to  join  the  straight  walls, 
which  encompass  three  sides  of  a  square,  by  a  fourth 
circular  wall ;  in  all  of  which  the  chief  object  is  defense. 
The  Pueblos  take  great  pride  in  their  picturesque  and, 
to  them,  magnificent  structures,  affirming  that  as  fort 
resses  they  have  ever  proved  impregnable.  To  wall  out 
black  barbarism  was  what  the  Pueblos  wanted,  and  to 
be  let  alone;  under  these  conditions  time  was  giving 
them  civilization.173 

173  Villa- S enor  y  Sanchez,  Theatro,  torn,  ii.,  p.  412;  WTiipple.  Eicbank,  and 
Turner's  Rept.,  pp.  21,  23,  122,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  ii. ;  Scenes  in  the  Rocky 
Mis.,  p.  177;  Salmeron,  Relaciones,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  pp. 
25,  30-1.  'Ellas  son  las  que  hacen,  y  edifican  las  Casas,  assi  de  Piedra, 
como  de  Adove,  y  Tierra  amasada;  y  con  no  tener  la  Pared  mas  de  vn  pie  de 
ancho,  suben  las  Casas  dos,  y  tres,  y  quatro,  y  cinco  Sobrados,  6  Altos;  y 
a  cada  Alto,  corresponde  vn  Corredor  por  de  fuera;  si  sobre  esta  altura  hechan 
mas  altos,  d  Sobrados  (porque  ay  Casas  que  llegan  a  siete)  son  los  demas, 
no  de  Barro,  sino  de  Madera.'  Torquemada,  Monarq.  Ind.,  torn,  i.,  p.  681. 
For  further  particulars,  see  Castaneda,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i., 
torn,  ix.,  pp.  2,  42,  58,  69,  71,  76,  80,  138,  163,  167,  169;  Niza,  in  Id.,  pp. 
261,  269,  270,  279;  Diaz,  in  Id.,  pp.  293,  296;  Jaramillo,  in  Id.,  pp.  369, 


PUEBLO  ESTUFAS.  537 

The  sweat-house,  or  as  the  Spaniards  call  it,  the  estufa, 
assumes  with  the  Pueblos  the  grandest  proportions.  Ev 
ery  village  has  from  one  to  six  of  these  singular  struc 
tures.  A  large,  semi-subterranean  room,  it  is  at  once 
bath-house,  town-house,  council-chamber,  club-room,  and 
church.  It  consists  of  a  large  excavation,  the  roof  being 
about  on  a  level  with  the  ground,  sometimes  a  little 
above  it,  and  is  supported  by  heavy  timbers  or  pillars  of 
masonry.  Around  the  sides  are  benches,  and  in  the 
centre  of  the  floor  a  square  stone  box  for  fire,  wherein 
aromatic  plants  are  kept  constantly  burning.  Entrance 
is  made  by  means  of  a  ladder,  through  a  hole  in  the  top 
placed  directly  over  the  fire-place  so  that  it  also  serves 
as  a  ventilator  and  affords  a  free  passage  to  the  smoke. 
Usually  they  are  circular  in  form,  and  of  both  large  and 
small  dimensions ;  they  are  placed  either  within  the  great 
building  or  underground  in  the  court  without.  In  some 
of  the  ruins  they  are  found  built  in  the  center  of  what 
was  once  a  pyramidal  pile,  and  four  stories  in  height. 
At  Jemez  the  estufa  is  of  one  story,  twenty-five  feet 
wide  by  thirty  feet  high.  The  ruins  of  Chettro  Kettle 
contain  six  estufas,  each  two  or  three  stories  in  height. 
At  Bonito  are  estufas  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  feet 
in  circumference,  built  in  alternate  layers  of  thick  and 


370;  Cordoue,  in  Id.,  torn,  x.,  pp.  438-9;  Simpson's  Jour.  Mil.  Recon., 
pp.  13,  90,  114;  Bent,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  i.,  p.  244;  Ten  Broeck, 
in  Id.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  76,  80,  and  plates,  pp.  24,  72;  Warden,  Recherches,  p.  79; 
Ruxton's  Adven.  Mex.,  p.  191;  Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag.,\o\.  xvii.,  p.  455; 
Malte-Brun,  Precis  de  la  Qeog.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  453;  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  p.  278; 
Mayer's  Mex.,  Aztec,  etc.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  359;  Gregg's  Com.  Prairies,  vol.  i.,  pp. 
268,  276;  Hughes'  Doniphan's  Ex.,  p.  195;  Garces,  Diario,iu  Doc.  Hist.  Mex., 
serie  ii.,  torn,  i.,  p.  322;  Joes'  Colorado  Riv.,  pp.  119,  121,  126;  Marcy's  Army 
Life,  pp.  97,  99,  104,  105;  Ruxton,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1850,  torn, 
cxxvi.,  pp.  42,  45,  52,  57;  GaUatin,  in  Id.,  1851,  torn,  cxxxi.,  pp.  248,  257,  267, 
270,  277,  278,  288;  Espejo,  in  Hakluyt's  Voy.,  vol.iii.,  pp.  385,  392,  394-6;  Cor- 
onado,  in  Id.,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  377,  379;  Niza,  in  Id.,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  367,  372;  Miih- 
lenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p.  538;  Mollhausen,  Reisen  in  die  Felsengeb., 
torn,  ii.,  p.  238;  Id.,  Tayebuch,  pp.  217-18,  285;  Montanus,  Nieuwe  Weereld, 
pp.  209,  215,  217.  The  town  of  Ci'bola  '  domos  e  lapidibus  et  caemento  affa- 
bre  constructas  et  conjunctim  dispositas  esse,  superliminaria  portarum  cya- 
neis  geminis, (Turcoides  vocant)  ornata.'  De  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  pp.  297,  311-14; 
ArricivUa,  Cronica  Serdfica,  p.  480.  '  The  houses  are  well  distributed  and  very 
neat.  One  room  is  designed  for  the  kitchen,  and  another  to  grind  the  grain. 
This  last  is  apart,  and  contains  a  furnace  and  three  stones  made  fast  in  ma 
sonry.'  Davis'  El  Gringo,  pp.  118-20,  141,  311,  313,  318,  420,  422 ;N  Castano  de 
Sosa,  in  Pacheco,  Col. 'Doc.  Ine'd.,  torn,  iv.,  pp.  329-30;  Bartlett's  Pers.  Nar., 
vol.  ii.,  p.  178;  Foster's  Pre-Hist.  Races,  p.  394. 


538  NEW  MEXICANS. 

thin  stone  slabs.  In  these  subterranean  temples  the  old 
men  met  in  secret  council,  or  assembled  in  worship  of 
their  gods.  Here  are  held  dances  and  festivities,  social 
intercourse,  and  mourning  ceremonies.  Certain  of  the 
Pueblos  have  a  custom  similar  to  that  practiced  by  some 
of  the  northern  tribes,  the  men  sleeping  in  the  sweat- 
house  with  their  feet  to  the  fire,  and  permitting  women 
to  enter  only  to  bring  them  food.  The  estufas  of  Tiguex 
were  situated  in  the  heart  of  the  village,  built  under 
ground,  both  round  and  square,  and  paved  with  large 
polished  stones.174 

From  the  earliest  information  we  have  of  these  na 
tions  they  are  known  to  have  been  tillers  of  the  soil; 
and  though  the  implements  used  and  their  methods  of 
cultivation  were  both  simple  and  primitive,  cotton,  corn, 
wheat,  beans,  with  many  varieties  of  fruits,  which  con 
stituted  their  principal  food,  were  raised  in  abundance. 
The  Pueblos  breed  poultry  to  a  considerable  extent ;  fish 
are  eaten  whenever  obtainable,  as  also  a  few  wild  ani 
mals,  such  as  deer,  hares,  and  rabbits,  though  they  are 
indifferent  hunters.175  The  Papagos,  whose  country  does 

174  In  the  province  of  Tucayan,  '  domiciliis  inter  se  junctis  et  affabre  con- 
structis,  in  quibus  et  tepidaria  quae  vulgo  Stuvas  appellamus.  sub  terra  con- 
structa  adversus  hyemis  vehementiam.'  De  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  301.     'In 
the  centre  was  a  small  square  box  of  stone,  in  which  was  a  fire  of  guava 
bushes,  and  around  this  a  few  old  men  were  smoking.'  Marcy's  Army  Life, 
p.  110.     '  Estufas,  que  mas  propiamente  deberian  llamar  sinagogas.     En  estas 
hacen  sus  juntas,  forman  sus  conciliabulos,  y  ensayan  sus  bailes  a  puerta 
cerrada.'  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  i.,  p.  333;  Beaumont,  Cr<'n.  de  Me- 
choacan,  MS.,  p.  418;  Gomara,  Hist.  Ind.,  fol.  273;  Simpson's  Jour.  Mil.  Eecon., 
pp.  13,  21;  Castaneda,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  pp.  139, 
165,  169-70,  176;  Espejo,  in  Hakluyt's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  392-3;  Niel,  in  Doc. 
Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  90-1. 

175  'Magna  ipsis  Mayzii  copia  et  leguminum.'  De  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  pp. 
298,  302,  310-13,  315.     '  Hallaron  en  los  pueblos  y  casas  muchos  manteni- 
mientos,  y  gran  infinidad  de  gallinas  de  la  tierra.'  Espejo,  in  Hakluyt's  Voy., 
vol.  iii.,  pp.  386,  393.     '  Criaban  las  Indias  muchas  Gallinas  de  la  Tierra.' 
Torquemada,  Monarq.  Ind.,  torn,  i.,  p.  678.      'Zy  leven  by  mair,  witte  er- 
weten,  haesen,  konynen  en  vorder  wild-braed.'  Montanus,  Nieuwe  Weereld, 
p.  215,  and  Dapper,  New  Welt,  p.  242.     Compare  Scenes  in  the  Rocky  Mts., 


p.  177;  Marcy's  Army  Life,  pp.  97-8,  104,  108;  Cortez,  in  Pac._E.  E.  Eept., 
Zuni 
,  pp.  at 
'Com.  Prairies,  vol.  i.,  pp.  268,  281;  Ten  Broeck,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol. 


vol.  iii.,  p.  122;  Site/reaves'  Zuni  Ex.,  pp.  5-6;  Jaramillo,  in  Ternaux-Com 
pans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  pp.  369-71;   Diaz,  in  Id.,  pp.  294-5;   Gregg's 


iv.,  p.  86;  Simpson's  Jour.  Mil.  Eecon.,  pp.  16,  82,  91,  113;  Wislizenus'  Tour, 
p.  26;  Bent,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  i.,  p.  244;  Euxton,  in  Nouvelles  Annales 
des  Voy.,  1850,  torn,  cxxvi.,  p.  52;  Gallatin,  in  Id.,  1851,  torn,  cxxxi.,  pp.  270-1 , 
279,  288-9,  292,  297;  Froebel,  Aus  Ammka,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  439,  445,  453;  Moll- 


HOW  FOOD  IS  OBTAINED.  539 

not  present  such  favorable  conditions  for  agriculture  are 
forced  to  rely  for  a  subsistence  more  upon  wild  fruits 
and  animals  than  the  nations  north  of  them.  They 
collect  large  quantities  of  the  fruit  of  the  pitahaya  (ce- 
reus  giyanteusji  and  in  seasons  of  scarcity  resort  to 
whatever  is  life-sustaining,  not  disdaining  even  snakes, 
lizards,  and  toads.176  Most  of  these  people  irrigate  their 
lands  by  means  of  conduits  or  ditches,  leading  either 
from  the  river  or  from  tanks  in  which  rain-water  is  col 
lected  and  stored  for  the  purpose.  These  ditches  are 
kept  in  repair  by  the  community,  but  farming  operations 
are  carried  on  by  each  family  for  its  own  separate  ben 
efit,  which  is  a  noticeable  advance  from  the  usual  savage 
communism.177  Fishing  nets  are  made  of  twisted  thread 
or  of  small  sticks  joined  together  at  the  ends.  When 
the  rivers  are  low,  fish  are  caught  in  baskets  or  shot  with 
arrows  to  which  a  string  is  attached.178  The  corn  which 
is  stored  for  winter  use,  is  first  par-boiled  in  the  shuck, 
and  then  suspended  from  strings  to  dry;  peaches  are 
dried  in  large  quantities,  and  melons  are  preserved  by 
peeling  and  removing  the  seeds,  when  they  are  placed 

hausen,  Reisen  in  the  Felsengeb.,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  239,  284;  Bartlett's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol. 
#.,  pp.  178,  214-18,  233-7;  Browne's  Apache  Country,  pp.  78,  94,  107-10, 
141-2,  276-7;  Sedelmair,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  pp.  848,  850; 
Id.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  i.,  p.  19;  Emory's  Eeconnoissance,  p.  131;  Mowry's  Ari 
zona,  p.  30;  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  p.  278;  Hughes'  Doniphan's  Ex.,  pp.  196,  221; 
Eaton,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  221;  Gomara,  Hist.  2nd.,  fol.  273; 
Ind.  Aff.  Eepts.,  from  1857  to  1872. 

176  '  Para  su  sustento  no  reusa  animal,  por  inmundo  que  sea.'  Villa-Senor 
y  Sanchez,  Theatro,  torn,  ii.,  p.  395.      'Los  papagos  se  mantienen  de  los  fru- 
tos   silvestres.'    Velasco,  Noticias  de  Sonora,   pp.    160-1.      'Hatten  grossen 
Appetit  zu  Pferd-  mid  Mauleselfleisch.'  Murr,  Nachrichten,  pp.  247-9,  207, 
282-92;  Sonora,  Descrip.,  Geog.t  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  pp. 
837-8;  Soc.  Geog.,  Bulletin,  serie  v.,  No.  96,  p.  188;  Stone,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol. 
v.,  p.  166. 

177  The  Pimas  '  Hacen  grandes  siembras . . .  para  cuyo  riego  tienen  f  orma- 
das  buenas  acequias.'  Garces,  Diario,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  ii.,  torn,  i.,  pp. 
235,  237.     '  We  were  at  once  impressed  with  the  beauty,  order,  and  disposi 
tion  of  the  arrangements  for  irrigating.'  Emory,  in  Fremont  and  Emory's  Notes 
of  Trav.,  pp.  47-8.     With  the  Pueblos:    '  Regen-bakken  vergaederden  't  wa 
ter:  of  zy  leiden  't  uit  eenrievier  door  graften.'  Montanus,  Nieuwe  Weereld,  p. 
218;  De  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  312;  Espejo,  in  Hafcluyt's  Voy.,  torn,  iii.,  pp. 
385-7,  392-4;  Cults'  Conq.  of  Cal.,  p.  196. 

178  Walker's  Pimas,  MS.;  Mange,  Itinerario,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv., 
torn,  i.,  p.  299.     'Usan  de  hilo  torcido  unas  redes  y  otras  de  varios  palitos, 
que  los  tuercen  y  juntan  por  las  puntas.'  Sedelmair,  Relation,  in  Doc.  Hist. 
Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  pp.  851-2. 


540  NEW  MEXICANS. 

in  the  sun,  and  afterward  hung  up  in  trees.  Meal  is 
ground  on  the  metate  and  used  for  making  porridge,  tor 
tillas,  and  a  very  thin  cake  called  guayave,  which  latter 
forms  a  staple  article  of  food  amongst  the  Pueblos.  The 
process  of  making  the  guayave,  as  seen  by  Lieutenant 
Simpson  at  Santo  Domingo  on  the  Rio  Grande,  is  thus 
described  in  his  journal.  "  At  the  house  of  the  govern 
or  I  noticed  a  woman,  probably  his  wife,  going  through 
the  process  of  baking  a  very  thin  species  of  corn  cake, 
called,  according  to  Gregg,  guayave.  She  was  hovering 
over  a  fire,  upon  which  lay  a  flat  stone.  Near  her  was 
a  bowl  of  thin  corn  paste,  into  which  she  thrust  her 
fingers;  allowing  then  the  paste  to  drip  sparingly  upon 
the  stone,  with  two  or  three  wipes  from  the  palm  of  her 
hand  she  would  spread  it  entirely  and  uniformly  over 
the  stone ;  this  was  no  sooner  done  than  she  peeled  it 
off  as  fit  for  use ;  and  the  process  was  again  and  again 
repeated,  until  a  sufficient  quantity  was  obtained. 
When  folded  and  rolled  together,  it  does  not  look  unlike 
(particularly  that  made  from  the  blue  corn)  a  hornet's 
nest — a  name  by  which  it  is  sometimes  called."  The 
Pimas  do  all  their  cooking  out  of  doors,  under  a  shed 
erected  for  the  purpose.  They  collect  the  pulp  from  the 
fruit  of  the  pitahaya,  and  boiling  it  in  water,  make  a 
thick  syrup,  which  they  store  away  for  future  use.  They 
also  dry  the  fruit  in  the  sun  like  figs.179 

The  Pueblos  and  Moquis  are  remarkable  for  their 
personal  cleanliness  and  the  neatness  of  their  dwell 


ings.180 


179  '  Hacen  de  la  Masa  de  Mafz  por  la  manana  Atole ....  Tambien  hacen 
Tamales,  y  Tortillas.'  Torquemada,  Monarq.  2nd.,  torn,  i.,  p.  679.  'The  fruit 
of  the  petajaya. . .  .is  dried  iu  the  sun.'  Cremony's  Apaches,  pp.  89,  .91,  106, 
111-12.  'From  the  suwarrow  (Cereus  Giganteus)  and  pitaya  they  make  an 


Schoolcraft' 

pp.  8,  76;  Coronado,  in  HakluyVs  Voy.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  378;  Simpson's  Jour.  Mil. 
Recon.,  pp.  113,  115;  Castaneda,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix., 
pp.  61,  71,  164,  170-2;  Davis'  El  Gringo,  pp.  114,  119,  121-2,  147-8;  Mollhau- 
sen,  Tagebuch,  pp.  218-9,  285. 

iso  fues'  Colorado  Riv.,  pp.  119-20,  124.  'Us  vont  faire  leurs  odeurs  au 
loin,  et  rassemblent  les  urines  dans  de  grands  vases  de  terre  que  1'on  va 
vider  hors  du  village.'  Castaneda,  in  Ternaux-Compans ,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn, 
ix.,  p.  171. 


PUEBLO  WEAPONS.  541 

Their  weapons  are  bows  and  arrows,  spears,  and  clubs. 
The  Pueblos  use  a  crooked  stick,  which  they  throw  some 
what  in  the  manner  of  the  boomerang ;  they  are  exceed 
ingly  skillful  in  the  use  of  the  sling,  with  a  stone  from 
which  they  are  said  to  be  able  to  hit  with  certainty  a 
small  mark  or  kill  a  deer  at  the  distance  of  a  hundred 
yards.  For  defense,  they  use  a  buckler  or  shield  made 
of  raw  hide.  Their  arrows  are  carried  in  skin  quivers 
or  stuck  in  the  belt  round  the  waist.181  Bows  are  made 
of  willow,  and  are  about  six  feet  in  length,  strung  with 
twisted  deer-sinews;  arrows  are  made  of  reeds,  into 
which  a  piece  of  hard  wood  is  fitted.182  The  Pimas 
wing  their  war  arrows  with  three  feathers  and  point 
them  with  flint,  while  for  hunting  purposes  they  have 
only  two  feathers  and  wooden  points.183  It  has  been 
stated  that  they  poison  them,  but  there  does  not  appear 
to  be  good  foundation  for  this  assertion.184  Clubs,  which 
are  used  in  hand-to-hand  combats,  are  made  of  a  hard, 
heavy  wood,  measuring  from  twenty  to  twenty-four 
inches  in  length.  In  former  days  they  were  sharpened 
by  inserting  flint  or  obsidian  along  the  edge.185 

181  '  The  only  defensive  armor  they  use  is  a  rude  shield  made  of  raw  bull- 
hide.'  Da>:is'  El  Gringo,  pp.  145-6.    '  Bows  and  arrows,  and  the  wooden  boome 
rang.'   Colyer,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1869,  p.  91.     The  Papagos'  '  armes  sont  la 
massue,  la  lance  et  1'arc;  ils  portent  aussi  une  cuirasse  et  un  bouclier  en 
peau  de  buffle.'    Soc.  Geog.,  Bulletin,  serie  v.,  No.  96,  p.  188.     For  further 
comparisons  see  Whipple,  Ewbank,  and  Turner's  Kept.,  p.  30,  in  Pac.  Ii.  It. 
Kept.,  vol.  iii.;   Gregg's  Com.  Prairies,  vol.  i.,  p.  280;   De  Laet,  Norus  Orliy, 
p.  300;  Larenaudiere',  Mex.  et  Guat.,  p.  147;  Pike's  Explor.  Trav.,  p.  342;  Niza, 
in  Hakluyt's  Voy.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  372;  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p. 
528;  Mange,  Itinerario,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  tomi.,  p.  299;  Sedclmair, 
in  Id.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  851;  Salmeron,  Relaciones>  in  Id.,  p.  106;  Bart- 
kit's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  217,  237. 

182  Bows  'of  strong  willow-boughs.'     Walker's  Pimas,  MS.     'Bows  are 
six  feet  in  length,  and  made  of  a  very  tough  and  elastic  kind  of  wood,  which 
the  Spaniards  call  Tarnio.'  Patlie's  Pers.  Nar.,  pp.  91,  149. 

183  «  The  Pima  '  arrows  differ  from  those  of  all  the  Apache  tribes  in  having 
only  two  feathers.'  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  103.      'War  arrows  have  stone 
points  and  three  feathers;  hunting  arrows,  two  feathers  and  a  wooden  point.' 
Walker's  Pimas,  MS.',  Coronado,  in  Hakluyt's  Voy.,  torn.  iii.  p.  380. 

18^  The  Pimas:  'Flechas,  ennervadas  con  el  eiicaz  mortffero  veneno  que 
componen  de  varias  ponzonas,  y  el  zumo  de  la  yerba  llamada  enpima  Usap.' 
Mange,  Itinerario,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  i.,  p.  307.  'Die  Spitzen 
ihrer  Pfeile. . .  .welcher  mit  einer  dunklen  Substanz  uberzogen  waren.  Sie 
behaupteten  das  diese  aus  Schlaugengift  bestehe,  was  mir  indess  unwahr- 
scheinlich  ist.'  Froebel,  Aus  Amerika,  torn,  ii.,  p.  438;  Castaneda,  in  Ternaux- 
Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  pp.  59,  107,  126. 

185  'Una  macana,  como  clava  6  porra Estas  son  de  un  palo  muy  duro 


512  NEW  MEXICANS. 

The  Pimas  wage  unceasing  war  against  the  Apaches, 
and  the  Pueblos  are  ever  at  enmity  with  their  neigh 
bors,  the  Navajos.  The  Pueblos  are  securely  protected 
by  the  position  and  construction  of  their  dwellings,  from 
the  top  of  which  they  are  able  to  watch  the  appearance 
and  movements  of  enemies,  and  should  any  be  daring 
enough  to  approach  their  walls,  they  are  greeted  by  a 
shower  of  stones  and  darts.  As  an  additional  protec 
tion  to  their  towns,  they  dig  pitfalls  on  the  trails  lead 
ing  to  them,  at  the  bottom  of  which  sharp-pointed  stakes 
are  driven,  the  top  of  the  hole  being  carefully  covered.186 
Expeditions  are  sometimes  organized  against  the  Navajos 
for  the  recovery  of  stolen  property.  On  such  occcasions 
the  Towns-people  equip  themselves  with  the  heads,  horns, 
and  tails  of  wild  animals,  paint  the  body  and  plume  the 
head.187  Lieutenant  Simpson  mentions  a  curious  custom 
observed  by  them,  just  previous  to  going  into  action. 
"They  halted  on  the  way  to  receive  from  their  chiefs 
some  medicine  from  the  medicine  bags  which  each  of 
them  carried  about  his  person.  This  they  rubbed  upon 
their  heart,  as  they  said,  to  make  it  big  and  brave." 
The  Pueblos  fight  on  horseback  in  skirmishing  order, 
and  keep  up  a  running  fight,  throwing  the  body  into  va 
rious  attitudes,  the  better  to  avoid  the  enemies'  missiles, 
at  the  same  time  discharging  their  arrows  with  rapidity.188 
The  Pimas,  who  fight  usually  on  foot,  when  they  decide 
on  going  to  war,  select  their  best  warriors,  who  are  sent 

y  pesado.'  Sonora,  Descrip.  Geog.,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p. 
556.  '  Macanas,  que  son  vnas  palos  de  media  vara  de  largo,  y  llanos  todos 
de  pedernales  agudos,  que  bastan  a  partir  por  medio  vn  hombre.'  Espejo,  in 
Uakluyt's  Voy.,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  386,  393. 

186  «  De  grosses  pierres  avaient  ete  rassemble'es  au  sommet,  pour  les  rouler 
sur  quiconque  attaquerait  la  place.'  Qattatin,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy., 
1851,  torn,  cxxxi.,  p.  270.     'They have  placed  around  all  the  trails  leading 
to  the  town,  pits,  ten  feet  deep.'   Ten  Broeck,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv., 
p.  81.     See  further,  Coronado,  in  Hakluyt's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  376;  Browne's 
Apache  Country,  p.  279;  Sonora,  Descrip.  Geog.,'in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii., 
torn  iv.,  p.  840;  Castaneda,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  p. 

187  '  Painted  to  the  eyes,  their  own  heads  and  their  horses  covered  with 
all  the  strange  equipments  that  the  brute  creation   could  afford.'  Emory's 
Reconnoissance ,  p.  37. 

Js*  '  Sometimes  a  fellow  would  stoop  almost  to  the  earth,  to  shoot  under 
his  horse's  belly,  at  full  speed.'  Emory's  Reconnoissance,  p.  37. 


WAR  CEREMONIES.  543 

to  notify  the  surrounding  villages,  and  a  place  of  meet 
ing  is  named  where  a  grand  council  is  held.  A  fire  be 
ing  lighted  and  a  circle  of  warriors  formed,  the  proceed 
ings  are  opened  by  war  songs  and  speeches,  their  prophet 
is  consulted,  and  in  accordance  with  his  professional  ad 
vice,  their  plan  of  operations  is  arranged.189  The  attack 
is  usually  made  about  day-break,  and  conducted  with 
much  pluck  and  vigor.  They  content  themselves  with 
proximate  success,  and  seldom  pursue  a  flying  foe.190 
During  the  heat  of  battle  they  spare  neither  sex  nor 
age,  but  if  prisoners  are  taken,  the  males  are  crucified 
or  otherwise  cruelly  put  to  death,  and  the  women  and 
children  sold  as  soon  as  possible.191  The  successful  war 
party  on  its  return  is  met  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  vil 
lages,  scalps  are  fixed  on  a  pole,  trophies  displayed,  and 
feasting  and  dancing  indulged  in  for  several  days  and 
nights;  if  unsuccessful,  mourning  takes  the  place  of  feast 
ing,  and  the  death-cries  of  the  women  resound  through 
the  villages.192 

For  farming  implements  they  use  plows,  shovels,  har 
rows,  hatchets,  and  sticks,  all  of  wood.193  Baskets  of 
willow-twigs,  so  closely  woven  as  to  be  water-tight,  and 
ornamented  with  figures;  and  round,  baked,  and  glazed 
earthen  vessels,  narrow  at  the  top,  and  decorated  with 
paintings  or  enamel,  are  their  household  utensils.194  For 

189  Walker's  Pimas,  MS. 

190  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  10G. 

191  Gregg's  Com.   Prairies,  vol.  i.,  pp.  274-5;  Browne's  Apache  Country,  p. 
104;  Pattie's  Pers.  Nar.,  pp.  93,  148;  Cults'  Cong,  of  Cal.,  p.  223;  Soc.  Geoy.. 
Bulletin,  serie  v.,  No.  96,  p.  188. 

192  Ten  Broeck,  in  Schoolcrafi's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  78-9;   Murr,   Nach- 
richten,  p.  206;  Creniony's  Apaches,  pp.  108-9. 

13:{  Walker's  Pimas,  MS.;  Gallatin,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1851,  torn. 
cxxxi.,  pp.  292-4. 

194  Baskets  and  pottery  'are  ornamented  with  geometrical  figures.'  Bart- 
letl's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  'p.  382,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  227-8,  236.  '  Schusselformige 
runde  Korbe  (Coritas),  diese  flechteu  sie  aus  einern  hornformigen,  gleich 
einer  Able  spitzigen.  Uiikraute.'  Murr,  Nachrichten,  p.  193.  The  Pueblos  had 
1  de  la  vaiselle  de  terre  tres-belle,  bien  vernie  et  avec  beaucoup  d'ornenients. 
On  y  vit  aussi  de  grands  jarres  remplies  d'un  metal  brillant  qui  servait  a  faire 
le  vernis  de  cette  faience.'  Caslatleda,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i., 
torn,  ix.,  pp.  138,  173,  185:  see  also  Niza,  in  Id.,  p.  259.  'They  (Pueblos) 
vse  vessels  of  gold  and  siluer.'  Niza,  in  Hakluyt's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  372; 
Mollhausen,  Tagebuch,  pp.  216,  271,  273,  279;  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv., 
p.  435;  Marcy's  Army  Life,  pp,  97,  111;  Carleton,  in  Smithsonian  Kept.,  1854, 
p.  308;  Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xvii.,  pp.  457,  459;  Gregg's  Com.  Prai- 


544  NEW  MEXICANS. 

mashing  hulled  corn  they  used  the  metate,  a  Mexican 
implement,  made  of  two  stones,  one  concave  and  the 
other  convex,  hereafter  more  fully  described.  Among 
their  household  utensils  there  must  also  be  mentioned 
hair  sieves,  hide  ropes,  water-gourds,  painted  fans,  stone 
pipes,  and  frame  panniers  connected  with  a  netting  to 
carry  loads  on  their  backs.195  In  their  manufacture  of 
blankets,  of  cotton  and  woolen  cloths,  and  stock 
ings,  the  Pueblos  excel  their  neighbors,  the  Navajos, 
although  employing  essentially  the  same  method,  and 
using  similar  looms  and  spinning  instruments,  as  have 
been  described  in  the  preceding  pages.  Although  the 
women  perform  most  of  this  work,  as  well  as  tanning 
leather,  it  is  said  that  the  men  also  are  expert  in  knit 
ting  woolen  stockings.  According  to  Miihlenpfordt 
the  Pirn  as  and  Maricopas  make  a  basket-boat  which  they 
call  com,  woven  so  tight  as  to  be  water-proof  without 
the  aid  of  pitch  or  other  application.196  All  these  nations, 
particularly  the  Pueblos,  have  great  droves  of  horses, 
mules,  donkeys,  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  grazing  on  the 
extensive  plains,  and  about  their  houses  poultry,  turkeys, 
and  dogs.  The  flocks  they  either  leave  entirely  unpro 
tected,  or  else  the  owner  herds  them  himself,  or  from 

ries,  vol.  i.,  p.  278;  Foster's  Pre-Hist.  Races,  p.  393;  Simpson's  Jour.  Ml. 
Recon.,  p.  97;  Miihlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p.  425;  Coronado,  in 
Hakluyt's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  380;  Browne's  Apache  Country,  pp.68,  109,  112, 
276. 

195  'All  the  inhabitants  of  the  Citie  (Cibola)  lie  vpon  beddes  raysed  a 
good  height  from  the  ground,  with  quilts  and  canopies  ouer  them,  which 
couer  the  sayde  Beds.'     Niza,  in  Hakluyt's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  370;  Id.,  in 
Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  p.  271.  The  Quires  had  'umbracula 
(vulgo  Tirazoles)  quibus  Sinenses  utuntur  Solis,  Lunae,  et  Stellarum  imagi- 
nibus  eleganter  picta.'     De  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  312;  Espejo,  in  Hakluyt's 
Voy.,  vol  iii.,  p.  393.     The  Moquis'  chief  men  have  pipes  made  of  smooth 
polished  stone.     Ten  Broeck,  in  Schooler  aft' s  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  87;  Ives'  Col 
orado  Riv.,  p.  121.     ' 

196  Ten  Broeck,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  72,  76,  87.    '  Sie  flech- 
ten  von  zartgeschlitzten  Palmen  auf  Damastart  die  schonsten  ganz  leichten 
Hiithe,  aus  einem  Stiicke.'    Murr,  Nachrichten,  p.  192.     The  Maricopa  blan 
kets  will  turn  rain.     Cremony's  Apaches,  pp.  106,  90.      The  Moquis  wove 
blankets  from  the  wool  of  their  sheep,  and  made  cotton  cloth  from  the  indige 
nous  staple.    Poston,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1863,  p.  388.     The  Maricopas  make 
a  heavy  cloth  of  wool  and  cotton,  '  used  by  the  women  to  put  around  their 
loins;  and  an  article  from  3  to  4  inches  wide,  used  as  a  band  for  the  head,  or 
a  girdle  for  the  waist.'    Bartlett's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  224.     'Eupicapra- 
rum  tergora  eminebant  (among  the  Yumanes)  tarn  Industrie  prseparata  ut 
cum  Belgicis  certarent.'    De  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  310. 


PUEBLO  TKADE.  545 

each  village  one  is  appointed  by  the  war  captain  to  do 
so.  The  Papagos  carry  on  an  extensive  trade  in  salt, 
taken  from  the  great  inland  salt  lakes.  Besides  corn, 
they  manufacture  and  sell  a  syrup  extracted  from  the 
pitahaya.197  The  laws  regulating  inheritance  of  property 
are  not  well  defined.  Among  some  there  is  nothing  to 
inherit,  as  all  is  destroyed  when  the  person  dies ;  among 
others,  the  females  claim  the  right  of  inheritance;  at 
other  times  the  remaining  property  is  divided  among 
all  the  members  of  the  tribe.  In  general  they  care  but 
little  for  gold,  and  all  their  trade,  which  at  times  is  con 
siderable,  is  carried  on  by  barter;  a  kind  of  blue  stone, 
often  called  turquoise,  beads,  skins,  and  blankets,  serv 
ing  the  purpose  of  currency.198 

The  Pueblos  display  much  taste  in  painting  the  walls 
of  their  estufas,  where  are  represented  different  plants, 
birds,  and  animals  symmetrically  done,  but  without  any 
scenic  effect.  Hieroglyphic  groupings,  both  sculptured 

i97  De  Lad,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  301;  Emory's  Eept.  U.  8.  and  Mex.  Boundary 
Survey,  vol.  i.,  pp.  117,  123;  Gallatin,  in  Nouvelles  Annalcs  des  Voy.,  1851, 
torn,  cxxxi.,  p.  290;  Simpson's  Jour.  Mil.  Eecon.,  pp.  91,  113, 115.;  Ten  Broeck, 
in  Schoolcraft's  Arch,,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  81,  86;  Eaton,  in  Id.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  221; 
Emory,  in  Fremont  and  Emory's  Notes  of  Trav.,  p.  48;  See  further  Ind.  Aff. 
Reports,  from  1854  to  1872;  Browne's  Apache  Country,  p.  290.  'These 
Papagos  regularly  visit  a  salt  lake,  which  lies  near  the  coast  and  just  across 
the  line  of  Sonora,  from  which  they  pack  large  quantities  of  salt,  and  find  a 
ready  market  at  Tubac  and  Tucson.'  Walker,  in  Lid.  Aff.  Eept.,  1859,  .p. 
352,  and  1860,  p.  168.'  Many  Pimas  had  jars  of  the  molasses  expressed  from 
the  fruit  of  the  Cereus  Giganteus.'  Emory,  in  Fremont  and  Emory's  Notes 
of  Trav.,  p.  48. 

193 '  Die  Vernichtung  des  Eigenthums  ernes  Verstorbenen, — einen  ungliick- 
lichen  Gebrauch  der  jeden  materiellen  Fortschritt  unmoglich  macht.'  Froe- 
bel,  Aus  America,  torn,  i.,  p.  437.  'The  right  of  inheritance  is  held  by  the 
females  generally,  but  it  is  often  claimed  by  the  men  also.'  Gorman,  in  Ind. 
Aff.  Eept.,  1858,  p.  200.  'All  the  effects  of  the  deceased  (Pima)  become 
common  property:  his  grain  is  distributed;  his  fields  shared  out  to  those  who 
need  land;  his  chickens  and  dogs  divided  up  among  the  tribe.'  Browne's 
Apache,  Country,  pp.  69,  112;  lues'  Colorado  Riv.,  p.  121;  Gallatin,  in  Nouvelles 
AnnalesdesVoy.,  1851,  torn,  cxxxi,  p.  262;  Nizaju  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie 
i.,  torn,  he.,  pp.  264,  265,  267,  268;  LL,  in  Hakluyt'sVoy.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  372. 
The  Zunis  '  will  sell  nothing  for  money,  but  dispose  of  their  commodities 
entirely  in  barter.'  Simpson's  Jour.  Mil.  Eecon.,  p.  91.  The  Pimos  'wanted 
white  beads  for  what  they  had  to  sell,  and  knew  the  value  of  money.'  Cutts' 
Gong,  of  CaL,  p.  188;  Castaneda,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn, 
xi.,  pp.  164,  72.  '  Us  apporterent  des  coquillages,  des  turquoises  et  des 
plumes.'  Cabeza  deVaca,  Eelation,  in  Id.,  torn,  vii.,  p.  274;  Diaz,  in  Id., 
torn,  xi.,  p.  294;  Coronado,  in  Hakluyt's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  377;  Many  of 
the  Pueblo  Indians  are  rich,  '  one  family  being  worth  over  one  hundred 
thousand  dollars.  They  have  large  flocks.'  Colyer,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1869, 
p.  89;  mUhausen,  Tagebuch,  p.  144. 
VOL.  I.  35 


546  NEW  MEXICANS. 

and  painted,  are  frequently  seen  in  the  ancient  Pueblo 
towns,  depicting,  perhaps,  their  historical  events  and 
deeds.  With  colored  earths  their  pottery  is  painted  in 
bright  colors.199  Many  Spanish  authors  mention  a  great 
many  gold  and  silver  vessels  in  use  amongst  them,  and 
speak  of  the  knowledge  they  had  in  reducing  and  work 
ing  these  metals;  but  no  traces  of  such  art  are  found  at 
present.200 

Among  the  Pueblos  an  organized  system  of  govern 
ment  existed  at  the  time  of  Coronado's  expedition 
through  their  country ;  Castaneda,  speaking  of  the  prov 
ince  of  Tiguex,  sa€ys  that  the  villages  were  governed  by 
a  council  of  old  men ;  and  a  somewhat  similar  system 
obtains  with  these  people  at  the  present  time.  Each 
village  selects  its  own  governor,  frames  its  own  laws, 
and  in  all  respects  they  act  independently  of  each  other. 
The  Governor  and  his  council  are  elected  annually  by 
the  people ;  all  affairs  of  importance  and  matters  relat 
ing  to  the  welfare  of  the  community  are  discussed  at  the 
estufa;  questions  in  dispute  are  usually  decided  by  a 
vote  of  the  majority.  All  messages  and  laws  emanating 
from  the  council-chamber  are  announced  to  the  inhabi 
tants  by  town  criers.  The  morals  of  young  people  are 
carefully  watched  and  guarded  by  a  kind  of  secret 
police,  whose  duty  it  is  to  report  to  the  governor  all 
irregularities  which  may  occur;  and  especial  attention 
is  given  that  no  improper  intercourse  shall  be  allowed 
between  the  young  men  and  women,  in  the  event  of 
which  the  offending  parties  are  brought  before  the  gov 
ernor  and  council  and,  if  guilty,  ordered  to  marry, 
or  if  they  refuse  they  are  restricted  from  holding  in 
tercourse  with  each  other,  and  if  they  persist  they  are 

199  Greeks  Com.  Prairies,  vol.  i.,  p.  278;  Davis'  El  Gringo,  p.  147;  Scenes 
in  the  Rocky  Mts.,  p.  177;  Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xvii.,  p.  458;  Con,- 
uado,  in  IlakluyVs  Voy.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  380;  Mollhausen,  Tagebuch.  p.  284. 

200  '  Estos  ahijados  tieneu  mucho  oro  y  lo  benefician.'     Salmeron,  Rela- 
ciones,  in  Doc.  Hist  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  i.,  p.  28.     'They  vse  vessels  of  gold 
and  siluer,  for  they  have  no  other  mettal.'     Niza,  in  HakluyVsVoy.,  vol.  iii., 
p.  372;  Castaneda,  in  Ternaux-Compans,   Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  pp.  2,   133; 
Espejo,   in   Ilakluyt's  Voy.,   vol.   iii.,   pp.    386-8,   393-5;  Montamis,  Nleuwe 
Weereld,  p.  217;  Diaz,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  p.  294. 


LAWS  OF  THE  PUEBLOS.  547 

whipped.  Among  their  laws  deserves  to  be  particularly 
mentioned  one,  according  to  which  no  one  can  sell  or 
marry  out  of  the  town  until  he  obtains  permission  from 
the  authorities.201  In  the  seven  confederate  pueblos  of 
the  Moquis,  the  office  of  chief  governor  is  hereditary ;  it 
is  not,  however,  necessarily  given  to  the  nearest  heir,  as 
the  people  have  the  power  to  elect  any  member  of  the 
dominant  family.  The  governor  is  assisted  by  a  council 
of  elders,  and  in  other  respects  the  Moqui  government 
is  similar  to  that  of  the  other  towns.202  The  Pimas  and 
Maricopas  have  no  organized  system  of  government,  and 
are  not  controlled  by  any  code  of  laws;  each  tribe  or 
village  has  a  chief  to  whom  a  certain  degree  of  respect 
is  conceded,  but  his  power  to  restrain  the  people  is  very 
limited;  his  influence  over  them  is  maintained  chiefly 
by  his  oratorical  powers  or  military  skill.  In  war  the 
tribe  is  guided  by  the  chief's  advice,  and  his  authority 
is  fully  recognized,  but  in  time  of  peace  his  rule  is 
nominal ;  nor  does  he  attempt  to  control  their  freedom 
or  punish  them  for  offences.  The  chief's  office  is  hered 
itary,  yet  an  unpopular  ruler  may  be  deposed  and 
another  chosen  to  fill  his  place.203 

Among  the  Pueblos  the  usual  order  of  courtship  is 
reversed ;  when  a  girl  is  disposed  to  marry  she  does  not 
wait  for  a  young  man  to  propose  to  her,  but  selects  one  to 
her  own  liking  and  consults  her  father,  who  visits  the  pa 
rents  of  the  youth  and  acquaints  them  with  his  daughter's 

201  Pueblo  government  purely  democratic:  election  held  once  a  year.    '  Be 
sides  the  officers  elected  by  universal  suffrage,  the  principal  chiefs  compose 
a  "council  of  wise  men."  '  Davis'  El  Gringo,  pp.  142-4.     '  One  of  their  reg 
ulations  is  to  appoint  a  secret  watch  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  down  dis 
orders   and  vices  of   every  description.'     Gregg's  Com.  Prairies,  vol.    i.,  p. 
271.     See  further:  Casta/leda,  in  Ternaux-Conipans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix  , 

So.  61,  168;  Niza,  in  Id.,  p.  269;  Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xvii.,  p.  455; 
3  Lad,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  298;   Wislizenus'  Tour,  p.  26;   Mayer's  Mex.,  Aztec, 
etc..  vol.  ii.,  p.  359;  Gallatin  in  Nouvelles  Annales  desVoy.,  1851,  torn  cxxxi., 
p.  277;  Stanley's  Portraits,  p.  '55. 

202  Ten  Broeck,  in  Schoo! craft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  85,  76;  Marcy's  Army 
Life,  p.  108. 

so3  Gobierno  no  tienen  alguno,  ni  leyes,  tradiciones  6  costumbres  con 
que  gobernarse.'  Mange,  Itinerario,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  i.,  p. 
366.  '  Cada  cual  gobernado  por  un  anciano,  y  todas  por  el  general  de  la 
nacion.'  Escude.ro,  Noticias  de  Sonora  y  Sinaloa,  p.  142;  Murr,  Ndchrichten, 
p.  267.  Compare:  Grossman,  in  Ind.  'Aff.  Rept.,  1870,  p.  124;  Howry,  in 
Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1859,  p.  356;  Walker's  Pimas,  MS. 


548  NEW  MEXICANS. 

wishes.  It  seldom  happens  that  any  objections  to  the 
match  are  made,  but  it  is  imperative  on  the  father  of  the 
bridegroom  to  reimburse  the  parents  of  the  maiden  for 
the  loss  of  their  daughter.  This  is  done  by  an  offer  of 
presents  in  accordance  with  his  rank  and  wealth.  The 
inhabitants  of  one  village  seldom  marry  with  those  of 
another,  and,  as  a  consequence,  intermarriage  is  frequent 
among  these  families — a  fertile  cause  of  their  deteriora 
tion.  The  marriage  is  always  celebrated  by  a  feast,  the 
provisions  for  which  are  furnished  by  the  bride,  and  the 
assembled  friends  unite  in  dancing  and  music.  Polyg 
amy  is  never  allowed,  but  married  couples  can  separate 
if  they  are  dissatisfied  with  each  other;  in  such  a  con 
tingency,  if  there  are  children,  they  are  taken  care  of 
by  the  grandparents,  and  both  parties  are  free  to  marry 
again;  fortunately,  divorces  are  not  of  frequent  occur 
rence,  as  the  wives  are  always  treated  with  respect  by 
their  husbands.204  To  the  female  falls  all  indoor  work, 
and  also  a  large  share  of  that  to  be  done  out  of  doors. 
In  the  treatment  of  their  children  these  people  are  care 
ful  to  guide  them  in  the  ways  of  honesty  and  industry, 
and  to  impress  their  minds  with  chaste  and  virtuous 
ideas.  Mothers  bathe  their  infants  with  cold  water,  and 
boys  are  not  permitted  to  enter  the  estufas  for  the  pur 
pose  of  warming  themselves;  if  they  are  cold  they  are 
ordered  to  chop  wood,  or  warm  themselves  by  running 
and  exercise.205  A  girl's  arrival  at  the  age  of  puberty 
among  the  Gila  nations  is  a  period  of  much  rejoicing; 
when  the  first  symptoms  appear,  all  her  friends  are  duly 
informed  of  the  important  fact,  and  preparations  are 
made  to  celebrate  the  joyful  event.  The  girl  is  taken 
by  her  parents  to  the  prophet,  who  performs  certain 
ceremonies,  which  are  supposed  to  drive  the  evil  out  of 
her,  and  then  a  singing  and  dancing  festival  is  held. 

204  'Un  homme  n' epouse  jamais  plus  d'  une  seule  femme.'     Castaneda, 
in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  p.  164;  Ten  Broeck,  in  School- 
craft's  Arch.,  vol.  ivv  pp.  86-7;   Ward,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Sept.,  1864,  p.  190. 

205  '  Us  traitent  bien  leurs  femmes.'    Castaneda,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy., 
serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  p.  126.     '  Desde  que  maman  los  Ninos,  los  labaii  sus  Ma- 
dres  con  Nieve  todo  el  cuerpo.'     Torquemada,  Monarq.  Ind.,  toni  i.,  p.  679; 
lyes'  Colorado  Riv.,  p.  123;  Scenes  in  the  Rocky  Mis.,  p.  178. 


WOMEN  AMONG  THE  PUEBLOS.  549 

When  a  young  man  sees  a  girl  whom  he  desires  for  a 
wife,  he  first  endeavors  to  gain  the  good  will  of  the 
parents;  this  accomplished,  he  proceeds  to  serenade  his 
lady-love,  and  will  often  sit  for  hours,  day  after  day, 
near  her  house,  playing  on  his  flute.  Should  the  girl 
not  appear  it  is  a  sign  she  rejects  him ;  but  if,  on  the 
other  hand,  she  comes  out  to  meet  him,  he  knows  that 
his  suit  is  accepted,  and  he  takes  her  to  his  house.  No 
marriage  ceremony  is  performed.  Among  the  Papagos 
the  parents  select  a  husband  for  their  daughter  to  whom 
she  is,  so  to  say,  sold.  It  not  unfrequently  happens  that 
they  offer  their  daughter  at  auction,  and  she  is  knocked 
down  to  the  highest  bidder.  However,  among  all  the 
nations  of  this  family,  whether  the  bridegroom  makes  a 
love-match  or  not,  he  has  to  recompense  the  parents  with 
as  much  as  his  means  will  permit.206  Although  polygamy 
is  not  permitted,  they  often  separate  and  marry  again 
at  pleasure.  Women,  at  the  time  of  their  confinement 
as  well  as  during  their  monthly  periods,  must  live  apart; 
as  they  believe  that  if  any  male  were  to  touch  them,  he 
would  become  sick.  The  children  are  trained  to  war, 
and  but  little  attention  given  to  teaching  them  useful 
pursuits.  All  the  household  labor  is  performed  by  the 
women;  they  also  assist  largely  in  the  labors  of  the 
field;  severe  laws  oblige  them  to  observe  the  strictest 
chastity,  and  yet,  at  their  festivals,  much  debauchery 
and  prostitution  take  place.207 

With  but  few  exceptions,  they  are  temperate  in  drink 
ing  and  smoking.  Intoxicating  liquors  they  prepare  out 
of  the  fruits  of  the  pitahaya,  agave,  aloe,  corn,  mezcal^ 

206  «  Early  marriages  occur but  the  relation  is  not  binding  until  pro 
geny  results. '   Poston,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1864,  p.  152.   '  No  girl  is  forced  to  mar 
ry  against  her  will,  however  eligible  her  parents  may  consider  the  match.' 
BartleWs  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  222-4;  Davis'  El  Gringo,  p.  146;  Cremony's 
Apaches,  p.  105;  Browne's  Apache  Country,  p.  112. 

207  '  Si  el  marido  y  mujer  se  desavienen  y  los  hijos  son  pequenos,  se  arri- 
man  a  cualquiera  de  los  dos  y  cada  uno  gana  por  su  lado.'     Mange,  Itinerario, 
in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  i.,  p.  369.     '  Tanto  lospapagos  occidentals, 
como  los  citados  gilas  desconocen  la  poligamia.'     Velasco,  Noticiasde  Sonora, 
p.  161.     'Among  the  Pimas  loose  women  are  tolerated.'     Cremony's  Apaches, 
pp.   102-4;  Ruxton,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1850,  torn,  cxxvi.,  p.  59; 
Emory's  Rept.  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Boundary  Survey,  vol.  i..  p.  117. 


550  NEW  MEXICANS. 

prickly  pear,  wild  and  cultivated  grapes.  Colonel  Cre- 
mony  says  that  the  Pimas  and  Maricopas  '  macerate  the 
fruit  of  the  pitahaya  (species  of  cactus)  in  water  after 
being  dried  in  the  sun,  when  the  saccharine  qualities 
cause  the  liquid  to  ferment,  and  after  such  fermentation 
it  becomes  highly  intoxicating.  It  is  upon  this  liquor 
that  the  Maricopas  and  Pimas  get  drunk  once  a  year, 
the  revelry  continuing  for  a  week  or  two  at  a  time ;  but 
it  is  also  an  universal  custom  with  them  to  take  regular 
turns,  so  that  only  one  third  of  the  party  is  supposed  to 
indulge  at  one  time,  the  remainder  being  required  to 
take  care  of  their  stimulated  comrades,  and  protect 
them  from  injuring  each  other  or  being  injured  by  other 
tribes.' 208  All  are  fond  of  dancing  and  singing ;  in  their 
religious  rites,  as  well  as  in  other  public  and  family  cele 
brations,  these  form  the  chief  diversion.  Different 
dances  are  used  on  different  occasions;  for  example, 
they  have  the  arrow,  scalp,  turtle,  fortune,  buffalo,  green- 
corn,  and  Montezuma  dances.  Their  costumes  also  vary 
on  each  of  these  occasions,  and  not  only  are  grotesque 
masks,  but  also  elk,  bear,  fox,  and  other  skins  used  as 
disguises.  The  dance  is  sometimes  performed  by  only 
one  person,  but  more  frequently  whole  tribes  join  in, 
forming  figures,  shuffling,  or  hopping  about  to  the  time 
given  by  the  music.  Lieutenant  Simpson,  who  wit 
nessed  a  green-corn  dance  at  the  Jemez  pueblo,  describes 
it  as  follows: 

'When  the  performers  first  appeared,  all  of  whom 
were  men,  they  came  in  a  line,  slowly  walking  and  bend 
ing  and  stooping  as  they  approached.  They  were  dressed 
in  a  kirt  of  blanket,  the  upper  portion  of  their  bodies 
being  naked  and  painted  red.  Their  legs  and  arms, 
which  were  also  bare,  were  variously  striped  with  red, 
white  and  blue  colors;  and  around  their  arms,  above 

208  «The  Pimas  also  cultivate  a  kind  of  tobacco,  this,  which  is  very  li£.ht, 
they  make  up  into  cigaritos,  never  using  a  pipe.'  Walker's  Pimas,  M&. 
The  Pueblos  '  sometimes  get  intoxicated.'  Walker,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1860,  p. 
109.  The  Pueblos  'are  generally  free  from  drunkenness.'  Dams' El  Gringo, 
p.  146.  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  112;  Froebel,  Aus  America,  torn,  ii.,  p.  446; 
Murr,  Nachrichten,  p.  249. 


PUEBLO  DANCES.  55t 

the  elbow,  they  wore  a  green  band,  decked  with  sprigs 
of  piiion.  A  necklace  of  the  same  description  was  worn 
around  the  neck.  Their  heads  were  decorated  with 
feathers.  In  one  hand  they  carried  a  dry  gourd,  con 
taining  some  grains  of  corn ;  in  the  other,  a  string  from 
which  were  hung  several  tortillas.  At  the  knee  were 
fastened  small  shells  of  the  ground  turtle  and  antelope's 
feet ;  and  dangling  from  the  back,  at  the  waist,  depended 
a  fox-skin.  The  party  was  accompanied  by  three  eld 
ers  of  the  town,  whose  business  it  was  to  make  a  short 
speech  in  front  of  the  different  houses,  and,  at  particu 
lar  times,  join  in  the  singing  of  the  rest  of  the  party. 
Thus  they  went  from  house  to  house,  singing  and 
dancing,  the  occupants  of  each  awaiting  their  arrival  in 
front  of  their  respective  dwellings.' 

A  somewhat  similar  Moqui  dance  is  described  by  Mr 
Ten  Broeck.  Some  of  the  Pueblo  dances  end  with 
bacchanalia,  in  which  not  only  general  intoxication, 
but  promiscuous  intercourse  between  the  sexes  is  per 
mitted.209  'Once  a  year,'  says  Kendall,  'the  Keres 

269  Simpson's  Jour.  Mil.  Eecon.,  p.  17.  'Their  hair  hung  loose  upon 
their  shoulders,  and  both  men  and  women  had  their  hands  painted  with 
white  clay,  in  such  a  way  as  to  resemble  open-work  gloves.  The  wo 
men  ....  were  bare-footed,  with  the  exception  of  a  little  piece  tied  about 
the  heel ....  They  all  wore  their  hair  combed  over  their  faces,  in  a  manner 
that  rendered  it  utterly  impossible  to  recognize  any  of  them ....  They  keep 
their  elbows  close  to  their  sides,  and  their  heels  pressed  firmly  together,  and 
do  not  raise  the  feet,  but  shuffle  along  with  a  kind  of  rolling  motion,  moving 
their  arms,  from  the  elbows  down,  with  time  to  the  step.  At  times,  each 
man  dances  around  his  squaw;  while  she  turns  herself  about,  as  if  her  heels 
formed  a  pivot  on  which  she  moved.'  Ten  Broeck,  in  Schooler aft's  Arch., 
vol.  iv.,  p.  74.  The  dresses  of  the  men  were  similar  to  those  worn  on  other 
festivities,  '  except  that  they  wear  on  their  heads  large  pasteboard  towers 
painted  typically,  and  curiously  decorated  with  feathers;  and  each  man  has 
his  face  entirely  covered  by  a  vizor  made  of  small  willows  with  the  bark 
peeled  off,  and  dyed  a  deep  brown.'  Id.,  p.  83.  'Such  horrible  masks  I 
never  saw  before— noses  six  inches  long,  mouths  from  ear  to  ear,  and  great 
goggle  eyes,  as  big  as  half  a  hen's  egg,  hanging  by  a  string  partly  out  of  the 
socket.'  Id.,  p.  85.  'Each  Pueblo  generally  had  its  particular  uniform 
dress  and  its  particular  dance.  The  men  of  one  village  would  sometimes 
disguise  themselves  as  elks,  with  horns  on  their  heads,  moving  on  all-fours, 
and  mimicking  the  animal  they  were  attempting  to  personate.  Others 
would  appear  in  the  garb  of  a  turkey,  with  large  heavy  wings.'  Gregg's 
Com.  Prairies,  vol.  i.,  pp.  271,  275.  'Festejo  todo  (Pimas)  el  dia  nuestra 
llegada  con  un  esquisito  baile  en  forma  circular,  en  cuyo  centre  figaraba  una 
prolongada  asta  donde  pendian  trece  cabelleras,  arcos,  flechas  y  demas  des- 
pojos  de  otros  tantos  enemigos  apaches  que  habian  muerto.'  Mange,  Itinera- 
rio,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  i.,  p.  277.  '  Este  lo  forma  una  junta  de 
truhanes  vestidos  de  ridiculo  y  autorizados  por  los  viejos  del  pueblo  para  come  • 


552  NEW  MEXICANS. 

have  a  great  feast,  prepared  for  three  successive  days, 
which  time  is  spent  in  eating,  drinking  and  dancing. 
Near  this  scene  of  amusement  is  a  dismal  gloomy  cave, 
into  which  not  a  glimpse  of  light  can  penetrate,  and 
where  places  of  repose  are  provided  for  the  revellers. 
To  this  cave,  after  dark,  repair  grown  persons  of  every 
age  and  sex,  who  pass  the  night  in  indulgences  of  the 
most  gross  and  sensual  description.' 

Reed  flutes  and  drums  are  their  chief  instruments  of 
music;  the  former  they  immerse  in  a  shallow  basin  of 
wrater,  and  thereby  imitate  the  warbling  of  birds.  The 
drum  is  made  of  a  hollow  log,  about  two  and  a  half  feet 
long  and  fifteen  inches  in  diameter.  A  dried  hide, 
from  which  previously  the  hair  has  been  scraped,  is 
stretched  over  either  end,  and  on  this  the  player  beats 
with  a  couple  of  drumsticks,  similar  to  those  used  on  our 
kettle-drums.  Gourds  filled  with  pebbles  and  other  rat 
tles,  are  also  used  as  a  musical  accompaniment  to  their 
dances.210 

The  Cocomaricopas  and  Pimas  are  rather  fond  of 
athletic  sports,  such  as  football,  horse  and  foot  racing, 
swimming,  target-shooting,  and  of  gambling.211  Many 

ter  los  mayores  desordenes,  y  gustan  tanto  de  estos  hechos,  que  ni  los  maridos 
reparan  las  infamias  que  cometen  con  sus  mugeres,  ni  las  que  resultan  en 
perjuicio  de  las  hijas.'  Aleyre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  i.,  pp.  333-5.  For 
further  particulars  see  Kendall's  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  378;  Marcy's  Army  Life,  pp. 
104-8;  Mollhausen,  Tagebuch,  p.  244;  Davis'  El  Gringo,  pp.  354-5;  Espejo, 

"  ni  Ex.,    plates  1,  2,  3; 
Trav.,  p.  343. 
i-4;  Johnson's  Hist. 

7  p.  11.     'Their  instruments  consisted,  each" of  half  a  gourd,  placed 

before  them,  with  the  convex  side  up;  upon  this  they  placed,  with  the  left 
hand,  a  smooth  stick,  and  with  their  right  drew  forward  and  backwards 
upon  it,  in  a  sawing  manner,  a  notched  one.'  Simpson's  Jour.  Mil.  Recon., 
p.  17.  '  I  noticed,  among  other  things,  a  reed  musical  instrument  with  a  bell- 
shaped  end  like  a  clarionet,  and  a  pair  of  painted  drumsticks  tipped  with 
gaudy  feathers.'  lues'  Colorado  Riv.,  p.  121.  'Les  Indiens  (Pueblos)  ac- 
compagnent  leurs  danses  et  leurs  chants  avec  des  flutes,  oil  sont  marques  les 

endroits  oil  il  faut  placer  les  doigts Us  disent  que  ces  gens  se  reunissent 

cinq  ou  six  pour  jouer  de  la  flute;  que  ces  instruments  sont  d'inegales  gran 
deurs.'  Diaz,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  p.  295;  Castaneda, 
in  Id.,  pp.  72,  172;  Froebel,  Aus  Amerika,  torn,  ii.,  p.  455;  Garces,  Diario,  in 
Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  ii.,  torn,  i.,  p.  331.  'While  they  are  at  work,  a  man, 
seated  at  the  door,  plays  on  a  bagpipe,  so  that  they  work  keeping  time:  they 
ging  in  three  voices.'  Davis'  El  Gringo,  p.  119. 

211  The  Cocomaricopas,  '  componen  unas  bolas  redondas  del  tamano  de 
una  pelota  de  materia  negra  como  pez,  y  embutidas  en  ellas  varias  conchitas 
pequefias  del  mar  con  que  hacen  labores  y  con  que  juegan  y  apuestan,  tiran- 


CUSTOMS  OF  PIMAS  AND  PAPAGOS.  553 

curious  customs  obtain  among  these  people.  Mr  Walker 
relates  that  a  Pima  never  touches  his  skin  with  his 
nails,  but  always  uses  a  small  stick  for  that  purpose, 
which  he  renews  every  fourth  day,  and  wrears  in  his 
hair.  Among  the  same  nation,  when  a  man  has  killed 
an  Apache,  he  must  needs  undergo  purification.  Sixteen 
days  he  must  fast,  and  only  after  the  fourth  day  is  he 
allowed  to  drink  a  little  pinole.  During  the  sixteen 
days  he  may  not  look  on  a  blazing  fire,  nor  hold  con 
verse  with  mortal  man ;  he  must  live  in  the  woods  corn- 
pan  ionless,  save  only  one  person  appointed  to  take  care 
of  him.  On  the  seventeenth  day  a  large  space  is  cleared 
off  near  the  village,  in  the  center  of  which  a  fire  is 
lighted.  The  men  form  a  circle  round  this  fire,  outside 
of  which  those  who  have  been  purified  sit,  each  in  a 
small  excavation.  Certain  of  the  old  men  then  take 
the  weapons  of  the  purified  and  dance  with  them  in  the 
circle;  for  which  service  they  receive  presents,  and 
thenceforth  both  slayer  and  weapon  are  considered  clean, 
but  not  until  four  days  later  is  the  man  allowed  to  return 
to  his  family.  They  ascribe  the  origin  of  this  custom 
to  a  mythical  personage,  called  Szeukha,  who,  after  kill 
ing  a  monster,  is  said  to  have  fasted  for  sixteen  days. 

The  Papagos  stand  in  gread  dread  of  the  coyote,  and 
the  Pimas  never  touch  an  ant,  snake,  scorpion,  or  spider, 
and  are  much  afraid  of  thunderstorms.  Like  the  Mo- 
javes  and  Yumas,  the  Maricopas  in  cold  weather  carry  a 
firebrand  to  warm  themselves  withal.  In  like  manner 
the  Pueblos  have  their  singularities  and  semi-religious 
ceremonies,  many  of  which  are  connected  with  a  certain 

dola  con  la  punta  del  pie  corren  tres  6  cuatro  leguas  y  la  particularidad  es  que 
el  que  da  vuelta  y  llega  al  puesto  donde  comenzaron  y  salieron  a  la  par  ese 
gana.'  Sedehnair,  Relation,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie'iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  851. 
'It  is  a  favorite  amusement  with  both  men  [Maricopas]  and  boys  to  try 
their  skill  at  hitting  the  pitahaya,  which  presents  a  fine  object  on  the  plain. 
Numbers  often  collect  for  this  purpose;  and  in  crossing  the  great  plateau, 
where  these  plants  abound,  it  is  common  to  see  them  pierced  with  arrows.' 
BartletVs  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  237;  Mowry,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1857,  p.  301. 
'  Amusements  of  all  kinds  are  universally  resorted  to  [among  the  Pueblos]; 
such  as  foot-racing,  horse-racing,  cock-fighting,  gambling,  dancing,  eating, 
and  drinking.'  Ward,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1864,  p.  192;  Mange,  Itinerario,  in 
Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv,,  torn,  i.,  pp.  299,  365. 


554  NEW  MEXICANS. 

mythical  personage  called  Montezuma.  Among  these 
may  be  mentioned  the  perpetual  watching  of  the  eternal 
estufa-fire,  and  also  the  daily  waiting  for  the  rising  sun, 
with  which,  as  some  writers  affirm,  they  expectantly 
look  for  the  promised  return  of  the  much-loved  Mon 
tezuma.  The  Moqui,  before  commencing  to  smoke,  rev 
erently  bows  toward  the  four  cardinal  points.212 

Their  diseases  are  few,  and  among  these  the  most 
frequent  are  chills  and  fevers,  and  later,  syphilis.  The 
Pueblos  and  Moquis  resort  to  the  sweat-house  remedy, 
but  the  Pimas  only  bathe  daily  in  cold  running  water. 
Here,  as  elsewhere,  the  doctor  is  rnedicine-man,  conjuror, 
and  prophet,  and  at  times  old  women  are  consulted.  If 
incantations  fail,  emetics,  purgatives,  or  blood-letting  are 
prescribed.213 

The  Pimas  bury  their  dead  immediately  after  death. 
At  the  bottom  of  a  shaft,  about  six  feet  deep,  they  ex 
cavate  a  vault,  in  which  the  corpse  is  placed,  after 

212  Walker's  Pimas,  MS.  '  The  Papago  of  to-day  will  on  no  account 
Mil  a  coyote.'  Davidson,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1865,  p.  132.  '  Eben  so  aber- 
glaubischen  Gebrauch  batten  sie  bey  drohenden  Kieselwetter,  da  sie  den 
Hagel  abzuwenden  ein  Stiick  von  einem  Palmteppiche  an  einem  Stecken  an- 
hefteten  und  gegen  die  Wolken  richteten.'  Murr,  Nachrichten,  pp.  203,  207; 
Amy,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1871,  pp.  385,  389.  'A  sentinel  ascends  every 
morning  at  sunrise  to  the  roof  of  the  highest  house,  and,  with  eyes  directed 
towards  the  east,  looks  out  for  the  arrival  of  the  divine  chieftain,  who  is 
to  give  the  sign  of  deliverance.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol  i.,  p.  165,  197,  390, 
210,  and  vol.  ii.,  p.  54.  'On  a  dit  que  la  coutume  singuliere  de  conserver 
perpetuellement  un  feu  sacre  pres  duquel  les  anciens  Mexicains  atten- 
daient  le  retour  du  dieu  Quetzacoatl,  existe  aussi  chez  les  Pueblos.'  Ruxlon, 
in  Nouvelles  Annales  desVoy.,  1850,  torn,  cxxvi,  p.  58;  Sedelmair,  Relation,  in 
Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  851;  Gallatin,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des 
Voy.,  1851,  torn,  cxxxi.,  p.  278;  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  92;  Simpson's  Jour. 
Mil.  Recon.,  p.  93.  '  I,  however,  one  night,  at  San  Felipe,  clandestinely  wit 
nessed  a  portion  of  their  secret  worship.  One  of  their  secret  night  dances 
is  called  Tocina,  which  is  too  horrible  to  write  about.'  Amy,  in  2nd.  Aff. 
Kept.,  1871,  p.  385;  Ward,  in  Id.,  1864,  p.  192;  lues'  Colorado  Riv.,  p.  121;  Ten 
Broeck,  in  Schoolcra/t's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  73,  77;  Mollhausen,  Tagebuok,  p. 
278.  'Us  ont  des  pretres. . .  .ils  montent  sur  la  terrasse  la  plus  elevee  du 
village  et  font  un  sermon  au  moment  ou  le  soleil  se  leve.'  Castaneda,  in 
Ternaux-Oompans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  pp.  133,  164,  239. 

2"  Walker's  Pimas,  MS.;  Mowry,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1857,  p.  301; 
Ruggles,  in  Id.,  1869,  p.  209;  Andrews,  in  Id.,  1870,  p.  117;  Ward,  in  Id.,  1864, 
p.  188;  Davis'  El  Gringo,  pp.  119,  311.  The  cause  of  the  decrease  of  the  Pe- 
cos  Indians  is  '  owing  to  the  fact  that  they  seldom  if  ever  marry  outside  of 
their  respective  pueblos.'  Parker,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1869,  p.  251;  Murr, 
Nachrichten,  p.  273.  '  Au  milieu  [of  the  estufa]  est  un  foyer  allume,  sur 
lequel  on  jette  de  temps  en  temps  une  poignee  de  thym,  ce  qui  suffit  pour 
entretenir  la  chaleur,  de  sorte  qu'on  y  est  comme  dans  un  bain.'  Castaiieda, 
in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  p.  170. 


CHARACTER  OF  THE  PUEBLOS.  555 

having  first  been  tied  up  in  a  blanket.  House,  horses, 
and  most  personal  effects  are  destroyed ;  but  if  children 
are  left,  a  little  property  is  reserved  for  them.  A  widow 
or  a  daughter  mourn  for  three  months,  cutting  the  hair 
and  abstaining  from  the  bath  during  that  time.  The 
Maricopas  burn  their  dead.  Pueblo  and  Moqui  burials 
take  place  with  many  ceremonies,  the  women  being  the 
chief  mourners.214 

Industrious,  honest,  and  peace-loving,  the  people  of 
this  division  are  at  the  same  time  brave  and  determined, 
when  necessity  compels  them  to  repel  the  thieving 
Apache.  Sobriety  may  be  ranked  among  their  virtues, 
as  drunkenness  only  forms  a  part  of  certain  religious 
festivals,  and  in  their  gambling  they  are  the  most  mod 
erate  of  barbarians.215 

214  Walker's  Pirnas,  MS.  The  Pimas,  'nsan  enterrar  sus  varones  con 
su  arco  y  flechas,  y  algun  bastimento  y  calabazo  de  agna,  serial  que  alcan- 
zan  vislumbre  de  la  immortalidad,  aunque  no  con  la  distincion  de  premio 
d  castigo.'  Mange,  Itinerario,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  toni.  i.,  p.  369. 
'  The  Maricopas  invariably  bury  their  dead,  and  mock  the  ceremony  of  crema 
tion.'  '  sacrifice  at  the  grave  of  a  warrior  all  the  property  of  which  he  died 

possessed,  together  with  all  in  possession  of  his  various  relatives.'  Cremony's 
Apaches,  pp.  103,  11)5.  '  The  Pimos  bury  their  dead,  while  the  Coco-Mari- 
copas  burn  theirs.'  Bartlett's  Pers.  Nar.,\ol.ii.,  p.  262.  'The  females  of 
the  family  [Pueblo]  approached  in  a  mournful  procession  (while  the  males 
stood  around  in  solemn  silence),  each  one  bearing  on  her  head  a  tinaja,  or 
water-jar,  filled  with  water,  which  she  emptied  into  the  grave,  and  whilst  do 
ing  so  commenced  the  death-cry.  They  came  singly  and  emptied  their 
jars,  and  each  one  joined  successively  in  the  death-cry;. . .  .They  believe  that 
on  a  certain  day  (in  August,  I  think)  the  dead  rise  from  their  graves  and  flit 
about  the  neighboring  hills,  and  on  that  day,  all  who  have  lost  friends,  carry 
out  quantities  of  corn,  bread,  meat,  and  such  other  good  things  of  this  life  as 
they  can  obtain,  and  place  them  in  the  haunts  frequented  by  the  dead,  in 


grave  they  hold  a  grand  festival.  The  women  weep  and  the  men  howl, 
and  they  go  into  a  profound  mourning  of  tar.  Soon  the  cattle  are  driven  up 
and  slaughtered,  and  every  body  heavily-laden  with  sorrow,  loads  his  squaw 
with  beef,  and  feasts  for  many  days.'  Browne's  Apache  Country,  pp.  112-13; 
Murr,  Nachrichten,  pp.  204,  210,  281;  Ferry,  Scenes  de  la  vie  Sauvage,  p.  115; 
Froebel's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  500;  Id.,  Aus  Amerika,  torn,  ii.,  p.  437;  Castaneda, 
in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  p.  165. 

215  '  Though  naturally  disposed  to  peaceful  pursuits,  the  Papagoes  are 
not  deficient  in  courage.'  Browne's  Apache  Country,  pp.  142,  107,  110-11, 
140,  277;  Johnson's  Hist.  Arizona,  p.  10;  Stone,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  v.,  p.  166; 
Soc.  Ge'og.,  Bulletin,  serie  v.,  No.  96,  p.  188;  Escudero,  Noticias  de  Sonora  y 
Sinaloa,  p.  142;  Velasco,  Noticias  de  Sonora,  pp,  116,  160;  Froebel's  Cent. 
Amer.,  pp.  500,  506,  512;  Id.,  Aus  Amerika,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  437,  447,  454;  Gar- 
ces,  Diario,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  ii.,  torn,  i.,  p.  238;  Sedelmair,  Relation, 
in  Id.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  850;  Gallardo,  in  Id.,  p.  892.  « The  peaceful 


556  NEW  MEXICANS. 

THE  LOWER  CALIFORNIANS  present  a  sad  picture.  Occu 
pying  the  peninsula  from  the  head  of  the  gulf  to  Cape 
San  Lucas,  it  is  thought  by  some  that  they  were  driven 
thither  from  Upper  California  by  their  enemies.  When 
first  visited  by  the  Missionary  Fathers,  they  presented 
humanity  in  one  of  its  lowest  phases,  though  evidences 
of  a  more  enlightened  people  having  at  some  previous 
time  occupied  the  peninsula  were  not  lacking.  Clavi- 
gero  describes  large  caves  or  vaults,  which  had  been  dug 
out  of  the  solid  rock,  the  sides  decorated  with  paintings 
of  animals  and  figures  of  men,  showing  dress  and 
features  different  from  any  of  the  inhabitants.  Whom 
they  represented  or  by  whom  they  were  depicted  there  is 
no  knowledge,  as  the  present  race  have  been  unable  to 
afford  any  information  on  the  subject. 

The  peninsula  extends  from  near  32°  to  23°  north 
latitude;  in  length  it  is  about  seven  hundred,  vary 
ing  in  width  from  thirty-five  to  eighty  miles.  Its 

disposition  of  the  Maricopas  is  not  the  result  of  incapacity  for  war,  for  they 
are  at  all  times  enabled  to  meet  and  vanquish  the  Apaches  in  battle.' 
Emory,  in  Fremont  and  Emory's  Notes  of  Trav.,  p.  49;  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de 
Jesus,  torn,  hi.,  pp.  62,  103;  Murr,  Nachrichlen,  p.  282;  Hardy's  Trav.,  pp. 
440,  443;  Mange,  Itinerario,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  365-6; 
Mo wry' s  Arizona,  p.  30;  Arricivita,  Cronica  Serdfica,  pp.  397,  412;  Sonora, 
Descrip.  Geog.,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  pp.  553-5,  838.  'The 
Pueblos  were  industrious  and  unwarlike  in  their  habits.'  Marcy's  Army 
Life,  pp.  98,  110.  The  Moquis  '  are  a  mild  and  peaceful  race  of  people, 
almost  unacquainted  with  the  use  of  arms,  and  not  given  to  war.  They  are 
strictly  honest  ..  .They  are  kind  and  hospitable  to  strangers.'  Davis'  El 
Gringo,  pp.  421,  145.  'C'est  une  race  (Pueblos)  remarquablement  sobre 
et  industrieuse,  qui  se  distingue  par  sa  moralite.'  Gallatin,  in  Nouvelles  An- 
nales  des  Voy.,  1851,  torn,  cxxxi.,  pp.  277,  288,  290;  Ruxton,  in  Id.,  1850,  torn. 
cxxvi.,  pp.  45,  47,  60;  Ruxton's  Adven.  Mex.,  p.  191;  Ives'  Colorado  Riv.,  pp. 
31,  36,  45,  122,  124-7;  Gregg's  Com.  Prairies,  vol.  i.,  p.  120,  268,  274; 
Pike's  Explor.  Trav.,  p.  342;  Eibas,  Hist,  de  los  Triumphos,  p.  241;  Maltc- 
Brun,  Precis  de  la  Geog.,  torn.,  iv.,  p.  453;  Champagnac,  Voyageur,  p.  84; 
Hughes'  Doniphan's  Ex.,  pp.  196,  221;  Espejo,  in  Hakluyt's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p. 
392;  Wislizenus'  Tour.,  p.  26;  Pattie's  Pers.  Nar.,  p.  91;  Ten  Broeck,  in 
Sehoolcra/t's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  72,  87;  Eaton,  in  Id.,  p.  220;  Bent,  in  Id., 
vol.  i.,  p.  244;  Kendall's  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  378;  Castaneda,  in  Ternaux-Com- 
pans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  pp.  126, 163;  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt 
ii.,  p.  528;  Mollhausen,  Tagebuch,  p.  144;  Mollhausen,  Reisen  in  die  Felsengeb., 
torn,  ii.,  p.  240.  The  Pueblos  'are  passionately  fond  of  dancing,  and  give 
themselves  up  to  this  diversion  with  a  kind  of  frenzy.'  Domenech's  Deserts, 
vol.  i.,  pp.  198,  185,  203,  206,  and  vol.  ii.,  pp.  19,  51-2;  Cutts'  Conq.  of  Gal, 
pp.  188-9,  222;  Simpson's  Jour.  Mil.  Recon.,  pp.  81,  91,  113,  115;  Scenes 
in  the  Rocky  Mts.,  p.  177;  Torquemada,  Monarq.  Ind.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  679-80; 
Mayer's  Mex.  as  it  was,  p.  239;  Id.,  Mex.  Aztec,  etc.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  358.  See 
further:  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  from  1854  to  1872. 


LOWEK  CALIFOKNIA.  557 

general  features  are  rugged;  irregular  mountains  of 
granite  formation  and  volcanic  upheavals  traversing  the 
whole  length  of  the  country,  with  barren  rocks  and 
sandy  plains,  intersected  by  ravines  and  hills.  Some 
fertile  spots  and  valleys  with  clear  mountain  streams 
are  there,  and  in  such  places  the  soil  produces  abun 
dantly;  then  there  are  plains  of  greater  or  less  extent, 
with  rich  soil,  but  without  water;  so  that,  under 
the  circumstances,  they  are  little  more  than  deserts. 
These  plains  rise  in  places  into  mesas,  which  are  cut 
here  and  there  by  canons,  where  streams  of  water  are 
found,  which  are  again  lost  on  reaching  the  sandy  plains. 
Altogether,  Lower  California  is  considered  as  one  of  the 
most  barren  and  unattractive  regions  in  the  temperate 
zone,  although  its  climate  is  delightful,  and  the  mount 
ain  districts  especially  are  among  the  healthiest  in  the 
world,  owing  to  their  southern  situation  between  two 
seas.  A  curious  meteorological  phenomenon  is  some 
times  observed  both  in  the  gulf  and  on  the  land ;  it  is 
that  of  rain  falling  during  a  perfectly  clear  sky.  Savants, 
who  have  investigated  the  subject,  do  not  appear  to  have 
discovered  the  cause  of  this  unusual  occurrence. 

The  greater  part  of  the  peninsula,  at  the  time  of  its 
discovery,  was  occupied  by  the  Cochimis,  whose  territory 
extended  from  the  head  of  the  gulf  to  the  neighborhood 
of  Loreto,  or  a  little  south  of  the  twenty-sixth  parallel ; 
adjoining  them  were  the  Guaicuris,  living  between  lati 
tude  26°  and  23°  30';  while  the  Pericuis  were  settled  in 
the  southern  part,  from  about  23°  30'  or  24°  to  Cape 
San  Lucas,  and  on  the  adjacent  islands.216 

216  Baegert,  in  Smithsonian  Kept,  1863,  p.  359;  Forbes'  Cal,  pp.  20-2;  Mo- 
fras,  Explor.,  torn,  i.,  p.  239;  Matte-Krun,  Precis  de  la  Geog.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  451; 
Gleeson's  Hist.  Cath.  Church,  vol.  i.,  pp.  95-6;  Prichard's  Researches,  vol.  v., 
p.  446.  'Esse  sono  tre  nella  California  Cristiana,  cioe  quelle  de'Pericui, 
de'Guaicuri,  e  de'Cochimi.'  Claviyero,  Storia  delta  Cal.,  torn,  i.,  p.  109. 
Venegas,  in  giving  the  opinion  of  Father  Taraval,  says:  '  Tres  son  (dice  este 
habil  Missionero)  las  Lenguas:  la  Cochimi,  la  Pericu,  y  la  de  Loreto.  De 
esta  ultima  salen  dos  ramos,  y  son:  la  Guaycura,  y  la  Uchiti;  verdad  es,  que 
es  la  variacion  tanta,  que  el  que  no  tuviere  connocimiento  de  las  tres  Lenguas, 

juzgara,  no  solo  que  hay  quatro  Lenguas,  sino  que  hay  cinco Esta  pobla- 

da  la  primera  azia  el  Medioda,  desde  el  Cabo  de  San  Lucas,  hasta  mas  aca,  del 
Puerto  de  la  Paz  de  la  Nacion  Pericu,  6  siguiendo  la  terminacion  Castellnna 
de  los  Pericues:  la  segunda  desde  la  Paz,  hasta  mas  arriba  del  Presidio  Heal 


558  NEW  MEXICANS. 

The  Lower  Californians  are  well  formed,  robust  and 
of  good  stature,  with  limbs  supple  and  muscular;  they 
are  not  inclined  to  corpulence ;  their  features  are  some 
what  heavy,  the  forehead  low  and  narrow,  the  nose  well 
set  on,  but  thick  and  fleshy ;  the  inner  corners  of  the  eyes 
round  instead  of  pointed ;  teeth  very  white  and  regular ; 
hair  very  black,  coarse,  straight,  and  glossy,  with  but 
little  on  the  face,  and  none  upon  the  body  or  limbs. 
The  color  of  the  skin  varies  from  light  to  dark  brown, 
the  former  .color  being  characteristic  of  the  dwellers  in 
the  interior,  and  the  latter  of  those  on  the  sea-coast.217 

Adam  without  the  fig-leaves  was  not  more  naked  than 
were  the  Cochimis  before  the  missionaries  first  taught 
them  the  rudiments  of  shame.  They  ignored  even  the 
usual  breech-cloth,  the  only  semblance  of  clothing  being 
a  head-dress  of  rushes  or  strips  of  skin  interwoven  with 
mother-of-pearl  shells,  berries,  and  pieces  of  reed.  The 
Gluaicuris  and  Pericuis  indulge  in  a  still  more  fantastic 
head-dress,  white  feathers  entering  largely  into  its  com 
position.  The  women  display  more  modesty,  for, 
although  scantily  clad,  they  at  least  essay  to  cover  their 
nakedness.  The  Pericui  women  are  the  best  dressed  of 
all,  having  a  petticoat  reaching  from  the  waist  to  the 
ankles,  made  from  the  fibre  of  certain  palm -leaves,  and 
rendered  soft  and  flexible  by  beating  between  two  stones. 

de  Loreto,  es  de  los  Monquis:  la  tercera  desde  el  territorio  de  Loreto,  por 
todo  lo  descubierto  al  Norte  de  la  nacion  Cochimi,  d  de  los  Cochimies.' 
Venegas,  Noticia  de  la  CaL,  torn,  i.,  pp.  63-6.  '  Auf  derHalbinsel  Alt-Califor- 
nien  wohnen:  an  der  Siidspitze  die  Pericues,  dann  die  Monquis  oder  Menguis, 
zu  welchen  die  Familien  der  Guayciiras  und  Coras  gehoren,  die  Cochfmas 
oder  Colimies,  die  Laimones,  die  Utschitas  oder  Vehitis,  und  die  leas.  Muh- 
lenpfordt,  Mtjico,  torn,  i.,  p.  212.  'All  the  Indian  tribes  of  the  Peninsula 
seein  to  be  affiliated  with  the  Yumas  of  the  Colorado  and  with  the  Coras  bje- 

low  La  Paz in  no  case  do  they  differ  in  intellect,  habits,  customs,  dress, 

implements  of  war,  or  hunting,  traditions,  or  appearances  from  the  well- 
known  Digger  Indians  of  Alta-California,  and  undoubtedly  belong  to  the 
same  race  or  family.'  Browne's  Lower  CaL,  pp.  53-4. 

217  'Di  buona  statura,  ben  fatti,  sani,  e  robusti.'  Clavigero,  Storia  della 
CaL,  torn,  i.,  pp.  112-13.  'El  color  en  todos  es  muy  moreno. . .  .no  tienen 
barba  ni  nada  de  vello  en  el  cuerpo.'  Calif ornias,  Noticias,  carta  i.,  pp.  47, 
61,  carta ii.,  p.  12.  Compare:  Kino,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serieiv.,  tom.i.,  p.  407; 
Crespi,  in  Id.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  vii.,  p.  135;  Ulloa,  in  Ramusio,  Navigations,  torn, 
iii.,  fol.  345,  351;  Venegas,  Noticia  de  la  CaL,  torn,  i.,  p.  68;  Baegert,  in  Smith 
sonian  Kept.  1863,  p.  357;  Miihlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  pp.  443-4; 
Uleeson's  Hist.  Cath.  Church.,  p.  99. 


COCHIMI  AND  PERICUI  DRESS.  559 

Over  the  shoulders  they  throw  a  mantle  of  similar  ma 
terial,  or  of  plaited  rushes,  or  of  skins.  The  Cochimi 
women  make  aprons  of  short  reeds,  strung  upon  cords 
of  aloe-plant  fibres  fastened  to  a  girdle.  The  apron  is 
open  at  the  sides,  one  part  hanging  in  front,  the  other 
behind.  As  they  are  not  more  than  six  or  eight. inches 
wide,  but  little  of  the  body  is  in  truth  covered.  When 
traveling  they  wear  sandals  of  hide,  which  they  fasten 
with  strings  passed  between  the  toes.21*  Both  sexes  are 
fond  of  ornaments;  to  gratify  this  passion  [they  string 
together  pearls,  shells,  fruit- stones  and  seeds  in  the 
forms  of  necklaces  and  bracelets.  In  addition  to  the 
head-dress  the  Pericuis  are  distinguished  by  a  girdle 
highly  ornamented  with  pearls  and  mother-of-pearl 
shells.  They  perforate  ears,  lips,  and  nose,  inserting  in 
the  openings,  shells,  bones,  or  hard  sticks.  Paint  in 
many  colors  and  devices  is  freely  used  on  war  and  gala 
occasions;  tattooing  obtains,  but  does  not  appear  to  be 
universal  among  them.  Mothers,  to  protect  them  against 
the  weather,  cover  the  entire  bodies  of  their  children 
with  a  varnish  of  coal  and  urine.  Cochimi  women  cut 
the  hair  short,  but  the  men  allow  a  long  tuft  to  grow  on 
the  crown  of  the  head.  Both  sexes  among  the  Guai- 
curis  and  Pericuis  wear  the  hair  long  and  flowing  loosely 
over  the  shoulders.219 

Equally  Adamitic  are  their  habitations.     They  appear 
to  hold  a  superstitious  dread  of  suffocation  if  they  live 

218  '  Siendo  de  gran  deshonra  en  los  varones  el  vestido.'     Salvatierra, 
in  Doc.  Hist.  Hex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  v.,  p.  42.  'Aprons  are  about  a  span  wide, 
and  of  different  length.'     Baegert,  in  Smithsonian  Rept.,   18G3,  pp.  361-2. 
Consult  further:   Venegas,  Noticia  de  la  Cal.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  81-8,  113;  Gleeson's 
Hist.  Cath.  Church,  pp.  96-9,  107-10;  Forbes'  Cal.,  pp.  9,  18;  Clavigero,  Maria 
delta  Cal.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  120-3,  133,  144;  Gemelli  Careri,  in  Churchill's  Col.  Voy 
ages,  vol.  iv.,  p.  469,  and  in  Berenger,  Col.  de  Voy.t  torn,  ii.,  p.  371. 

219  '  Unos  se  cortan  un  pedazo  de  oreja,  otros  las  dos;  otros  agugerean  el 


they  also  pierce  the  nose.  I  can  only 
say  that  I  saw  no  one  disfigured  in  that  particular  manner.'  Baegert,  in 
Smithsonian  Kept.,  1863,  p.  362.  'Nudi  agunt,  genas  quadrutis  quibusdam 
notis  signati.'  De  Laet,  Novus  Or&is,  p.  306.  Further  reference:  Villa-Se- 
nor,  y  Sanchez,  Theatro,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  279,  282;  Ulloa,  in  Ramusio,  Navigationi, 
torn,  iii.,  fol.  347-8,  and  in  HakluyVsVoy.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  412;  Delaporte,  Reisen, 
torn,  x.,  p.  428. 


560  NEW  MEXICANS. 

or  sleep  in  covered  huts ;  hence  in  their  rare  and  meagre 
attempts  to  protect  themselves  from  the  inclemencies  of 
the  weather,  they  never  put  any  roof  over  their  heads. 
Roving  beast-like  in  the  vicinity  of  springs  during  the 
heat  of  the  day,  seeking  shade  in  the  ravines  and  over 
hanging  rocks ;  at  night,  should  they  desire  shelter,  they 
resort  to  caverns  and  holes  in  the  ground.  During  win 
ter  they  raise  a  semi-circular  pile  of  stones  or  brush 
wood,  about  two  feet  in  height,  behind  which,  with  the 
sky  for  a  roof  and  the  bare  ground  for  a  bed,  they  camp 
at  night.  Over  the  sick  they  sometimes  throw  a  wretched 
hut,  by  sticking  a  few  poles  in  the  ground,  tying  them 
at  the  top  and  covering  the  whole  with  grass  and  reeds, 
and  into  this  nest  visitors  crawl  on  hands  and  knees.220 
Reed-roots,  wild  fruit,  pine-nuts,  cabbage-palms,  small 
seeds  roasted,  and  also  roasted  aloe  and  mescal  roots 
constitute  their  food.  During  eight  weeks  of  the  year 
they  live  wholly  on  the  redundant  fat-producing  pitaliaya, 
after  which  they  wander  about  in  search  of  other  native 
vegetable  products,  and  when  these  fail  they  resort  to 
hunting  and  fishing.  Of  animal  food  they  will  eat  any 
thing — beasts,  birds,  and  fishes,  or  reptiles,  worms,  and 
insects;  and  all  parts:  flesh,  hide,  and  entrails.  Men 
and  monkeys,  however,  as  articles  of  food  are  an  abomi 
nation;  the  latter  because  they  so  much  resemble  the 
former.  The  gluttony  and  improvidence  of  these  peo 
ple  exceed,  if  possible,  those  of  any  other  nation;  alter 
nate  feasting  and  fasting  is  their  custom.  When  so  for 
tunate  as  to  have  plenty  they  consume  large  quantities, 
preserving  none.  An  abominable  habit  is  related  of 
them,  that  they  pick  up  the  undigested  seeds  of  the  pita- 
haya  discharged  from  their  bowels,  and  after  parching 
and  grinding  them,  eat  the  meal  with  much  relish. 

220  Venegas,  Noticia  de  la  CaL,  torn,  i.,  p.  88;  Campbell's  Hist.  Span.  Amer., 
p.  86;  Ulloa,  in  Ramusio,  Navigationi,  torn,  iii.,  fol.  347,  350;  Californias,  No 
ticia,  carta  i.,  p.  45;  Lockman's  Trav.  Jesuits,  vol.  i.,  p.  403.  '  Le  abitazioncelle 
piii  conmni  sono  certe  chiuse  circolari  di  sassi  sciolti,  ed  ammucchiati,  l.e 
quali  hanno  cinque  piedi  di  diametro,  e  meno  di  due  d'altezza.'  Clavigero, 
Storia  della  CaL,  torn,  i.,  p.  119.  'I  am  certainly  not  much  mistaken  in  say 
ing  that  many  of  them  change  their  night-quarters  more  than  a  hundred 
times  in  a  year.'  Baegert,  in  Smithsonian  Kept.,  1863,  p.  361. 


LOWER  CALIFOKNIAN  FOOD.  561 

Clavigero,  Baegert,  and  other  authors,  mention  another 
rather  uncommon  feature  in  the  domestic  economy  of 
the  Cochimis ;  it  is  that  of  swallowing  their  meat  several 
times,  thereby  multiplying  their  gluttonous  pleasures. 
Tying  to  a  string  a  piece  of  well-dried  meat,  one  of  their 
number  masticates  it  a  little,  and  swallows  it,  leaving 
the  end  of  the  string  hanging  out  of  the  mouth ;  after 
retaining  it  for  about  two  or  three  minutes  in  his  stom 
ach,  it  is  pulled  out,  and  the  operation  repeated  several 
times,  either  by  the  same  individual  or  by  others,  until 
the  meat  becomes  consumed.  Here  is  Father  Baegert's 
summary  of  their  edibles:  "They  live  now-a-days  on 
dogs  and  cats;  horses,  asses  and  mules;  item:  on  owls, 
mice  and  rats;  lizards  and  snakes;  bats,  grasshoppers 
and  crickets ;  a  kind  of  green  caterpillar  without  hair, 
about  a  finger  long,  and  an  abominable  white  worm  of 
the  length  and  thickness  of  the  thumb."221 

C 

Their  weapon  is  the  bow  and  arrow,  but  they  use 
stratagem  to  procure  the  game.  The  deer-hunter  de 
ceives  his  prey  by  placing  a  deer's  head  upon  his  own; 
hares  are  trapped ;  the  Cochimis  throw  a  kind  of  boom 
erang  or  flat  curved  stick,  which  skims  the  ground  and 
breaks  the  animal's  legs.  Fish  are  taken  from  pools  left 
by  the  tide  and  from  the  sea.  sometimes  several  miles 
out,  in  nets  and  with  the  aid  of  long  lances.  It  is  said 
that  at  San  Roche  Island  they  catch  fish  with  birds. 
They  also  gather  oysters,  which  they  eat  roasted,  but  use 
no  salt.  They  have  no  cooking  utensils,  but  roast  their 
meat  by  throwing  it  into  the  fire  and  after  a  time  raking 
it  out.  Insects  and  caterpillars  are  parched  over  the 
hot  coals  in  shells.  Fish  is  commonly  eaten  raw;  they 

221  « Twenty -four  pounds  of  meat  in  twenty-four  hours  is  not  deemed  an 
extraordinary  ration  for  a  single  person.'  Baegert,  in  Smithsonian  Kept.,  1863, 
pp.  364-7.  'No  tienen  horas  senaladas  para  saciar  su  apetito:  comen  cuanto 
hallan  por  delante;  hasta  las  cosas  mas  sucias  sirven  a  su  gula.'  Calif ornias, 
Noticias,  carta  i.,  pp.  46-7,  21;  see  also:  Salmeron,  Relaciones,  in  Doc.  Hist. 
Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  13;  Scdvatierra,  in  Id.,  serie  iv.,  torn  v.,  p.  116; 
Crespi,  in  Id.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  vii.,  pp.  106,  135,  143;  Delaporte,  Reisen,  torn. 
x.,  pp.  423-4;  Castaneda,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn.  jx.,  p.  153; 
Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  iii.,  p.  106;  Ulloa,  in  Ramusio,  Navigationi, 
toni.  iii.,  fol.  350;  Malte-Brun,  Precis  de  la  Geog.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  451;  Alcedo, 
Diccionario,  torn,  i.,  p.  318. 
VOL.  I.  36 


562  NEW  MEXICANS. 

drink  only  water.222  It  is  said  that  they  never  wash, 
and  it  is  useless  to  add  that  in  their  filthiness  they  sur 
pass  the  brutes.223 

Besides  bows  and  arrows  they  use  javelins,  clubs,  and 
slings  of  cords,  from  which  they  throw  stones.  Their 
bows  are  six  feet  long,  very  broad  and  thick  in  the  mid 
dle  and  tapering  toward  the  ends,  with  strings  made 
from  the  intestines  of  animals.  The  arrows  are  reeds 
about  thirty  inches  in  length,  into  the  lower  end  of  which 
a  piece  of  hard  wood  is  cemented  with  resin  obtained 
from  trees,  and  pointed  with  flint  sharpened  to  a  trian 
gular  shape  and  serrated  at  the  edges.  Javelins  are 
sharpened  by  first  hardening  in  the  fire  and  then  grind 
ing  to  a  point;  they  are  sometimes  indented  like  a  saw. 
Clubs  are  of  different  forms,  either  mallet-head  or  axe 
shape;  they  also  crook  and  sharpen  at  the  edge  a  piece 
of  wood  in  the  form  of  a  scimeter.22* 

Their  wars,  which  spring  from  disputed  boundaries, 
are  frequent  and  deadly,  and  generally  occur  about  fruit 
and  seed  time.  The  battle  is  commenced  amidst  yells 
and  brandishing  of  weapons,  though  without  any  pre 
concerted  plan,  and  a  tumultuous  onslaught  is  made  with 
out  regularity  or  discipline,  excepting  that  a  certain  num 
ber  are  held  in  reserve  to  relieve  those  who  have  expend 
ed  their  arrows  or  become  exhausted.  While  yet  at  a 
distance  they  discharge  their  arrows,  but  soon  rush  for 
ward  and  fight  at  close  quarters  with  their  clubs  and  spears ; 
nor  do  they  cease  till  many  on  both  sides  have  fallen.225 

222  '  La  pesca  si  fa  da  loro  in  due  maniere,  o  con  reti  nella  spiaggia,  o 
ne'  gorghi  rimasi  della  marea,  o  con  forconi  in  alto  mare.'  C'lavigero,  Storia 
della  Cal.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  Ill,  125-6;  '  Use  neither  nets  nor  hooks,  but  a  kind 
of  lance.'  Baegert,  in  Smithsonian  Kept.,  1863,  p.  364.  '  Forman  los  Indios 


p. 

224  Gemelli  Careri,  in  ChurchiWs  Col.  Voyages,  vol.  iv.,  p.  469;  Ramusio, 
Navigation^  torn,  iii.,  fol.  346,  351;  Baegert,  in  Smithsonian  liept.,  1863,  p. 
362;  Kino,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn  i.,  p.  407;  Crespi,  in  Id.,  serie 
iv.,  torn,  vii.,  p.  143.     '  Si  trovarono  altre  spezie  d'armi  per  ferir  da  vicino, 
ma  tutte  di  legno.     La  prima  e  un  mazzapicchio,  simile  nella  forma  a  una 
girella  col  suo  manico  tutta  d'un  pezzo.     La  seconda  e  a  foggia  d'un  ascia 
di  leguajuolo  tutta  anch'essa  d'un  sol  pezzo.     La  terza  ha  la  forma  d'una 
piccola  scimitara.'  Claviyero,  Storia  della  Cal.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  124,  127. 

225  '  El  modo  de  publicar  la  guerra  era,  hacer  con  mucho  estruendo  gran 
provision  de  canas,  y  pedernales  para  sus  flechas,  y  procurar,  que  por  varios 


IMPLEMENTS  IN  LOWER  CALIFORNIA.  563 

Their  implements  and  household  utensils  are  both 
rude  and  few.  Sharp  flints  serve  them  instead  of  knives ; 
a  bone  ground  to  a  point  answers  the  purpose  of  a  needle 
or  an  awl ;  and  with  a  sharp-pointed  stick  roots  are  dug. 
Fire  is  obtained  in  the  usual  way  from  two  pieces  of 
wood.  When  traveling,  water  is  carried  in  a  large  blad 
der.  The  shell  of  the  turtle  is  applied  to  various  uses, 
such  as  a  receptacle  for  food  and  a  cradle  for  infants. 

The  Lower  Californians  have  little  ingenuity,  and 
their  display  of  mechanical  skill  is  confined  to  the  man 
ufacture  of  the  aforesaid  implements,  weapons  of  war, 
and  of  the  chase ;  they  make  some  flat  baskets  of  wicker 
work,  which  are  used  in  the  collection  of  seeds  and 
fruits ;  also  nets  from  the  fibre  of  the  aloe,  one  in  which 
to  carry  provisions,  and  another  fastened  to  a  forked 
stick  and  hung  upon  the  back,  in  which  to  carry  chil 
dren.226 

For  boats  the  inhabitants  of  the  peninsula  construct 
rafts  of  reeds  made  into  bundles  and  bound  tightly 
together;  they  are  propelled  with  short  ^paddles,  and  sel 
dom  are  capable  of  carrying  more  than  one  person.  In 
those  parts  where  trees  grow  a  more  serviceable  canoe 
is  made  from  bark,  and  sometimes  of  three  or  more 
logs,  not  hollowed  out,  but  laid  together  side  by  side 
and  made  fast  with  withes  or  pita-fibre  cords.  These 
floats  are  buoyant,  the  water  washing  over  them  as  over 
a  catamaran.  On  them  two  or  more  men  will  proceed 
fearlessly  to  sea,  to  a  distance  of  several  miles  from 
the  coast.  To  transport  their  chattels  across  rivers, 

carainos  llegassen  las  assonadas  a  ofdos  de  sus  contraries.'  Venegas,  Noticia 
de  la  CaL,  torn,  i.,  pp.  97-8.  Referring  to  Venegas'  work,  Baegert,  Smithso 
nian  RepL,  1864,  p.  385,  says:  'All  that  is  said  in  reference  to  the  warfare  of 
the  Californians  is  wrong.  In  their  former  wars  they  merely  attacked  the 
enemy  unexpectedly  during  the  night,  or  from  an  ambush,  and  killed  as 
many  as  they  could,  without  order,  previous  declaration  of  war,  or  any  cere 
monies  whatever.'  See  also:  Apostolicos  Afanes,  pp.  424-5,  and  Clavigero, 
Storia  ddla  CaL,  torn,  i.,  p.  127. 

226  '  In  lieu  of  knives  and  scissors  they  use  sharp  flints  for  cutting  almost 
everything — cane,  wood,  aloe,  and  even  their  hair.'  Baegert,  in  Smithsonian 
RepL,  1863,  p.  363.  '  Le  loro  reti,  tanto  quelle  da  pescarej  quanto  quelle,  che 
servono  a  portare  checchessia,  le  fanno  col  filo,  che  tirano  dalle  foglie  del 
Mezcal.'  Clavigero,  Storia  delta  Cat.,  torn,  i.,  p.  124.  Further  notice  in  Ulloa, 
in  Ramusio,  Navigations,  torn,  iii.,  fol.  350;  Venegas,  Noticia  de  la  CaL, 
torn,  i.,  p.  90;  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p.  447. 


564  NEW  MEXICANS. 

they  use  wicker-work  baskets,  which  are  so  closely 
woven  as  to  be  quite  impermeable  to  water ;  these,  when 
loaded,  are  pushed  across  by  the  owner,  who  swims 
behind.227 

Besides  their  household  utensils  and  boats,  and  the 
feathers  or  ornaments  on  their  persons,  I  find  no  other 
property.  They  who  dwell  on  the  sea-coast  occasionally 
travel  inland,  carrying  with  them  sea-shells  and  feathers 
to  barter  with  their  neighbors  for  the  productions  of 
the  interior.228 

They  are  unable  to  count  more  than  five,  and  this 
number  is  expressed  by  one  hand;  some  few  among 
them  are  able  to  understand  that  two  hands  signify  ten, 
but  beyond  this  they  know  nothing  of  enumeration,  and 
can  only  say  much  or  many,  or  show  that  the  number 
is  beyond  computation,  by  throwing  sand  into  the  air 
and  such  like  antics.  The  yefir  is  divided  into  six  sea 
sons;  the  first  is  called  Mejibo,  which  is  midsummer, 
and  the  time  of  ripe  pitahayas;  the  second  season 
Amaddappi,  a  time  of  further  ripening  of  fruits  and 
seeds;  the  third  Amadaappigalla,  the  end  of  autumn 
and  beginning  of  winter;  the  fourth,  which  is  the  cold 
est  season,  is  called  Majibel ;  the  fifth,  when  spring  com 
mences,  is  Majiben ;  the  sixth,  before  any  fruits  or  seeds 
have  ripened,  consequently  the  time  of  greatest  scarcity, 
is  called  Majiibenmaaji.229 

Neither  government  nor  law  is  found  in  this  region ; 
every  man  is  his  own  master,  and  administers  justice 
in  the  form  of  vengeance  as  best  he  is  able.  As  Father 

227  Vancouver,  Voy.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  482,  speaking  of  Lower  California  says: 
'  We  were  visited  by  one  of  the  natives  in  a  straw  canoe. '  '  Vedemmo  che  vsci 
vna  canoua  in  mare  con  tre  Indiani  dalle  lor  capanne.'     Ulloa,  in  Ramusio, 
Navigationi,  torn,  iii.,  fol.  350-1,  343,  347,  and  in  Hakluyt's  Voy.,  vol.  iii., 
p.   418.    See   further:   Clavigero,   Storia  della  CaL,  torn,  i.,   p.  126;  Gemelli 
Careri,  in  Churchill's  Col.  Voyages,  vol.  iv.,  p.  469,  and  in  JJerenger,    Col.  de 
Voy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  371. 

228  « Tienen  trato  de  pescado  con  los  indios  de.tierra  adentro.'    Salmeron, 
Relaciones,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  17;  also,  Ulloa,  in  Ramu 
sio,  Navigationi,  torn,  iii.,  fol.  347-8. 

229  « Su  niodo  de  contar  es  muy  diminuto  y  corto,  pues  apenas  llegan  a 
cinco,  y  otros  a  diez,  y  van  multiplicando  segun  puedeu.'     Calif ornias,  No- 
ticias,  carta  i.,  p.  103.     'Non  dividevano  1'Anno  in  Mesi,  ma  solainente  in 
sei  stagioni.'     Clavigero,  Storia  della  CaL,  torn,  i.,  pp.  110-11. 


MARRIAGE.  565 

Baegert  remarks:  'The  different  tribes  represented  by 
no  means  communities  of  rational  beings,  who  submit 
to  laws  and  regulations  and  obey  their  superiors,  but 
resembled  far  more  herds  of  wild  swine,  which  run 
about  according  to  their  own  liking,  being  together  to 
day  and  scattered  to-morrow,  till  they  meet  again  by 
accident  at  some  future  time.  In  one  word,  the  Califor- 
nians  lived,  salva  venia,  as  though  they  had  been  free 
thinkers  and  materialists.'  In  hunting  and  war  they 
have  one  or  more  chiefs  to  lead  them,  who  are  selected 
only  for  the  occasion,  and  by  reason  of  superior  strength 


230 


Furthermore,  they  have  no  marriage  ceremony,  nor 
any  word  in  their  language  to  express  marriage.  Like 
birds  or  beasts  they  pair  off  according  to  fancy.  The 
Pericui  takes  as  many  women  as  he  pleases,  makes 
them  wrork  for  him  as  slaves,  and  when  tired  of  any 
one  of  them  turns  her  away,  in  which  case  she  may  not 
be  taken  by  another.  Some  form  of  courtship  appears 
to  have  obtained  among  ths  Guaicuris;  for  example, 
when  a  young  man  saw  a  girl  who  pleased  him,  he 
presented  her  with  a  small  bowl  or  basket  made  of  the 
pita-fibre ;  if  she  accepted  the  gift,  it  was  an  evidence 
that  his  suit  was  agreeable  to  her,  and  in  return  she  gave 
him  an  ornamented  head-dress,  the  work  of  her  own 
hand ;  then  they  lived  together  without  further  cere 
mony.  Although  among  the  Guaicuris  and  Cochimis 
some  hold  a  plurality  of  wives,  it  is  not  so  common  as 
with  the  Pericuis,  for  in  the  two  first-mentioned  tribes 
there  are  more  men  than  women.  A  breach  of  female 
chastity  is  sometimes  followed  by  an  attempt  of  the 
holder  of  the  woman  to  kill  the  offender ;  yet  morality 
never  attained  any  great  height,  as  it  is  a  practice 
with  them  for  different  tribes  to  meet  occasionally  for 

230  Clavigero,  Storia  della  Cal,  torn,  i.,  pp.  129-30.  Venegas,  Noticia  de 
la  Cal.,  torn,  i.,  p.  79.  '  Entre  ellos  siempre  hay  alguno  mas  desahogado  y 
atrevido,  que  se  reviste  con  el  caraeter  de  Capitan:  pero  ni  este  tiene  juris- 
diccion  alguna,  ni  le  obedecen,  y  en  estando  algo  viejo  lo  suelen  quitar  del 
mando:  solo  en  los  lances  que  les  tiene  cuenta  siguen  sus  dictamenes.' 
Californias,  Noticias,  carta  i.,  pp.  40,  45. 


566  NEW  MEXICANS. 

the  purpose  of  holding  indiscriminate  sexual  intercourse. 
Childbirth  is  easy  •  the  Pericuis  and  Guaicuris  wash  the 
body  of  the  newly  born,  then  cover  it  with  ashes;  as 
the  child  grows  it  is  placed  on  a  frame-work  of  sticks, 
and  if  a  male,  on  its  chest  they  fix  a  bag  of  sand  to 
prevent  its  breasts  growing  like  a  woman's,  which  they 
consider  a  deformity.  For  a  cradle  the  Cochimfs  take 
a  forked  stick  or  bend  one  end  of  a  long  pole  in  the 
form  of  a  hoop,  and  fix  thereto  a  net,  in  which  the  in 
fant  is  placed  and  covered  with  a  second  net.  It  can 
thus  be  carried  over  the  shoulder,  or  when  the  mother 
wishes  to  be  relieved,  the  end  of  the  pole  is  stuck  in  the 
ground,  and  nourishment  given  the  child  through  the 
meshes  of  the  net.  When  old  enough  the  child  is  car 
ried  astride  on  its  mother's  shoulders.  As  soon  as  chil 
dren  are  able  to  get  food  for  themselves,  they  are  left  to 
their  own  devices,  and  it  sometimes  happens  that  when 
food  is  scarce  the  child  is  abandoned,  or  killed  by  its 
parents.231. 

Nevertheless,  these  miserables  delight  in  feasts,  and  in 
the  gross  debauchery  there  openly  perpetrated.  Unac 
quainted  with  intoxicating,  liquors,  they  yet  find  drunk 
enness  in  the  fumes  of  a  certain  herb  smoked  through  a 
stone  tube,  and  used  chiefly  during  their  festivals.  Their 
dances  consist  of  a  series  of  gesticulations  and  jumpings, 
accompanied  by  inarticulate  murmurings  and  yells.  One 
of  their  great  holidays  is  the  pitahaya  season,  when, 
with  plenty  to  eat,  they  spend  days  and  nights  in  amuse- 

231  Claviyero,  Stor'ia  della  CaL,  torn,  i.,  pp.  130-4;  Ulloa,  in  Ramusio, 
Navigation^  torn,  iii.,  fol.  348;  Villa  Senor  y  Sanchez,  Theatro,  torn,  ii.,  p. 
284;  Bae^ert,  in  Smithsonian  Rept.,  1863,  pp.  367-9.  '  Sus  casamientos  son 
muy  rid.'culos:  unos  para  casarse  ensenan  sus  cuerpos  a  las  mugeres,  y  estas 
a  ellos;  y  adoptaiidose  a  su  gusto,  se  casan:  otros  en  fin,  que  es  lo  mas 
comun,  se  casau  sin  ceremonia.'  Californias,  Noticias,  carta  i.,  pp.  50,40-1. 
'  El  adulterio  era  mirado  coino  delito,  que  por  lo  meiios  daba  justo  motivo 
a  la  venganza,  a  excepcion  de  dos  ocasiones:  una  la  de  sus  fiestas,  y  bayles: 
y  otra  la  de  las  luchas.'  Veneyas,  Noticia  de  la  Cal.,  torn,  i.,  p.  93.  '  Les 
homines  s'approchaient  des  femmes  comme  des  animaux,  et  les  femmes  se 
mettaient  publiquement  a  quatre  pattes  pour  les  recevoir.'  Castaneda,  in 
Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  p.  153.  This  method  of  copula 
tion  is  by  no  means  peculiar  to  the  Lower  Californians,  but  is  practiced 
almost  universally  by  the  wild  tribes  of  the  Pacific  States.  Writers  naturally 
do  not  mention  this  custom,  but  travellers  are  unanimous  in  their  verbal 
accounts  respecting  it. 


LOWER  CALIFOKNIAN  FEAST.  567 

ments;  at  such  times  feats  of  strength  and  trials  of 
speed  take  place.  The  most  noted  festival  among  the 
Cochimis  occurs  upon  the  occasion  of  their  annual  dis 
tribution  of  skins.  To  the  women  especially  it  was  an 
important  and  enjoyable  event.  Upon  an  appointed 
day  all  the  people  collected  at  a  designated  place.  In 
an  arbor  constructed  with  branches,  the  road  to  which 
was  carpeted  with  the  skins  of  wild  animals  that  had 
been  killed  during  the  year,  their  most  skillful  hunters 
assembled;  they  alone  were  privileged  to  enter  the 
arbor,  and  in  their  honor  was  already  prepared  a  ban 
quet  and  pipes  of  wild  tobacco.  The  viands  went  round 
as  also  the  pipe,  and,  in  good  time,  the  partakers  became 
partially  intoxicated  by  the  smoke;  then  one  of  the 
priests  or  sorcerers,  arrayed  in  his  robe  of  ceremony,  ap 
peared  at  the  entrance  to  the  arbor,  and  made  a  speech 
to  the  people,  in  which  he  recounted  the  deeds  of  the 
hunters.  Then  the  occupants  of  the  arbor  came  out 
and  made  a  repartition  of  the  skins  among  the  women ; 
this  finished,  dancing  and  singing  commenced  and  con 
tinued  throughout  the  night.  It  sometimes  happened 
that  their  festivals  ended  in  fighting  and  bloodshed,  as 
they  were  seldom  conducted  without  debauchery,  espe 
cially  among  the  Guaicuris  and  Pericuis.232 

When  they  have  eaten  their  fill  they  pass  their  time 
in  silly  or  obscene  conversation,  or  in  wrestling,  in 
which  sports  the  women  often  take  a  part.  They  are 
very  adroit  in  tracking  wild  beasts  to  their  lairs  and 
taming  them.  At  certain  festivals  their  sorcerers,  who 
were  called  by  some  quamas,  by  others  cusiyaes,  wore 
long  robes  of  skins,  ornamented  with  human  hair;  these 
sages  filled  the  offices  of  priests  and  medicine-men,  and 
threatened  their  credulous  brothers  with  innumerable 
ills  ana  death,  unless  they  supplied  them  with  provis- 

232  « Fiesta  entre  los  Indies  Gentiles  no  es  mas  que  tma  concurrencia  de 
hombres  y  mugeres  de  todas  partes  para  desahogar  los  apetitos  de  luxuria  y 
gula.'  Calif ornias,  Noticias,  carta  i.,  pp.  66-75.  'Unadelas  fiestas  mas 
celebres  de  los  Cochimies  era  la  del  dia,  en  que  repartian  las  pieles  a  las  mu 
geres  una  vez  al  ano.'  Venegas,  Noticia  de  la  CaL,  torn,  i.,  pp. "85-6,  96;  Bae- 
gert,  in  Smithsonian  Rept.,  1864,  p.  389;  Salvatierra,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie 
iv.,  torn,  v.,  pp.  103,  116. 


568  NEW  MEXICANS. 

ions.  These  favored  of  heaven  professed  to  hold  com 
munication  with  oracles,  and  would  enter  caverns  and 
wooded  ravines,  sending  thence  doleful  sounds,  to 
frighten  the  people,  who  were  by  such  tricks  easily  im 
posed  upon  and  led  to  believe  in  their  deceits  and  jug 
gleries.233 

As  to  ailments,  Lower  Californians  are  subject  to 
consumption,  burning  fevers,  indigestion,  and  cutaneous 
diseases.  Small  pox,  measles,  and  syphilis,  the  last 
imported  by  troops,  have  destroyed  numberless  lives. 
Wounds  inflicted  by  the  bites  of  venomous  reptiles  may 
be  added  to  the  list  of  troubles.  Loss  of  appetite  is 
with  them,  generally,  a  symptom  of  approaching  death. 
They  submit  resignedly  to  the  treatment  prescribed  by 
their  medicine-men,  however  severe  or  cruel  it  may  be. 
They  neglect  their  aged  invalids,  refusing  them  attend 
ance  if  their  last  sickness  proves  too  long,  and  recovery 
appears  improbable.  In  several  instances  they  have  put 
an  end  to  the  patient  by  suffocation  or  otherwise.234 

Diseases  are  treated  externally  by  the  application  of 
ointments,  plasters,  and  fomentations  of  medicinal  herbs, 
particularly  the  wild  tobacco.  Smoke  is  also  a  great 
panacea,  and  is  administered  through  a  stone  tube  placed 
on  the  suffering  part.  The  usual  juggleries  attend  the 
practice  of  medicine.  In  extreme  cases  they  attempt  to 
draw  with  their  fingers  the  disease  from  the  patient's 
mouth.  If  the  sick  person  has  a  child  or  sister,  they 
cut  its  or  her  little  finger  of  the  right  hand,  and  let  the 
blood  drop  on  the  diseased  part.  Bleeding  with  a  sharp 
stone  and  whipping  the  affected  part  with  nettles,  or 
applying  ants  to  it,  are  among  the  remedies  used.  For 
the  cure  of  tumors,  the  medicine-men  burst  and  suck 
them  with  their  lips  until  blood  is  drawn.  Internal 

233  Calif ornias,  Noticias,  carta  i.,  pp.   59-65;  Clavigero,  Storia  detta  Cal. 
torn.  i.  pp.  126,  146.  'There  existed  always  among  the  Californians  indivi 
duals  of  both  sexes  who  played  the  part  of  sorcerers  or  conjurers,  pretending 
to  possess  the  power  of  exorcising  the  devil.'  Baegert,  in  Smithsonian  Rept., 
1864,  p.  389. 

234  Baec/ert,  in  Smithsonian  Kept.,  1864,  pp.  385-7.    '  Las  carreras,  luchas, 
peleas  y  otras  trabajos  voluntaries  les  ocasionan  muchos  dolores  de  pecho  y 
otros  accidentes.'  Calif ornias,  Noticias,  carta  i.,  pp.  85-99. 


DEATH  AND  BUKIAL  IN  LOWER  CALIFORNIA.  569 

diseases  are  treated  with  cold-water  baths.  The  means 
employed  by  the  medicine-man  are  repeated  by  the 
members  of  the  patient's  family  and  by  his  friends.  In 
danger  even  the  imitation  of  death  startles  them.  If 
an  invalid  is  pronounced  beyond  recovery,  and  he  hap 
pens  to  slumber,  they  immediately  arouse  him  with  blows 
on  the  head  and  body,  for  the  purpose  of  preserving 
life.235 

Death  is  followed  by  a  plaintive,  mournful  chant, 
attended  with  howling  by  friends  and  relatives,  who 
beat  their  heads  with  sharp  stones  until  blood  flows 
freely.  Without  further  ceremony  they  either  inter  or 
burn  the  body  immediately,  according  to  the  custom  of 
the  locality:  in  the  latter  case  they  leave  the  head 
intact.  Oftentimes  they  bury  or  burn  the  body  before 
life  has  actually  left  it,  never  taking  pains  to  ascertain 
the  fact.236 

Weapons  and  other  personal  effects  are  buried  or 
burned  with  the  owner;  and  in  some  localities,  where 
burying  is  customary,  shoes  are  put  to  the  feet,  so  that 
the  spiritualized  body  may  be  prepared  for  its  journey. 
In  Colecha  and  Guajamina  mourning  ceremonies  are 
practiced  certain  days  after  death — juggleries — in  which 
the  priest  pretends  to  hold  converse  with  the  departed 
spirit  through  the  scalp  of  the  deceased,  commending 
the  qualities  of  the  departed,  and  concluding  by  asking 
on  the  spirit's  behalf  that  all  shall  cut  off  their  hair  as 
a  sign  of  sorrow.  After  a  short  dance,  more  howling, 
hair-pulling,  and  other  ridiculous  acts,  the  priest  de 
mands  provisions  for  the  spirit's  journey,  which  his 

™  Clavigero,  Storia  ddla  Cat.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  112-13,  142-5;  Apostolicos 
Afanes,  pp.  426-7;  Salvatitrra,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  v.,  p.  23; 
Delaporte,  Rdsen,  torn,  x.,  pp.  433-4.  '  Rogaba  el  enfernio,  que  le  chupassen, 
y  soplassen  de  el  modo  mismo,  que  lohacian  los  Curanderos.  Executaban 
todos  por  su  orden  este  oficio  de  piedad,  chupando,  y  soplando  priniero  la 
parte  lesa,  y  despues  todos  los  otros  organos  de  los  seiitidos.'  Venegas,  Noticia 
de  la  Cat.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  117-18. 

230  Baegert  says:  '  It  seems  tedious  to  them  to  spend  much  time  near  an 
old,  dying  person  that  was  long  ago  a  burden  to  them  and  looked  upon  with 
indifference.  A  person  of  my  acquaintance  restored  a  girl  to  life  that  was 
already  bound  up  in  a  deer-skin,  according  to  their  custom,  and  ready  for 
burial.'  Uaeyert,  in  Smithsonian  Rept.,  1864,  p.  387. 


570  NEW  MEXICANS. 

hearers  readily  contribute,  and  which  the  priest  appro 
priates  to  his  own  use,  telling  them  it  has  already  started. 
Occasionally  they  honor  the  memory  of  their  dead  by 
placing  a  rough  image  of  the  departed  on  a  high  pole, 
and  a  guama  or  priest  sings  his  praises.237 

The  early  missionaries  found  the  people  of  the  penin 
sula  kind-hearted  and  tractable,  although  dull  of 
comprehension  and  brutal  in  their  instincts,  rude,  nar 
row-minded,  and  inconstant.  A  marked  difference  of 
character  is  observable  between  the  Cochimis  and  the 
Pericuis.  The  former  are  more  courteous  in  their  man 
ners  and  better  behaved;  although  cunning  and  thievish, 
they  exhibit  attachment  and  gratitude  to  their  superiors ; 
naturally  indolent  and  addicted  to  childish  pursuits  and 
amusements,  they  lived  among  themselves  in  amity, 
directing  their  savage  and  revengeful  nature  against 
neighboring  tribes  with  whom  they  were  at  variance. 
The  Pericuis,  before  they  became  extinct,  were  a  fierce 
and  barbarous  nation,  unruly  and  brutal  in  their  pas 
sions,  cowardly,  treacherous,  false,  petulant,  and  boast 
ful,  with  an  intensely  cruel  and  heartless  disposition, 
often  shown  in  relentless  persecutions  and  murders. 
In  their  character  and  disposition  the  Guaicuris  did  not 
differ  essentially  from  the  Pericuis.  In  the  midst  of 
so  much  darkness  there  was  still  one  bright  spot  visible, 
inasmuch  as  they  were  of  a  cheerful  and  happy  nature, 
lovers  of  kind  and  lovers  of  country.  Isolated,  occupy 
ing  an  ill-favored  country,  it  was  circumstances,  rather 
than  any  inherent  incapacity  for  improvement,  that  held 
these  poor  people  in  their  low  state ;  for,  as  we  shall  see 
at  some  future  time,  in  their  intercourse  with  civilized 
foreigners,  they  were  not  lacking  in  cunning,  diplomacy, 
selfishness,  and  other  aids  to  intellectual  progress/ 


238 


237  '  Solevano  essi  onorar  la  memoria  d'alcuni  defmiti  ponendo  sopra  un' 
alta  pertica  la  loro  figura  gossamente  formata  di  rami,  presstf  alia  quale  si 
metteva  un  Guama  a  predicar  le  loro  lodi.'  Clavigero,  Storia  della  Col.,  torn, 
i.,  p.  144;  Soc.  Geog.,  Bulletin,  serie  v.,No.-9G,  p.  184. 

238  'La  estupidez  e  insensibilidad:  la  falta  de  conocimiento,  y  reflexion: 
la  inconstancia,  y  vohabilidad  de  una  voluntad,  y  apetitos  sin  freno,  sin  luz, 
y  ami  sin  objeto:  lapereza,  y  horror  a  todo  trabajo,  y  fatiga  a  la  adhesion  per- 
petua  a  todo  linage  de  placer,  y  entretenimiento  pueril,  y  brutal :  la  pusilani- 


NOKTHEKN  MEXICANS.  571 

The  NORTHERN  MEXICANS,  the  fourth  and  last  divi 
sion  of  this  group,  spread  over  the  territory  lying  between 
parallels  31°  and  23°  of  north  latitude.  Their  lands  have 
an  average  breadth  of  about  five  hundred  miles,  with  an 
area  of  some  250,000  square  miles,  comprising  the  states 
of  Sonora,  Sinaloa,  Chihuahua,  Durango,  Nuevo  Leon, 
and  the  northern  portions  of  Zacatecas,  San  Luis  Potosi 
and  Tamaulipas. 

Nearly  parallel  with  the  Pacific  seaboard,  and  divid 
ing  the  states  of  Sonora  and  Sinaloa  from  Chihuahua 
and  Durango,  runs  the  great  central  Cordillera;  further 
to  the  eastward,  passing  through  Coahuila,  Nuevo  Leon, 
and  San  Luis  Potosi,  and  following  the  shore  line  of  the 
Mexican  Gulf,  the  Sierra  Madre  continues  in  a  souther 
ly  direction,  until  it  unites  with  the  first-named  range 
at  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec.  All  of  these  mountains 
abound  in  mineral  wealth.  The  table-land  between 
them  is  intersected  by  three  ridges ;  one,  the  Sierra  Mim- 
bres,  issuing  from  the  inner  flank  of  the  Western  Cordil 
lera  north  of  Arispe,  extending  in  a  northerly  direc 
tion  and  following  the  line  of  the  Rio  Grande.  The 
middle  mountainous  divide  crosses  from  Durango  to  Coa 
huila,  while  the  third  rises  in  the  state  of  Jalisco  and 
taking  an  easterly  and  afterward  northerly  direction, 
traverses  the  table-land  and  merges  into  the  Sierra 
Madre  in  the  state  of  San  Luis  Potosi.  On  these  broad 
table-lands  are  numerous  lakes  fed  by  the  streams  which 
have  their  rise  in  the  mountains  adjacent;  in  but  few 

midad,  y  flaqueza  de  animo;  y  finalmente,  la  falta  miserable  de  todo  lo  que 
forma  a  los  hombres  esto  es,  racionales,  politicos,  y  utiles  para  s\,  y 
paralasociedad.'  Venegas,  Noticia  de  la  CaL,  torn,  i.,  pp.  74-9,  87-8.  'Las 
naciones  del  Norte  eran  mas  despiertas,  dociles  y  fieles,  menos  viciosas  y 
libres,  y  por  tanto  mejor  dispuestas  para  recibir  el  cristianismo  que  las  que 
liabitaban  al  Sur.'  Sutil  y  Mexicana,  Victge,  p.  Ixxxix.  '  Eran  los  coras  y  peri- 
cues,  y  generalmente  las  rancherias  del  Sur  de  California,  mas  ladinos  y 
capaces;  pero  tambien  mas  viciosos  e  inquietos  que  las  demas  naciones  de 
la  peninsula.'  Akgre,  Hint.  Cowp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  iii.,  p.  252.  '  Ces  peuples 
sont  d'une  tres-grande,.docilite,  ils  se  laissent  instruire.'  Calif ornie,  Nonvelle 
Descente,  in  Voy.  de  VEntpereur  de  la  Chine,  p.  104.  Other  allusior.s  to  their 
character  may  be  found  in  Calderon  de  la  Barca's  Life  in  Mex..  vol.  i.,  p.  330; 
Villa-Senor  y  Sanchez,  Theatro,  torn,  ii.,  p.  292;*  Baegert,  in  Smithsonian 
Kept.,  1864,  pp.  378-85;  Cre.s/n,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  vii.,  pp. 
135,  143-G;  Ribas,  Hist,  de  los  Triuwphos,  p.  442;  Clavir;ero,  Storia  della 
Cal.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  113-14;  Malte-Brun,  Precis  de  la  Ge'og.,  torn  vi.,  p.  451. 


572  NEW  MEXICANS. 

spots  is  the  land  available  for  tillage,  but  it  is  admirably 
adapted  to  pastoral  purposes.  The  climate  can.  hardly 
be  surpassed  in  its  tonic  and  exhilarating  properties; 
the  atmosphere  is  ever  clear,  with  sunshine  by  day,  and 
a  galaxy  of  brilliant  stars  by  night ;  the  absence  of  rain, 
fogs,  and  dews,  with  a  delicious  and  even  temperature, 
renders  habitations  almost  unnecessary.  All  this  vast 
region  is  occupied  by  numerous  tribes  speaking  different 
languages  and  claiming  distinct  origins.  Upon  the 
northern  seaboard  of  Sonora  and  Tiburon  Island  are 
the  CeriSj  Tiburones,  and  Tepocas;  south  of  them  the 
CahitaS)  or  Sinafaas,  which  are  general  names  for  the 
Yaquis  and  Mayos,  tribes  so  called  from  the  rivers  on 
whose  banks  they  live.  In  the  state  of  Sinaloa  there 
are  also  the  Cockitas,  Tuvares,  Sabaibos,  Zuaques,  and 
AJwmeSj  besides  many  other  small  tribes.  Scattered 
through  the  states  of  the  interior  are  the  Opatas,  JZude- 
veSj  JbvaSj  Tarahumares,  Tubares,  and  T&pehuanes,  who 
inhabit  the  mountainous  districts  of  Chihuahua  and 
Durango.  East  of  the  Tarahumares,  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  first-named  state,  dwell  the  Conchos. 
In  Durango,  living  in  the  hills  round  Topia,  are  the 
Acaxees;  south  of  whom  dwell  the  Xiximes.  On  the 
table-lands  of  Mapimi  and  on  the  shores  of  its  numer 
ous  lakes,  the  Irritilas  and  many  other  tribes  are  settled ; 
while  south  of  these  again,  in  Zacatecas  and  San  Luis 
Potosi,  are  the  G-uachichiles,  Huamares,  and  Cazcanes,  and 
further  to  the  east,  and  bordering  on  the  gulf  shores  we 
find  the  country  occupied  by  scattered  tribes,  distin 
guished  by  a  great  variety  of  names,  prominent  among 
which  are  the  Carrizas  or  G-arzas,  Xanambres,  and  Pintos.™ 
Most  of  these  nations  are  composed  of  men  of  large 

239  Father  Kibas,  the  first  priest  who  visited  the  Yaquis,  was  surprised  at 
the  loud  rough  tone  in  which  they  spoke.  When  he  remonstrated  with  them 
for  doing  so,  their  reply  was,  '  No  ves  que  soy  Hiaqui :  y  dezianlo,  porque 
essa  palabra,  y  no.nbre,  significa,  el  que  habla  a  gritos.'  Rlbas,  Hist,  de  los 
Triumphox,  p.  285.  Mayos:  'Their  name  comes  from  their  position,  and 
means  in  their  own  language  boundary,  they  having  been  bounded  on  both 
sides  by  hostile  tribes.'  Stone,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  v.,  p.  165.  '  Segun  parece, 
la  palabra  talahumali  6  tarahumari  significa,  "  corrector  de  a  pie;  "  de  tola  6  tara, 
piy,  yhuma,  correr.  Pimentel,  Cuadro,  torn,  i.,  p,  364.  , 'La  palabra  tepehuan 
creen  algunos  que  es  Mexicana,  y  corrupcion  de  tepehuani,  conquistador;  d 


PHYSICAL  PECULIARITIES  IN  NOETH  MEXICO.  573 

stature;  robust,  and  well  formed,  with  an  erect  carriage ; 
the  finest  specimens  are  to  be  found  on  the  sea-coast, 
exceptions  being  the  Opatas  and  Chicoratas,  the  former 
inclining  to  corpulency,  the  latter  being  short,  although 
active  and  swift  runners.  The  women  are  well  limbed 
and  have  good  figures,  but  soon  become  corpulent.  The 
features  of  these  people  are  quite  regular,  the  head  round 
and  well  shaped,  with  black  and  straight  hair;  they  have 
high  cheek-bones  and  handsome  mouths,  with  a  gen 
erally  mild  and  pleasing  expression  of  countenance. 
They  have  piercing  black  eyes,  and  can  distinguish  ob 
jects  at  great  distances.  The  Ceris  see  best  toward  the 
close  of  the  day,  owing  to  the  strong  reflection  from  the 
white  sands  of  the  coast  during  the  earlier  part  of  the 
day.  The  Carrizas  are  remarkable  for  their  long  upper 
lip.  The  men  of  this  region  have  little  beard ;  their  com 
plexion  varies  from  a  light  brown  to  a  copper  shade. 
Many  of  them  attain  to  a  great  age.240 

For  raiment  the  Cahitas  and  Ceris  wear  only  a  small 
rag  in  front  of  their  persons,  secured  to  a  cord  tied 

bien  un  compuesto  de  tepetl,  monte,  y  hua,  desinencia  que  en  Mexicano 
indica  posesion,  como  si  dijeramos  senor  6  dueiio  del  nioute.  Otros,  acaso 
con  mas  exactitud,  diceii  que  tepehuan  es  voz  tarahumar,  derivada  de  pehua  6 
pegua,  que  significa  duro,  lo  cual  convieue  con  el  caracter  delanacion.'  Id., 
torn,  ii.,  p.  45.  'La  palabra  acaxee  parece  ser  la  misma  que  la  de  acaxete, 
nombre  de  un  pueblo  perteneciente  al  estado  de  Puebla,  ambos  corrupcion  de 
la  palabra  Mexicaiia  acaxitl,  compuesta  de  ail  (agua,)  y  de  caxitl  (cazuela  6 
escudilla),  hoy  tambien  corrompida,  cajete:  el  todo  significa  alberca,  nombre 
perfectamente  adecuado  a  la  cosa,  pues  que  Alcedo,  \_Dicnon.  geogrdf.  de 
America']  dice  que  en  Acaxete,  "hay  una  caja  6  area  de  agua  de  piedra  de'  can 
ter  fa,  en  que  se  recogeu  las  que  bajan  de  la  Sierra  y  se  conducen  a  Tepeaca: 
el  nombre,  pues,  nos  dice  que  si  no  la  obra  arquitectonica,  a  lo  rnenos  la 
idea  y  la  ejecucion,  vieuen  desde  losantiguos  Mexicanos."  '  Diccionario  Uni 
versal  de  Hist.  Geog.,  torn,  i.,  p.  31. 

240  '  Las  mugeres  son  notables  por  los  pechos  y  pies  pequenos.'  Velasco, 
Noticias  de  Sonora,  p.  169.  ' Tienen  la  vista  muy  aguda. . .  .El  oido  es  tam 
bien  vivissimo.'  Arlegui,  Cron.  de  Zrtcatecas,  pp.  174-5.  See  also,  Ribas,  Hist, 
de  los  Triumphos,  pp.  7,  145,  285,  677;  Zumga,  in  Escudero,  Noticias  de  So 
nora  y  Sinaloa,  p.  142;  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  i.,  p.  416;  Soc. 
Geog.,  Bulletin,  serie  v.,  No.  96,  pp.  184,  189;  Castaneda,  in  Ternaux-Com- 
pans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  pp.44,  49;  Beaumont,  Cron.  de  Mechoacan,  MS., 
p.  242;  Lachapelle,  Raousset-Boulbon,  pp.  79-80;  Padilla,  Conq.  N.  Galicia,  MS., 

"0;  Berlandier  y  TI 
j.  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  pj 


p.  80;  Berlandier  y  Thovel,  Diario,  p.  69;  Hardy's  Trav.,  pp.  289,  299;  J?artfe«'s 
Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  444,  446;  Miihlenpford't,  Mejico,  torn,  i.,  pp.  214-15, 
torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p.  419;  Ulloa,  in  Ramusio, ' Navigationi,  torn,  iii.,  fol.  345;  Guz- 


man,  Eel.  Anon.,  in  Icazbalceta,  Col.  de  Doc.,  torn,  ii.,  fol.  296;  Sevin,  in 
Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxx.,  p.  12;  De  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  pp.  284-5; 
Ward's  Mexico,  vol.  i.,  pp.  571,  583;  Prichard's  Nat.  Hist.  Man,  vol.ii.,  p. 
562;  Coronado,  in  Hakluyt's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  362. 


574  NEW  MEXICANS. 

round  the  waist;  the  Tarahumares.  Acaxees,  and  other 
nations  of  the  interior  use  for  the  same  purpose  a  square 
piece  of  tanned  deer-skin  painted,  except  in  cold  weather, 
when  they  wrap  a  large  blue  cotton  mantle  round  the 
shoulders.  The  women  have  petticoats  reaching  to  their 
ankles,  made  of  soft  chamois  or  of  cotton  or  agave-fibre, 
and  a  tilma  or  mantle  during  the  winter.  Some  wear  a 
long  sleeveless  chemise,  which  reaches  from  the  shoulders 
to  the  feet.  The  Ceri  women  have  petticoats  made  from 
the  skins  of  the  albatross  or  pelican,  the  feathers  inside. 
The  Opata  men,  soon  after  the  conquest,  were  found 
well  clad  in  blouse  and  drawers  of  cotton,  with  wooden 
shoes,  while  their  neighbors  wore  sandals  of  raw  hide, 
cut  to  the  shape  of  the  foot.241 

The  Cahitas,  Acaxees  and  most  other  tribes,  pierce 
the  ears  and  nose,  from  which  they  hang  small  green 
stones,  attached  to  a  piece  of  blue  cord ;  on  the  head, 
neck,  and  wrists,  a  great  variety  of  ornaments  are  worn, 
made  from  mother-of-pearl  and  white  snails'  shells,  also 
fruit-stones,  pearls,  and  copper  and  silver  hoops;  round 
the  ankles  some  wear  circlets  of  deer's  hoofs,  others 
decorate  their  heads  and  necks  with  necklaces  of  red 
beans  and  strings  of  paroquets  and  small  birds;  pearls 
and  feathers  are  much  used  to  ornament  the  hair.  The 
practice  of  painting  the  face  and  body  is  common  to  all, 
the  colors  most  in  use  being  red  and  black.  A  favorite 
style  with  the  Ceris  is  to  paint  the  face  in  alternate  per 
pendicular  stripes  of  blue,  red,  and  white.  The  Pintos 
paint  the  face,  breast,  and  arms ;  the  Tarahumares  tattoo 
the  forehead,  lips,  and  cheeks  in  various  patterns;  the 
Yaquis  the  chin  and  arms;  while  other  tribes  tattoo  the 
face  or  body  in  styles  peculiar  to  themselves.  Both 
sexes  are  proud  of  their  hair,  which  they  wear  long  and 

241  *  No  alcanzan  ropa  de  algocloii,  si  no  es  algunas  pampanillas  y  alguna 
manta  muy  gruesa;  porque  el  vestido  de  ellos  es  de  cuerb  de  venados  adoba- 
dos,  y  el  vestido  que  dellos  hacen  es  coser  un  cuero  con  otro  y  ponerselos  por 
debajo  del  brazo  atados  al  hombro,  y  las  mujeres  traen  sus  naguas  hechas 
con  sus  jiroiies  que  les  llegan  hasta  los  tobillos  como  faja.'  Guzman,  Rel. 
Anon.,  in  Icazbalceta,  Col.  de  Doc.,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  296,  290,  481.  The  Ceri 
women  wear  '  pieles  de  alcatras  por  lo  general,  6  una  tosca  frazada  de  lana 
envuelta  en  la  cintura.'  Velasco,  Noticias  de  Sonora,  pp,  131,  74,  153. 


NORTHERN  MEXICAN  DWELLINGS.  575 

take  much  care  of;  the  women  permit  it  to  flow  in  loose 
tresses,  while  the  men  gather  it  into  one  or  more  tufts  on 
the  crown  of  the  head,  and  when  hunting  protect  it  by 
a  chamois  cap,  to  prevent  its  being  disarranged  by  trees 
or  bushes.242 

Their  houses  are  of  light  construction,  usually  built 
of  sticks  and  reeds,  and  are  covered  with  coarse  reed 
matting.  '  The  Chinipas,  Yaquis,  Opatas  and  Conchos 
build  somewhat  more  substantial  dwellings  of  timber  and 
adobes,  or  of  plaited  twigs  well  plastered  with  mud ;  all 
are  only  one  story  high  and  have  flat  roofs.  Although 
none  of  these  people  are  without  their  houses  or  huts, 
they  spend  most  of  their  time,  especially  during  sum 
mer,  under  the  trees.  The  Tarahumares  find  shelter  in 
the  deep  caverns  of  rocky  mountains,  the  Tepehuanes 
and  Acaxees  place  their  habitations  on  the  top  of  almost 
inaccessible  crags,  while  the  Humes  and  Batucas  build 
their  villages  in  squares,  with  few  and  very  small  en 
trances,  the  better  to  defend  themselves  against  their 
enemies — detached  buildings  for  kitchen  and  store-room 
purposes  being  placed  contiguous.243 

212  The  Temoris  had  '  las  orejas  cercadas  de  Jos  zarcillos  que  ellos  vsaii, 
adornados  de  conchas  de  linear  labradas,  y  eiisartadas  en  hilos  azules,  y  cer- 
can  toda  la  oreja.'  Ri'xis,  Hist,  de  los  Triumphos,  pp.  226,  %286,  472.  Near 
Culiacaii,  Nuiio  de  Guzman  met  about  50,000  warriors  who  'traian  al  cuello 
sartas  de  codornices,  pericos  pequeiios  y  otros  diferentes  pajaritos.'  Tello,  in 
Icazbalceta,  Col.  de  Doc.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  354.  The  Humes,  'corouadas  suscabezas 
de  diademas  de  varias  plumas  de  papagayos,  guacamayas  con  algunos  pena- 
chos  de  hoja  de  plata  batida.'  Akumada,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn, 
iii.,  p.  96.  'Los  Indies  de  este  nuevo  Reyno  son  de  diversas  naciones  que 
se  distinguen  por  la  diversidad  de  rayas  en  el  rostro.'  Padilla,  Conq.  N.  Gali- 
cia,  MS.,  pp.472,  531.  '  No  hemos visto a  ningun  carrizo  pintado  con  vermel- 
lon,  tal  couio  lo  hacen  otio;.'  Berlandier  y  Thovel,  Diario,  p,  69.  For  further 
description  see  Hardy's  Trav.,  pp.  289-90,  298;  Bartlett's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  i., 
p.  445;  Combier,  Voy.,  pp.  199-2 JO;  Coronado,  inllafcluyt's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  pp. 
362-4;  Espejo,  injd.,  pp.  384,  390-1;  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  Relation,  in  Ternaux- 
Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  vii.,  p.  250;  Castaneda,  in  Id.,  torn,  ix.,  p.  157; 
Jaramitto.  in  Id.,  p.  3G6;  Ward's  Mexico,  vol.  i.,  p.  571;  Soc.  Geog.,  Bulletin, 
serie  y.,  No.  96,  pp.  184-5,  190;  Sonora,  Descrip.  Geog.,  in  Doc,' Hist.  Mex., 
serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  552,"  Arnaya,  in  Id.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  63;  Descrip, 
Top.,  in  Id.,  serie  iv.  torn,  iv.,  pp.  113-14;  Lachapelle,  liaousset-Boulbon, 
pp.  79-80:  Ociedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  574-6,  609;  Sevin,  in  Lond.  Geog. 
Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxx.,  pp.  12,  25-6;  Alvjre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  i.,  pp. 
401,  406,  and  ii.,  pp.  124,  184;  Montanus,  Nieuwe  Wvereld,  pp.  208,  226,  228; 
and  Dapper,  Neue  Welt,  pp.  235,  254-5;  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  Relation,  pp.  167-8; 
Garcia  Conde,  in  Album  Mex.,  torn,  i.,  p.  93;  Beaumont,  Cron'.  de  Mechoacan, 
MS.,  pp.  241-2;  Hazart,  Kirchen-Geschichte,  torn,  ii.,  p.  539. 

243  '  Todos  los  pueblos  de  los  indios  cobiertas  las  casas  de  esteras,  a,  laa 


576  NEW  MEXICANS. 

The  Northern  Mexicans  live  on  wild  fruits  such  as 
pitahaya,  or  native  fig,  honey,  grain,  roots,  fish,  and 
larvce;  they  capture  game  both  large  and  small,  and 
some  of  them  eat  rats,  mice,  frogs,  snakes,  worms,  and 
vermin.  The  Ahomamas  along  the  shores  of  Lake 
Parras,  the  Yaquis,  Batucas,  Ceris,  Tarahumares,  and 
the  Qpatas  since  the  conquest  have  become  agricul 
turists  and  cattle-breeders,  besides  availing  themselves 
of  fishing  and  hunting  as  means  of  subsistence.  On  the 
coast  of  Sonora,  there  being  no  maize,  the  natives  live 
on  pulverized  rush  and  straw,  with  fish  caught  at  sea  or 
in  artificial  enclosures.  The  dwellers  on  the  coast  of 
Sinaloa  consume  a  large  quantity  of  salt,  which  they 
gather  on  the  land  during  the  dry  season,  and  in  the 
rainy  reason  from  the  bottom  of  marshes  and  pools.  It 
is  said  that  the  Salineros  sometimes  eat  their  own  excre 
ment.  According  to  the  reports  of  the  older  historians, 
the  Tobosos,  Bauzarigames,  Cabezas,  Contotores,  and 
Acaxees,  as  well  as  other  tribes  of  Durango  and  Sina 
loa,  formerly  fed  on  human  flesh, — hunted  human  beings 
for  food  as  they  hunted  deer  or  other  game.  The  flesh 
of  their  brave  foes  they  ate,  thinking  thereby  to  aug 
ment  their  own  bravery.24* 

The  Ceris  of  Tiburon  Island  depend  for  food  entirely 
on  fish  and  game.  They  catch  turtle  by  approaching 
the  animal  and  suddenly  driving  the  point  of  their  spear 
into  its  back,  a  cord  being  attached  to  the  weapon  by 
which  they  drag  the  prize  on  to  the  raft  as  soon  as  its 

cuales  Hainan  en  lengua  de  Mexico  petates,  y  por  esta  causa  le  llamamos 
Petatlan.'  Guzman,  Eel.  Anon.,  in  Icazbalceta,  Col.  de  Doc.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  296. 
Compare  Castaneda,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  pp.  49,  156; 
Combier,  Voy.,  pp.  157,  160,  164,  200;  Coronado,  in  HakluyVs  Voy.,  vol. 
iii.,  p.  3G3;'  Niza,  in  Id.,  p.  366;  Espejo,  in  Id.,  p.  384;  Montanus,  Nieuwe 
Wtereld,  pp.  206,  216,  227-8;  and  Dapper,  Neue  Welt,  pp.  232,  255;  Eibas, 
Hist,  de  los  Triumphos,  pp.  3,  6,  7,  155,  222,  594;  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  Relation, 
pp.  167,  175;  Id.,  in  Eamusio,  Navigationi,  torn,  iii.,  fol.  327;  Oviedo,  Hist. 
Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  574,  576,  609;  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  i.,  p.  396; 
Azpilcueta,  in  Id.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  186;  Berlandier  y  Thovel,  Diario,  p.  68. 

244  '  Comian  inmundas  carnes  sin  reservar  la  humana.'  Padilla,  Cong. 
N.  Galicia,  MS.,  pp.  530,  80,  84,  533.  '  Us  mangent  tons  de  la  chair 
humaine,  et  vont  a  la  chasse  des  homines.'  Castaneda,  in  Ternaux-Compans, 
Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  pp.  152,  158-9.  See  also,  Arlegui,  Chron.  deZacatecas, 
pp.  150,  180-2;  Eibas,  Hist,  de  los  Triumphos,  pp.  3,  6,  7,  11,  14,  175,  217, 
385,  671. 


METHODS  OF  HUNTING.  577 

strength  has  become  exhausted.  According  to  Gomara, 
the  natives  of  Sonora  in  1537  were  caught  poisoning 
the  deer-pools,  probably  for  the  skins,  or  it  may  have 
been  only  a  stupefying  drink  that  the  pools  were  made 
to  supply.  The  Sinaloans  are  great  hunters;  at  times 
they  pursue  the  game  singly,  then  again  the  whole  town 
turns  out  and,  surrounding  the  thickest  part  of  the  for 
est,  the  people  set  fire  to  the  underbrush  and  bring 
down  the  game  as  it  attempts  to  escape  the  flames.  A 
feast  of  reptiles  is  likewise  thus  secured.  Iguanas  are 
caught  with  the  hands,  their  legs  broken,  and  thus  they 
are  kept  until  required  for  food.  For  procuring  wild 
honey,  a  bee  is  followed  until  it  reaches  its  tree,  +he  sweet- 
containing  part  of  which  is  cut  off  and  carried  away. 
The  Tarahumares  hunt  deer  by  driving  them  through 
narrow  passes,  where  men  are  stationed  to  shoot  them. 
Others  make  use  of  a  deer's  head  as  a  decoy.  For  fish 
ing  they  have  various  contrivances;  some  fish  between 
the  rocks  with  a  pointed  stick;  others,  when  fishing  in 
a  pool,  throw  into  the  water  a  species  of  cabbage  or 
leaves  of  certain  trees,  that  stupefy  the  fish,  when  they 
are  easily  taken  with  the  hands;  they  also  use  wicker 
baskets,  and  near  the  Pacific  Ocean  they  inclose  the 
rivers,  and  catch  enormous  quantities  of  smelt  and  other 
fish,  which  have  come  up  from  the  sea  to  spawn.  The 
Laguneros  of  Coahuila  catch  ducks  by  placing  a  calabash 
on  their  heads,  with  holes  through  which  to  breathe  and 
see;  thus  equipped,  they  swim  softly  among  the  ducks, 
and  draw  them  under  water  without  flutter  or  noise. 
Tatema  is  the  name  of  a  dish  cooked  in  the  ground  by 
the  Tarahumares.  The  Laguneros  make  tortillas  of 
flour  obtained  from  an  aquatic  plant.  The  Zacatecs 
make  the  same  kind  of  bread  from  the  pulp  of  the  ma 
guey,  which  is  first  boiled  with  lime,  then  washed  and 
boiled  again  in  pure  water,  after  which  it  is  squeezed  dry 
and  made  into  cakes.  Most  of  the  people  use  pozole,  or 
pinohtl,  both  being  a  kind  of  gruel  made  of  .pinole,  of 
parched  corn  or  seeds  ground,  the  one  of  greater  thick 
ness  than  the  other;  also  tamaks,  boiled  beans,  and 


VOL.  I.    37 


578  NEW  MEXICANS. 

pumpkins.  The  Ceris  of  Tiburon  eat  fish  and  meat  un 
cooked,  or  but  slightly  boiled.  The  Salineros  frequently 
devour  uncooked  hares  and  rabbits,  having  only  removed 
their  furs.245 

The  weapons  universally  used  by  these  nations  were 
bows  and  arrows  and  short  clubs,  in  addition  to  which 
the  chiefs  and  most  important  warriors  carried  a  short 
lance  and  a  buckler.  The  arrows  were  carried  in  a 
quiver  made  of  lion  or  other  skins.  The  Tarahumares 
and  some  others  wore  a  leathern  guard  round  the  left 
wrist,  to  protect  it  from  the  blow  of  the  bow-string. 
Flint  knives  were  employed  for  cutting  up  their  slain 
enemies.  The  Ceris,  Jovas,  and  other  tribes  smeared  the 
points  of  their  arrows  with  a  very  deadly  poison,  but 
how  it  was  applied  to  the  point,  or  whence  obtained,  it  is 
difficult  to  determine;  some  travelers  say  that  this 
poison  was  taken  from  rattlesnakes  and  other  venomous 
reptiles,  which,  by  teasing,  were  incited  to  strike  their 
fangs  into  the  liver  of  a  cow  or  deer  which  was  presented 
to  them,  after  which  it  was  left  to  putrefy,  and  the  arrows 
being  dipped  into  the  poisonous  mass,  were  placed  in 
'the  sun  to  dry;  but  other  writers,  again,  assert  that  the 
poison  was  produced  from  a  vegetable  preparation.  The 
wound  inflicted  by  the  point,  however  slight,  is  said  to 

245  Po<^olatl,  'beuida  de  mayz  cozido.'  Pinolatl,  '  beuida  de  mayz  y  chia 
tostado.'  Molina,  Vocabulario.  The  Batucas  '  cuanto  siembran  es  de  regadio 
. . .  .sus  milpas  parecen  todas  huertas.'  Azpilcueta,  in  Alefjre.  Hist.  Cornp.  de 
Jesus,  torn,  ii.,  p.  186,  see  also  p.  184;  Acaxees,  mode  of  fishing,  etc.,  in  Id., 
torn,  i.,  pp.  401-5,  also  283-4,  399,  402-3;  Tarahumares,  mode  of  fishing, 
hunting,  and  cooking.  Murr,  Nachrichten,  pp.  310,  317,  322-3,  337,  342. 
Tho  Yaquis'  'fields  and  gardens  in  the  highest  state  of  cultivation.'  Ward's 
Mexico,  vol.  ii.,  p.  606.  For  further  account  of  their  food  and  manner  of 
cojking,  etc.,  see  Revista  Mexicana,  torn,  i.,  pp.  375-6;  Gomara,  Hist.  Ind., 
fol.  54;  Zepeda,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  158;  Velasco,  No- 
ticits  de  Sonora,  pp.  72,  169-70;  Bartlett's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  465,  469; 
Sonora,  Descrip.  G'eo;/.,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  pp.  549-50; 
*  Jaramillo,  in  Ternaiix-  Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  p.  366;  Cabeza  de 
•Vaea,  in  Id.,  torn,  vii.,  pp.  242-3,  249-50,  265;  Espejo,  in  IlaJduyt's  Voy., 
torn,  iii.,  p.  384;  Coronado,  in  Id.,  pp,  363,  374;  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii., 
p.  609;  Combier,  Voy.,  pp.  160-2,  169,  198,  200,  312;  Guzman,  Eel.  Anon., 
in  Icazbalceta,  Col.  de  Doc.,  tom..ii.,  p.  289;  Tello,  in  Id.,  p.  353;  De  Lad, 
Novus  Orbis,  pp.  286,  310;  Arricivita,  Cronica  Serafica,  p.  442;  Soc.  Geog., 
Bulletin,  serie  v.,  No.  96,  p.  185;  Ulloa,in  Ramuslo,  Navigationi,  torn,  iii., 
fol.  3il-2;  Gallatin,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1851,.  torn,  cxxxi.,  pp. 
256,  260;  Zunli'i,  in  Id.,  1842,  torn,  xciii.,  p.  239;  Stone,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol. 
..'*.,  p.  106;  Malt^Bran,  Sonora,  pp.  14-5. 


HOW  ARROWS  WERE  MADE  AND  POISONED.  579 

have  caused  certain  death.  The  arrows  were  pointed 
with  flint,  or  some  other  stone,  or  with  bone,  fastened  to 
a  piece  of  hard  wood,  which  is  tied  by  sinews  to  a  reed 
or  cane,  notched,  and  winged  with  three  feathers ;  when 
not  required  for  immediate  use,  the  tying  was  loosed, 
and  the  point  reversed  in  the  cane,  to  protect,  it  from 
being  broken.  The  Ceris  and  Chicoratos  cut  a  notch  a 
few  inches  above  the  point,  so  that  in  striking  it  should 
break  off  and  remain  in  the  wound.  Their  clubs  were 
made  of  a  hard  wood  called  guayacan,  with  a  knob  at 
the  end,  and  when  not  in  use  were  carried  slung  to  the 
arm  by  a  leather  thong.  Their  lances  were  of  Brazil 
wood,  bucklers  of  alligator-skin,  and  shields  of  bull's 
hide,  sufficiently  large  to  protect  the  whole  body,  with  a 
hole  in  the  top  to  look  through.  Another  kind  of  shield 
was  made  of  small  lathes  closely  interwoven  with  cords, 
in  such  a  manner  that,  when  not  required  for  use,  it 
could  be  shut  up  like  a  fan,  and  was  carried  under  the 
arm.240 

Living  in  a  state  of  constant  war,  arising  out  of  family 
quarrels  or  aggressions  made  into  each  other's  territories, 

they  were  not  unskilled  in  military  tactics.     Previous 

» 

246  Of  the  Ceris  it  is  said  that  '  la  ponzona  con  que  apestan  las  puntas  de 
sus  flechas,  es  la  mas  activa  que  se  ha  conocido  por  aca. . .  .110  se  ha  podido 
averiguar  cuales  sean  a  punto  fijo  los  mortiferos  materiales  de  esta  pestilen- 
cial  maniobra?  Y  aunque  se  dicen  muchas  cosas,  como  que  lo  hacen  de 
cabezas  de  viboras  irritadas  cortadas  al  tiempo  que  clavan  sus  dientes  en  un 

pedazo  de  bof es  y  de  came  humana  ya  medio  podrida pues  no  es  mas 

que  adivinar  lo  que  no  sabemos.  Sin  duda  su  principal  ingrediente  sera 
algmm  ra'z.'  Sonora,  Dessrip.  Geoy.,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv., 
pp.  560-1,  552.  '  El  magot  es  un  arbol  pequeno  muy  losano  y  nrny  hermoso 
a  la  vista;  pero  a  corta  incision  de  la  corteza  brota  una  leche  mortal  que  les 
servia  en  su  gentilidad  para  emponzonar  sus  flechas.'  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp, 
de  Jesus,  torn,  ii.,  p.  215.  See  also  Hardy's  Trav.,  pp.  298-9,  391;  Stone, 
in  Hist.  M(tg.,  vol.  v.,  p.  166;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  57;  Cabeza  de 
Vaca,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  vii.,  pp.  250-1;  Castaneda,  in 
Id.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  pp.  209,  222-3;  Soc.  Geog.,  Bulletin,  serie  v.,  No.  96, 


pp.  185-6,  190;  Arlegui,  Chron.  de  Zacatecas,  p.  153;  Tello,  in  Icazbalcda,  Col. 
di  Doc.,  torn,  ii.,  p. '354;  Guzman,  Eel.  Anon.,  in  Id.,  p.  289,  296;  Descrip. 
Topog.,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  114;  Ribas,  Hist,  de  los  Tri- 


umpkos,  pp.  10,  110,  473,  677;  De  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  pp.  285,  287,  305,  310; 
Sevin,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxx.,  pp.  12,  25;  Berlandier  y  Thovel, 
Diario,  p.  68;  Ramirez,  in  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  i.,  p.  284;  Com- 
bier,  Voy.,  pp.  198,  346;  Espejo,  in  Hakluyt's  Voy.,  vol.  iiit,  pp.  384,  390; 
Niza,  in  Id.,  p.  567;  Ulloa,  in  Ramusio,  JVauwya/iowi,  torn,  iii  ,  fol.  342—3; 
Montanus,  Nieuwe  Weereld,  pp.  208,  228;  md  Dapper,  Ncue  Welt,  pp.  234, 
255;  Padilla,  Conq.  N.  Galicia,  MS.,  p.  520;  Gomara,  Hist.  Ind.,  fol.  55. 


580  NEW  MEXICANS. 

to  admission  as  a  warrior,  a  young  man  had  to  pass 
through  certain  ordeals;  having  first  qualified  himself 
by  some  dangerous  exploit,  or  having  faithfully  per 
formed  the  duty  of  a  scout  in  an  enemy's  country.  The 
preliminaries  being  settled,  a  day  was  appointed  for 
his  initiation,  when  one  of  the  braves,  acting  as  his  god 
father,  introduced  him  to  the  chief,  who,  for  the  occasion, 
had  first  placed  himself  in  the  midst  of  a  large  circle  of 
warriors.  The  chief  then  addressed  him,  instructing 
him  in  the  several  duties  required  of  him,  and  drawing 
from  a  pouch  an  eagle's  talon,  with  it  proceeded  to  score 
his  body  on  the  shoulders,  arms,  breast,  and  thighs,  till 
the  blood  ran  freely;  the  candidate  was  expected  to  suf 
fer  without  showing  the  slightest  signs  of  pain.  The 
chief  then  handed  to  him  a  bow  and  a  quiver  of  arrows ; 
each  of  the  braves  also  presented  him  with  two  arrows. 
In  the  campaigns  that  followed,  the  novitiate  must  take 
the  hardest  duty,  be  ever  at  the  post  of  danger,  and 
endure  without  a  murmur  or  complaint  the  severest  pri 
vations,  until  a  new  candidate  appeared  to  take  his 
place.247 

When  one  tribe  desires  the  assistance  of  another  in 
war,  they  send  reeds  filled  with  tobacco,  which,  if 
accepted,  is  a  token  that  the  alliance  is  formed ;  a  call 
for  help  is  made  by  means  of  the  smoke  signal.  When 
war  is  decided  upon,  a  leader  is  chosen,  at  whose  house 
all  the  elders,  medicine-men,  and  principal  warriors 
assemble;  a  fire  is  then  lighted,  and  tobacco  handed 
round  and  smoked  in  silence.  The  chief,  or  the  most 
aged  and  distinguished  warrior  then  arises,  and  in  a 
loud  tone  and  not  unpoetic  language,  harangues  his 
hearers,  recounting  to  them  heroic  deeds  hitherto  per 
formed,  victories  formerly  gained,  and  present  wrongs  to 
be  avenged ;  after  which  tobacco  is  again  passed  round, 

247  '  El  jdven  que  desea  valer  por  las  armas,  antes  de  ser  admitido  en  toda 
forma  a  esta  profession,  debe  hacer  meritos  en  algunas  campanas ....  despues 
de  probado  algun  tiempo  en  estas  esperiencias  y  tenida  la  aprobaciou  de  los 
ancianos,  citan  al  pretendiente  para  algun  dia  en  que  deba  dar  la  ultima 
prueba  de  su  valor.'  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  218-9,  396-8, 
and  torn,  i.,  pp.  396-9.  Examine  Sonora,  Descrip.  Geog.,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mcx., 
serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  pp.  544-7;  Lizasoin,  in  Id.,  pp.  684-5. 


WAR  CUSTOMS  IN  NOKTH  MEXICO.  581 

and  new  speakers  in  turn  address  the  assembly.  War 
councils  are  continued  for  several  nights,  and  a  day  is 
named  on  which  the  foe  is  to  be  attacked.  Sometimes 
the  day  fixed  for  the  battle  is  announced  to  the  enemy, 
and  a  spot  on  which  the  fight  is  to  take  place  selected. 
During  the  campaign  fasting  is  strictly  observed.  The 
Acaxe'es,  before  taking  the  war-path,  select  a  maiden  of 
the  tribe,  who  secludes  herself  during  the  whole  period 
of  the  campaign,  speaking  to  no  one,  and  eating  nothing 
but  a  little  parched  corn  without  salt.  The  Ceris  and 
Opatas  approach  their  enemy  under  cover  of  darkness, 
preserving  a  strict  silence,  and  at  break  of  day,  by  a 
preconcerted  signal,  a  sudden  and  simultaneous  attack  is 
made.  To  fire  an  enemy's  house,  the  Tepagues  and 
others  put  lighted  corn-cobs  on  the  points  of  their 
arrows.  In  the  event  of  a  retreat  they  invariably  carry 
off  the  dead,  as  it  is  considered  a  point  of  honor  not  to 
leave  any  of  their  number  on  the  field.  Seldom  is  sex 
or  age  spared,  and  when  prisoners  are  taken,  they  are 
handed  over  to  the  women  for  torture,  who  treat  them 
most  inhumanly,  heaping  upon  them  every  insult  de 
visable,  besides  searing  their  flesh  with  burning  brands, 
and  finally  burning  them  at  the  stake,  or  sacrificing  them 
in  some  equally  cruel  manner.  Many  cook  and  eat 
the  flesh  of  their  captives,  reserving  the  bones  as  tro 
phies.  The  slain  are  scalped,  or  a  hand  is  cut  off,  and 
a  dance  performed  round  the  trophies  on  the  field  of 
battle.  On  the  return  of  an  expedition,  if  successful, 
entry  into  the  village  is  made  in  the  day-time.  Due 
notice  of  their  approach  having  been  forwarded  to  the 
inhabitants,  the  warriors  are  received  with  congratula 
tions  and  praises  by  the  women,  who,  seizing  the  scalps, 
vent  their  spleen  in  frantic  gestures;  tossing  them 
from  one  to  another,  these  female  fiends  dance  and  sing 
round  the  bloody  trophies,  while  the  men  look  on  in 
approving  silence.  Should  the  expedition,  however, 
prove  unsuccessful,  the  village  is  entered  in  silence  and 
during  the  dead  of  night.  All  the  booty  taken  is 
divided  amongst  the  aged  men  and  women,  as  it  is 


582  NEW  MEXICANS. 

deemed  unlucky  by  the  warriors  to  use  their  enemy's 
property.248 

Their  household  utensils  consist  of  pots  of  earthen 
ware  and  gourds,  the  latter  used  both  for  cooking  and 
drinking  purposes;  later,  out  of  the  horns  of  oxen  cups 
are  made.  The  Tarahumares  use  in  place  of  saddles 
two  rolls  of  straw  fastened  by  a  girdle  to  the  animal's 
back,  loose  enough,  however,  to  allow  the  rider  to  put 
his  feet  under  them.  Emerging  from  their  barbarism, 
they  employ,  in  their  agricultural  pursuits,  plows  with 
shares  of  wood  or  stone,  and  wooden  hoes.  The  Ceris 
have  a  kind  of  double-pointed  javelin,  with  which  they 
catch  fish,  which,  once  between  the  prongs,  are  prevented 
from  slipping  out  by  the  jagged  sides.249 

The  Ahomoas,  Eudebes,  Jovas,  Yaquis,  and  Opatas 
weave  fabrics  out  of  cotton  or  agave-fibre,  such  as  blan 
kets  or  serapes,  and  cloth  with  colored  threads  in  neat 
designs  and  figures ;  these  nations  also  manufacture  mat 
ting  from  reeds  and  palm-leaves.  Their  loom  consists  of 
four  short  sticks  driven  into  the  ground,  to  which  a  frame 
is  attached  to  hold  the  thread.  The  shuttle  is  an  oblong 
piece  of  wood,  on  which  the  cross-thread  is  wound. 
After  passing  through  the  web,  the  shuttle  is  seized  and 
pressed  close  by  a  ruler  three  inches  in  breadth,  which 
is  placed  between  the  web  and  supplies  the  place  of 
a  comb.  When  any  patterns  are  to  be  worked,  several 
women  assist  to  mark  off  with  wooden  pegs  the  amount 
of  thread  required.  The  Yaquis  and  Ceris  manufacture 
common  earthen  ware,  and  the  Tarahumares  twist  horse- 

248  As  to  the  Mayos,  '  eran  estos  indios  en  sus  costumbres  y  moclo  de 
guerrear  como  los  de  Sinaloa,  hacian  la  centmela  cada  cuarto  de  hora,  poni- 
eudose  en  fila  cincuenta  iudios,  uno  delaute  de  otro,  con  sus  arcos  y  flechas 
y  con  nna  rodilla  en  tierra.'  Beaumont,  Oron.  de  Mechoacan,  MS.,  p.  241. 
See  also  Ribas,  Hist,  de  los  Triumphos,  pp.  9,  18,  76,  473-4;  Padilla,  Conq. 
N.  Galicia,  MS.,  p.  522;  Guzman,  Ed.  Anon.,  in  Icazbalceta,  Col.  de  Doc., 
torn,  ii.,  pp.  301-2;  Hazart,  Ifirchen-Geschichte,  torn,  ii.,  p.  539;  Ferry,  Scenes 
de  le  vie  Sauvage,  p.  76;  Artec/id,  Chron.  de  Zacatecas,  p.  150;  Coronado,  in 
HakluyVs  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  363;  Gallatin,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy., 
1851,  torn,  cxxxi  ,  p.  256. 

219  See  Combier,  Voy..  p.  157;  Murr,  Nachrichten,  pp.  307,  335,  337; 
ZHsmp.  Topor/.,  iu  DM.  Hist.  M^x.,  serieiv.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  114;  Hardy's  Trav., 
p.  290. 


PROPERTY  OF  CERIS,  6PATAS,  AND  YAQUIS.  583 

hair  into  strong  cords;  they  also  use  undressed  hides  cut 
in  strips,  and  coarse  aloe-fibres.250 

No  boats  or  canoes  are  employed  hy  any  of  the  na 
tives  of  this  region ;  but  the  Ceris,  the  Tiburones,  and 
the  Tepocas  make  rafts  of  reeds  or  bamboos,  fastened 
together  into  bundles.  These  rafts  are  about  eighteen 
feet  long  and  tapering  toward  both  ends ;  some  are  large 
enough  to  carry  four  or  five  men;  they  are  propelled 
with  a  double-bladed  paddle,  held  in  the  middle  and 
worked  alternately  on  both  sides.251 

Subsequent  to  the  conquest,  the  Opatas  and  Yaquis. 
accumulated  large  flocks  of  sheep,  cattle,  and  bands  of 
horses;  the  latter  are  good  miners,  and  expert  divers^for 
pearls.  Their  old  communistic  ideas  follow  them  in 
their  new  life;  thus,  the  landed  property  of  the  Tara- 
humares  is  from  time  to  time  repartitioned ;  they  have 
also  a  public  asylum  for  the  sick,  helpless,  and  for  or-: 
phans,  who  are  taken  care  of  by  male  and  female  officials 
called  tenanches.  Pearls,  turquoises,  emeralds,  coral, 
feathers,  and  gold  were  in  former  times  part  of  their 
property,  and  held  the  place  of  money;  trade,  for  the 
most  part,  was  carried  on  by  simple  barter.252 

The  Northern  Mexicans  make  no  pretensions  to  art; 
nevertheless,  Guzman  states  that  in  the  province  of 
Culiacan  the  walls  of  the  houses  were  decorated  with 


230  '  Vsanan  el  arte  de  hilar,  y  texer  algodon,  o  otras  yeruas  siluestres, 
como  el  Canarao  de  Castilla,  o  Pita.'  Ribas,  Ifist  de  los  Trimnphos,  pp.  12,  200. 
For  the  Yaquis,  see  Velasco,  Noticias  de  Sonora,  p.  73;  for  the  6patas  and 
Jovas,  Sonora,  Descrip.  Geog.,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii..  torn,  iv.,  pp. 
550-2;  and  for  the  Tarahumares,  Murr,  Nachrichten,  p.  344;  Cabeza  de  Vaca, 
Relation,  pp.  16B,  174;  Id.,  iu  Ramusio,  Navigations,  torn,  iii.,  fol.  327;  La- 
chapdle,  Raousset-Boulbon,  pp.  79-80. 

251  '  El  indio  tomando  el  asta  por  medio,  boga  con  gran  destreza  por  uno 
y  otro  lado.'  Aleyre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  iii.,  p.  119.  '  Aii  Indian  pad 
dles  himself.  . .  .by  means  of  along  elastic  pole  of  about  twelve  or  fourteen 
feet  in  length.'  Hardy's  Trav.,  pp.  297,  291.  See  also  Niza,  in  Hakluyt's. 
Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  366;  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  Relation,  in  Tcrnaux-Compans,  Voy., 
serie  i.,  torn,  vii.,  p.  250;  Ulloa,  in  Ramusio,  Nacifjationi,  torn,  iii.,  fol.  342. 
252  The  Carrizos  '  no  tienen  caballos,  pero  en  cambio,  sus  pueblos  estnu/ 
llenos  de  perros.'  .Berlandier  y  Thovel,  Diario,  p.  70.  The  Tahus  'sacri- 
fiaient  une  partie  de  leurs  richesses,  qui  consistaient  en  etoffes  et  en  tur 
quoises.'  Castnneda,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy..  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  p.  150. 
Compare  further,  Combitr,  Voy.,  pp.  200-1;  Zuniqd,  in  Escudero,  Noticias  de 
Sonora  y  Sinaloa,  p.  135;  Mat.  in  1812,  p.  G8;  Froebel,  Aus  Amerika,  torn. 
ji.r  p.  260;  Id.,  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  38Q;.Caleza  de  Vaca,  Relation,  p.  167. 


584  NEW  MEXICANS. 

obscene  paintings.  They  are  all  great  observers  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  and  the  changes  in  the  atmosphere; 
the  Yaquis  count  their  time  by  the  moon.  They  are 
good  musicians,  imitating  to  perfection  on  their  own  in 
struments  almost  any  strain  they  happen  to  hear.  Their 
native  melodies  are  low,  sweet,  and  harmonious.  In 
Petatlan  they  embroidered  dresses  with  pearls,  and  as 
they  had  no  instrument  for  piercing  the  jewel,  they  cut 
a  small  groove  round  it,  and  so  strung  them.  With 
pearls  they  formed  on  cloth  figures  of  animals  and 
birds.253 

I  find  nowhere  in  this  region  any  system  of  laws  or 
government.  There  are  the  usual  tribal  chieftains, 
selected  on  account  of  superior  skill  or  bravery,  but  with 
little  or  no  power  except  in  war  matters.  Councils 
of  war,  and  all  meetings  of  importance,  are  held  at  the 
chief's  house.254 

The  Ceris  and  Tepocas  celebrate  the  advent  of  woman 
hood  with  a  feast,  which  lasts  for  several  days.  The 
Ahome  maiden  wears  on  her  neck  a  small  carved  shell, 
as  a  sign  of  her  virginity,  to  lose  which  before  marriage 
is  a  lasting  disgrace.  On  the  day  of  marriage  the  bride 
groom  removes  this  ornament  from  his  bride's  neck.  It 
is  customary  among  most  of  the  tribes  to  give  presents 
to  the  girl's  parents.  The  Tahus,  says  Castaiieda,  are 
obliged  to  purchase  a  maiden  from  her  parents,  and 
deliver  her  to  the  cacique*59,  chief,  or  possibly  high  priest, 

253  '  Son  grandes  observadores  de  los  Astros,  porque  como  siempre  duer- 
men  a  Cielo  descubierto,  y  estaii  hechos  a  miravlos,  se  marabillau  de  qualquier 
nueva  impression,  que  registran  en  los  Cielos.'  AliegvA,  Chron.  de  Zacatecas, 
p.  175.     Among  the  Yaquis,  '  hay  asimismo  musicos  de  violin  y  arpa,  todo 
por  puro  ingenio,  sin  que  se  pueda  decir  que  se  les  hayan  ensenado  las  pri- 
ineras  reglas.'    Vdasco,  Noticias  de  Sonora,  p.  74.    See  also  Ribas,  Hist,  de  los 
Triumphos,  p.  12;  De  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  285;  Castaneda,  in  Ternaux-Com- 
pans,   Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  p.  152;  Comlier,  Voy.,  p.  201;  Murr,  Nachrich- 
ten,  p.  370;  PadWa,  Conq.  N.  Galicia,  MS.,  p.  80. 

254  '  Leyes,  ni  Reyes  que  castigassen  tales  vicios  y  pecados,  no  los  tuuie- 
ron,  ni  se  hallaua  entre  ellos  genero  de  autoridad  y  gouierno  politico  que  los 
castigasse.'  Ribas,   Hist,   de  los    Triumphos,   p.  11;  Combier,   Voy.,   p.   200; 
Ahumada,  Carta,  in  Doc.  Hist.   Mex.,   serie  iv.,   toni.  iii.,   p.  96;  Espejo    in 
HakluyVs  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  381. 

*w  The  word  cacique,  which  was  used  by  the  Spaniards  to  designate  the 
chiefs  and  rulers  of  provinces  and  towns  throughout  the  West  Indies, 
Central  America,  Mexico,  and  Peru,  is  originally  taken  from  the  Cuban 
language.  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  595,  explains  it  as  follows: 


MARRIAGE  AND  POLYGAMY.  585 

to  whom  was  accorded  the  drolt  de  seigneur.  If  the 
bride  proves  to  be  no  virgin,  all  the  presents  are  returned 
by  her  parents,  and  it  is  optional  with  the  bridegroom  to 
keep  her  or  condemn  her  to  the  life  of  a  public  pros 
titute.  The  Bauzarigames,  Cabezas,  Contotores,  and 
Tehuecos  practice  polygamy  and  inter-family  marriages, 
but  these  are  forbidden  by  the  Ceris,  Chinipas,  Tibur- 
ones,  and  Tepocas.  Different  ceremonies  take  place 
upon  the  birth  of  the  first  child.  Among  some,  the 
father  is  intoxicated,  and  in  that  state  surrounded  by  a 
dancing  multitude,  who  score  his  body  till  the  blood 
flows  freely.  Among  others,  several  days  after  the  birth 
of  a  male  child,  the  men  visit  the  house,  feel  each  limb 
of  the  newly  born,  exhort  him  to  be  brave,  and  finally 
give  him  a  name;  women  perform  similar  ceremonies 
with  female  children.  The  couvade  obtains  in  certain 
parts;  as  for  instance,  the  Lagunero  and  Ahomama 
husbands,  after  the  birth  of  a  child,  remain  in  bed  for 
six  or  seven  days,  during  which  time  they  eat  neither 
fish  nor  meat.  The  Sisibotaris,  Ahomes,  and  Tepehua- 
nes  hold  chastity  in  high  esteem,  and  both  their  maid 
ens  and  matrons  are  remarkably  chaste.  The  standard 
of  morality  elsewhere  in  this  vicinity  is  in  general  low, 
especially  with  the  Acaxees  and  Tahus,  whose  incestuous 
connections  and  system  of  public  brothels  are  notorious. 
According  to  Arlegui,  Ribas,  and  other  authors,  among 
some  of  these  nations  male  concubinage  prevails  to  a 
great  extent ;  these  loathsome  semblances  of  humanity, 
whom  to  call  beastly  were  a  slander  upon  beasts,  dress 
themselves  in  the  clothes  and  perform  the  functions  of 
women,  the  use  of  weapons  even  being  denied  them.256 

'  Cacique:  senor,  jefe  absolute  6  rey  de  una  comarca  6  Estado.  En  nuestros 
dias  suele  emplearse  esta  voz  en  algunas  poblaciones  de  la  parte  oriental  de 
Cuba,  para  desigriar  al  regidor  decano  de  un  ayuntamiento.  Asi  se  dice: 
Regidor  cacique.  Metaforicamente  tiene  aplicacion  en  nuestra  peninsula, 
para  designar  a  los  que  en  los  pueblos  pequenos  llevan  la  voz  y  gobiernau  a 
su  antojo  y  capricho.' 

236  '  Juntos  grandes  y  pequenos  ponen  a  los  mocetones  y  inujeres  casa- 
deras  en  dos  hileras,  y  dada  una  seiia  emprenden  a  correr  estas;  dada  otra 
siguen  la  carrera  aquellos,  y  alcanzaiidolas,  ha  de  cojer  cada  uno  la  suya  de 
la  tetilla  izquierda;  y  quedan  hechos  y  confirmados  los  desposorios.'  Sonora, 
Descrip.  Geoy.,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  542-3.  'Unos  se 


586  NEW  MEXICANS. 

Drunkenness  prevails  to  a  great  extent  among  most  of 
the  tribes ;  their  liquors  are  prepared  from  the  fruit  of 
the  pitahaya,  mezquite-beans,  agave,  honey,  and  wheat. 
In  common  with  all  savages,  they  are  immoderately  fond 
of  dancing,  and  have  numerous  feasts,  where,  with  ob 
scene  carousals  and  unseemly  masks,  the  revels  continue, 
until  the  dancers,  from  sheer  exhaustion  or  intoxication, 
are  forced  to  rest.  The  Opatas  hold  a  festival  called 
torom  raqui.  to  insure  rain  and  good  crops.  Clearing  a 
square  piece  of  ground,  they  strew  it  with  seeds,  bones, 
boughs,  horns,  and  shells;  the  actors  then  issue  forth 
from  huts  built  on  the  four  corners  of  the  square,  and 
there  dance  from  sunrise  to  sunset.  On  the  first  day  of 
the  year  they  plant  in  the  ground  a  long  pole,  to  which 
are  tied  long  ribbons  of  many  colors.  A  number  of 
young  maidens,  fancifully  attired,  dance  round  the  pole, 
holding  the  ends  of  the  ribbons,  twisting  themselves 
nearer  or  away  from  the  center  in  beautiful  figures. 
Upon  other  occasions  they  commemorate,  in  modern 
times,  what  is  claimed  to  be  the  journey  of  the  Aztecs, 
and  the  appearance  of  Montezuma  among  them.  Hunt 
ing  and  war  expeditions  are  inaugurated  by  dances. 
Their  musical  instruments  are  flutes  and  hollow  trunks 
beaten  with  sticks  or  bones,  and  accompanied  with  song 
and  impromptu  words,  relating  the  exploits  of  their 
gods,  warriors,  and  hunters.  They  are  passionately 
fond  of  athletic  sports,  such  as  archery,  wrestling,  and 
racing ;  but  the  favorite  pastime  is  a  kind  of  foot-ball. 
The  game  is  played  between  two  parties,  with  a  large 
elastic  ball,  on  a  square  piece  of  ground  prepared  ex 
pressly  for  the  purpose.  The  players  must  strike  the 
ball  with  the  shoulders,  knees,  or  hips,  but  never  with 

casan  con  nna  muger  sola,  y  tienen  muchas  mancebas. . . .  Otras  se  casan  con 
quantas  mugeres  quieren . .  .  Otras  naciones  tienen  las  mugeres  por  comunes.' 
Arle</ui,  Chron.  de  Zacatecas,  pp.  154-7.  For  further  account  of  their  family 
relations  and  marriage  customs,  see  Ribas,  Hist,  de  los  Triumplios,  pp.  11, 
145,  171,  201,  242,  475;  Soc.  Geog.,  Bulletin,  serie  v.,  No.  96,  p.  186;  Cas- 
ianeda,  in  Teniaitx-Compans,  Voy.,  serie  i.,  torn,  ix.,  pp.  150,  152,  155,  158; 
Hazart,  Kirchen-Geschichte,  torn,  ii.,  p.  541;  Padilla,  Conq.  N.  Galicia,  3/N., 
p.  530;  Alegre,  Hist.  Camp,  de  Jesus,  tom.  i.,  p.  452;  Arista,  in  Id.,  p.  417; 
JBerlandier  'y  Thovel,  Diario,  p.  70;  Combier,  Voy.,  p.  201;  Lowenstern,  Mexi- 
que,  p.  409. 


CUSTOMS  IN  NORTHERN  MEXICO.  587 

the  hand.  Frequently  one  village  challenges  another 
as  upon  the  occasion  of  a  national  festival,  which  lasts 
several  days,  and  is  accompanied  with  dancing  and 
feasting.  They  have  also  games  with  wooden  balls,  in 
which  sticks  are  used  when  playing.  The  players  are 
always  naked,  and  the  game  often  lasts  from  sunrise  to 
sunset,  and  sometimes,  when  the  victory  is  undecided, 
the  play  will  be  continued  for  several  successive  days. 
Bets  are  freely  made,  and  horses  and  other  property 
staked  with  the  greatest  recklessness.257 

Loads  are  carried  on  the  head,  or  in  baskets  at  the 
back,  hanging  from  a  strap  that  passes  across  the  fore 
head.  Another  mode  of  carrying  burdens  is  to  dis 
tribute  equally  the  weight  at  both  ends  of  a  pole  which 
is  slung  across  the  shoulder,  a  la  Ckiiwise.  Their  concep 
tions  of  the  supernatural  are  extremely  crude ;  thus,  the 
Opatas,  by  yells  and  gesticulations,  endeavor  to  dispel 
eclipses  of  the  heavenly  bodies;  before  the  howling  of 
the  wind  they  cower  as  before  the  voice  of  the  Great 
Spirit.  The  Ceris  superstitiously  celebrate  the  new 
moon,  and  bow  reverentially  to  the  rising  and  setting 
sun.  Nuiio  de  Guzman  states  that  in  the  province  of 
Culiacan  tamed  serpents  were  found  in  the  dwellings  of 
the  natives,  which  they  feared  and  venerated.  Others 
have  a  great  veneration  for  the  hidden  virtues  of  poison 
ous  plants,  and  believe  that  if  they  crush  or  destroy 
one,  some  harm  will  happen  to  them.  It  is  a  common 

237  Les  Yaquis  '  aiment  surtout  une  danse  appelee  tutuli  gamuchi dans 

laquelle  ils  changent  de  femmes  en  se  cedant  reciproquement  tous  leurs 
droits  conjugaux.'  Zuniya,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1842,  torn,  xciii.,  pp. 
238-9.  The  Sisibotaris;  'En  las  danzas..  fue  muy  de  notar  que  aunque 
danzaban  juntos  hombres  y  mugeres,  ni  se  hablaban  ni  se  tocaban  inmedia-' 
tamente  las  manos.'  Aler/re,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  ii.,  p.  124,  and  torn, 
i.,  pp.  405-7.  In  the  province  of  Panuco,  '  cuando  estan  en  sus  borrache- 
ras  e  fiestas,  lo  que  no  pueden  beber  por  la  boca,  se  lo  hacen  echar  por 
bajo  con  un  embudo.'  Guzman,  Rel.  Anon.,  in  Icazbalceta,  Col.  de  Doc.,  torn, 
ii.,  p.  295.  See  further,  Ribas,  Hist,  de  los  Triwnphos,  pp.  9,  15,  256,  672; 
M>irr,  Nachrichten,  pp.  321,  343,  345;  De  Laet.  Novus  Orbis,  p.  287;  Padllla, 
Conq.  N.  Galicia,  MS.,  pp.  519,  530;  Castaneda,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy.t 


p. 
Id.,  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  381;  Sevln,  inLond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxx.,  p.  25. 


583  NEW  MEXICANS. 

custom  to  hang  a  small  bag  containing  poisonous  herbs 
round  the  neck  of  a  child,  as  a  talisman  against  diseases 
or  attacks  from  wild  beasts,  which  they  also  believe  will 
render  them  invulnerable  in  battle.  They  will  not  touch 
a  person  struck  by  lightning,  and  will  leave  him  to  die, 
or,  if  dead,  to  lie  unburied.258 

Intermittent  and  other  fevers  prevail  among  the  peo 
ple  of  Northern  Mexico.  Small-pox,  introduced  by 
Europeans,  has  destroyed  many  lives;  syphilis  was  in 
troduced  among  the  Carrizos  by  the  Spanish  troops. 
The  Tarahumares  suffer  from  pains  in  the  side  about  the 
end  of  the  spring.  The  Opatas  of  Oposura  are  disfig 
ured  by  goitres,  but  this  disease  seems  to  be  confined 
within  three  leagues  of  the  town.  Wounds  inflicted  by 
arrows,  many  of  them  poisoned,  and  bites  of  rattle 
snakes  are  common.  Friends,  and  even  parents  and 
brothers  leave  to  their  fate  such  as  are  suffering  from 
contagious  diseases;  they,  however,  place  water  and  wild 
fruits  within  the  sufferer's  reach.  To  relieve  their 
wearied  legs  and  feet  after  long  marches,  they  scarify 
the  former  with  sharp  flints.  In  extreme  cases  they 
rub  themselves  with  the  maguey's  prickly  leaf  well 
pounded,  which,  acting  as  an  emollient  on  their  hardened 
bodies,  affords  them  prompt  relief.  The  Carrizos  cure 
syphilis  with  certain  plants,  the  medicinal  properties  of 
which  are  known  to  them.  As  a  purgative  they  use  the 
grains  of  the  maguacate,  and  as  a  febrifuge  the  cenicitta 
(teraina  frutescensj.  With  the  leaves  of  the  latter 
they  make  a  decoction  which,  mixed  with  hydromel,  is 
an  antidote  for  intermittent  fevers.  They  also  use  the 


258  The  Opatas  have  '  grande  respeto  y  veneracion  que  hasta  hoy  tienen 
a  los  hombrecitos  pequenos  y  contrahechos,  a  quienes  temen  y  franquean  su 
casa  y  comida.'  tionora,  Descrip.  Geog.,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serieiii.,  torn,  iv., 
p.  628.  '  Aiigulis  atque  adytis  angues  complures  reperti,  peregrinum  in  rno- 
dum  conglobati,  capitibus  supra  et  infra  exsertis,  terribili  rictu,  si  quis  pro- 
puis  accessisset,  caeterum  inuocui;  quos  barbari  vel  maxirne  venerabantur, 
quod  diabolus  ipsis  hac  forma  apparere  consuesset:  eosdem  tamen  et  mani- 
bus  contrectabant  et  nonnunquam  iis  vescebantur.'  De  Lad,  Novus  Orbis,  p. 
284.  Further  reference  in  Itibas,  Hist,  de  los  Triumphos,  p.  472;  Ovitdo, 
Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  574-5;  Lachapelle,  Raousset-Boulbon,  p.  79;  Cabezade 
Vaca,  Relation,  p.  169;  Arlcyui,  Chron.  de  Zacatecas,  pp.  166-7;  Sevin,  in 
Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  voL  xxx.,  p.  26. 


MEDICAL  TREATMENT.  589 

leaves  of  the  willow  in  decoction,  as  a  remedy  for  the 
same  complaint.  In  Sinaloa,  the  leaf  and  roots  of  the 
guaco  are  used  by  the  natives  as  the  most  efficacious 
medicine  for  the  bites  of  poisonous  reptiles.  The  Opatas 
employ  excellent  remedies  for  the  diseases  to  which  they 
are  subject.  They  have  a  singular  method  of  curing 
rattlesnake  bites,  a  sort  of  retaliative  cure;  seizing  the 
reptile's  head  between  two  sticks,  they  stretch  out  the 
tail  and  bite  it  along  the  body,  and  if  we  may  believe 
Alegre,  the  bitten  man  does  not  swell  up,  but  the  reptile 
does,  until  it  bursts.  In  some  parts,  if  a  venomous  snake 
bites  a  person,  he  seizes  it  at  both  ends,  and  breaks 
all  its  bones  with  his  teeth  until  it  is  dead,  imagining 
this  to  be  an  efficacious  means  of  saving  himself  from 
the  effect  of  the  wounds.  Arrow  wounds  are  first 
sucked,  and  then  peyote  powder  is  put  into  them;  after 
two  days  the  wound  is  cleaned,  and  more  of  the  same 
powder  applied ;  this  operation  is  continued  upon  every 
second  day,  and  finally  powdered  lechugilla-root  is  used ; 
by  this  process  the  wound,  after  thoroughly  suppurat 
ing,  becomes  healed.  Out  of  the  leaves  of  the  maguey, 
lechugilla,  and  date-palm,  as  well  as  from  the  rosemary, 
they  make  excellent  balsams  for  curing  wounds.  They 
have  various  vegetable  substances  for  appeasing  the  thirst 
of  wounded  persons,  as  water  is  considered  injurious. 
The  Acaxees  employ  the  sucking  processes,  and  blowing 
through  a  hollow  tube,  for  the  cure  of  diseases.  The 
Yaquis  put  a  stick  into  the  patient's  mouth,  and  with  it 
draw  from  the  stomach  the  disease ;  the  Ceris  of  Tiburon 
Island  also  employ  charms  in  their  medical  practice.259 

I  find  nothing  of  cremation  in  these  parts.  The 
dead  body  is  brought  head  and  knees  together,  and 

259  « Quando  entre  los  Indies  ay  algun  contagio,  que  es  el  de  viruelas 
el  mas  contmuo,  de  que  muereu  innumerables,  nrndan  cada  dia  lugares,  y 
se  van  a  los  mas  retirados  montes,  buscando  los  sitios  mas  espinosos  y  en- 
maraiiados,  para  que  de  miedo  de  las  espinas,  no  entren  (segun  juzgan,  y 
como  cierto  lo  afirman)  las  viruelas.'  Arlegui,  Chron.  de  Zacatecas,  pp.  152-3, 
182.  See  also,  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  ptii.,  p.  431;  Berlandlery  Thovel, 
Diario,  pp.  70-1;  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  i.,  p.  399rtom.  ii.,  t>p. 
213-4,  219-20;  Elba*,  IHst.  de  los  Triumphos,  pp.  17,  322-3;  Loicenslern, 
Mexique,  p.  411;  Hardy's  Trav.,  p.  282;  Sonora,  Descrip,  Geog.,  in  Doc.  Hist. 
Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  pp.  547-8. 


590  NEW  MEXICANS, 

placed  in  a  cave  or  under  a  rock.  Several  kinds  of  edibles, 
with  the  utensils  and  implements  with  which  the  de 
ceased  earned  a  support  while  living,  are  deposited  in 
the  grave,  also  a  small  idol,  to  serve  as  a  guide  and  fel 
low  traveler  to  the  departed  on  the  long  journey.  On 
the  lips  of  dead  infants  is  dropped  milk  from  the 
mother's  breast,  that  these  innocents  may  have  suste 
nance  to  reach  their  place  of  rest.  Among  the  Acaxees, 
if  a  woman  dies  in  childbirth,  the  infant  surviving  is 
slain,  as  the  cause  of  its  mother's  death.  Cutting  the 
hair  is  the  only  sign  of  mourning  among  them.260 

The  character  of  the  Northern  Mexicans,  as  portrayed 
by  Arlegui,  is  gross  and  low ;  but  some  of  these  tribes 
do  not  deserve  such  sweeping  condemnation.  The 
Mayos,  Yaquis,  Acaxees,  and  Opatas  are  generally  in 
telligent,  honest,  social,  amiable,  and  intrepid  in  war; 
their  young  women  modest,  with  a  combination  of  sweet 
ness  and  pride  noticed  by  some  writers.  The  Opatas 
especially  are  a  hard-working  people,  good-humored,  free 
from  intemperance  and  thievishness;  they  are  also  very 
tenacious  of  purpose,  when  their  minds  are  made  up 
—danger  often  strengthening  their  stubbornness  the 
more.  The  Sisibotaris,  Ahomamas,  Onavas,  and  Tara- 
hurnares  are  quiet  and  docile,  but  brave  when  occa 
sion  requires ;  the  last-mentioned  are  remarkably,  hon 
est.  The  Tepocas  and  Tiburones  are  fierce,  cruel,  and 
treacherous,  more  warlike  and  courageous  than  the 
Ceris  of  the  main  land,  who  are  singularly  devoid  of 
good  qualities,  being  sullenly  stupid,  lazy,  inconstant, 
revengeful,  depredating,  and  much  given  to  intemper 
ance.  Their  country  even  has  become  a  refuge  for  evil 
doers.  In  former  times  they  were  warlike  and  brave: 
but  even  this  quality  they  have  lost,  and  have  become  as 
cowardly  as  they  are  cruel.  The  Tepehuanes  and  other 
mountaineers  are  savage  and  warlike,  and  their  animosity 
to  the  whites  perpetual.  The  Laguneros  and  other  tribes 
of  Coahuila  are  intelligent,  domestic,  and  hospitable; 
the  former  especially  are  very  brave.  In  Chihuahua 

260  See  SchoolcrafVs  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  516;   Villa,  in  Prieto,  Viajes,  p.  443. 


CHARACTER.    TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES.  591 

they  are  generally  fierce  and  uncommunicative.  At  El 
Paso,  the  women  are  more  jovial  and  pleasant  than  the 
men;  the  latter  speak  but  little,  never  laugh,  and  seldom 
smile;  their  whole  aspect  seems  to  be  wrapped  in  mel 
ancholy — everything  about  it  has  a  semblance  of  sad- 
.  ness  and  suffering.*1 

261  '  Las  mas  cle  las  naciones  referidas  son  totalmente  Barbaras,  y  de  gro- 
seros  eutendimientos;  gente  baxa.'  Arlegui,  Chron.  de  Zacatecas,  p.  149.  The 
Yaquis:  '  by  far  the  most  industrious  and  useful  of  all  the  other  tribes  in 
Sonora. ..  .celebrated  for  the  exuberance  of  their  wit.'  Hardy's  Trav.,  pp. 
439,  442.  '  Los  6  >at:is  sou  tan  honrados  como  valientes ....  la  nacion  opata  es 
pacifica,  ddc-il,  y  hasta  cierto  puuto  diferente  cle  todas  los  clemas  ind- genus 
del  continente  . .  .son  amantes  deltrabajo.'  Zuniga,  in  Escudero,  Xolidas  de 
Sonora  y  Sinaloa,  pp.  139-41.  '  La  tribu  opata  fue  la  que  manifesto  un  earac- 

ter  franco,  dacil,  y  con  simpatfas  a  los  blancos siempre  fue  iuclinada  al 

drden  y  la  paz.'  Velasco,  Notic'ias  de  Sonora,  pp.  151,  117.  The  Opatas  '  son 
de  genio  malicioso,  disimulados  yen  sumo  grado  vengativos;  y  en  esto  sobre- 
saleu  las  mujeres.'  Sonora,  Descrip.  Geog.,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn, 
iv.,  pp.  629-30.  See  also:  Ribas,  Hist,  de  los  Triumphos,  pp.  237,  285,  358, 
339,  385; Ilartlett's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  442-3;  Ward's  Mexico,  vol.  i.  p. 
583,  vol.  ii.,  p.  606;  Combier,  Voy.,  pp.  198-201;  Malte-Brun,  Sonora,  pp. 
13-14;  Browne's  Apache  Country,  p.  248;  Lachapelle,  Raoussd-Boulbon,  p.  79; 
Cabeza  de  Vaca,  Relation,  pp.  169,  176;  Arricivita,  Cronica  Serdfica,  pp.  405, 
442;  Alegre,  Hist.  Cornp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  i.,  pp.  284,  402-3,  405,  452,  and  torn, 
ii.,  p.  184;  Padilla,  Conq.  N.  Galicia,  MS.,  pp.  80,  84;  Berlandier  y  Thovel, 
Diario,  pp.  69-70;  Garcia  Conde,  in  Album  Mex.,  torn,  i.,  p.  93. 


TRIBAL    BOUNDARIES. 

To  the  New  Mexican  group  belong  the  nations  inhabiting  the  territory 
lying  between  the  parallels  36°  and  23J  of  north  latitude,  and  the  meridians 
96"  and  117J  of  west  longitude;  that  is  to  say,  the  occupants  of  the  states  of 
New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Lower  California,  Sonora,  Sinaloa,  Chihuahua,  Du- 
rango,  Coahuila,  Nuevo  Leon,  Northern  Zacatecas,  and  Western  Texas. 

Ix  THE  APACHE  FAMILY,  I  include  all  the  savage  tribes  roaming  through 
New  Mexico,  ths  north-western  portion  of  Texas,  a  small  part  of  Northern 
Mexico,  and  Arizona;  being  the  Comanches,  Apaches  proper,  Navajos,  Mo- 
javes,  Hualapais,  Yumas,  Cosninoi,  Yampais,  Yalchedunes,  Yamajabs, 
Cochees,  Cruzados,  Nijoras,  Cocopas,  and  others. 

The  Comanches  inhabit  Western  Texas,  Eastern  New  Mexico,  and  Eastern 
Mexico,  and  from  the  Arkansas  River  north  to  near  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
south,  rtangc  '  over  the  plains  of  the  Arkansas  from  the  vicinity  of  Bent's 
fort,  at  the  parallel  of  38°,  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  . . .  from  the  eastern  base 
of  the  Llano  Estacado  to  about  the  meridian  of  longitude  98th.'  Pope,  in 
Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  16.  Prom  the  western  border  of  the  Choctaw  coun 
try  '  uninterruptedly  along  the  Canadian  to  Tucumcari  creek  and  thence, 
occasionally,  to  Rio  Pecos.  From  this  line  they  pursue  the  buffalo  north 
ward  as  far  as  the  Sionx  country,  and  on  the  south  are  scarcely  limited  by 
the  frontier  settlements  of  Mexico.'  Whipple,  Eiobank,  and  Turner's  Rept.,  p. 


592  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

8,  in  Pac.  R.  E.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.  'During  summer.  .  .as  far  north  as  the 
Arkansas  river,  their  winters  they  usually  pass  about  the  head  branches  of 
the  Brazos  and  Colorado  rivers  of  Texas.'  Gregg's  Com.  Prairies,  vol.  ii.,  p. 
307.  •  Between  102°  and  104°  longitude  and  33^  and  37°  north  latitude.' 
Norton,  in  Lid.  Aff.  Rept.,  1866,  p.  146.  'About  thirteen  thousand  square 
miles  of  the  southern  portion  of  Colorado,  and  probably  a  much  larger  extent 
of  the  neighboring  States  of  Kansas  and  Texas,  and  Territory  of  New  Mexico 
and  the  "  Indian  country,"  are  occupied  by  the  Kioways  and  Comanches.' 
Dole,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1862,  p.  34;  Evans  and  Collins,  in  Id.,  pp.  230,  242; 
Martinez,  in  Ind.  Aff.  RepL.  Spec.  Com.,  1867,  p.  487.  '  En  Invierno  se  acercan 
a  Tejas,  y  en  Estio  a  la  sierra  de  Santa  Fe.'  Berlandier  y  Thovel,  Diario,  p. 
251.  'Comanches  ou  Hietans  (Eubaous,  Yetas),  dans  le  nord-ouest  du 
Texas.'  Gallatin,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1852,  torn,  cxxxiii.,  p.  225. 
'  Originaire  du  Nouveau-Mexique ;  mais. . .  .ils  descendent  souvent  dans  les 
plaines  de  la  Basse-Calif ornie  et  de  la  Sonora.'  Soc.  Geog.,  Bulletin,  serie  v., 
No.  96,  p.  192.  '  Range  east  of  the  mountains  of  New  Mexico.'  Bent,  in  School- 
craft's  Arch.,  vol.  i.,  p.  244.  'In  dem  uucultivirten  Theile  des  Bolson  de 
Mapimi'  (Chihuahua).  Wappiius,  Geog.  u.  Stat.,  p.  214;  Froebel,  Aus  Amerika, 
torn,  ii.,  pp.  221-2.  'Entre  la  riviere  Rouge  et  le  Missouri,  et  traversent  el 
Rio-Bravo-del-Norte.'  Dufey,  Resume  de  I'Hist.,  torn,  i.,  p.  4.  'Upon  the 
south  and  west  side'  of  the  Rio  Brazos.  Marcy's  Rept.,  p.  217;  Marcy's  Army 
Life,  pp.  43-6.  '  Im  Westen  des  Missisippi  und  des  Arcansas . . .  .und  bis  an 
das  linke  Ufer  des  Rio  Grande.'  Ludecus,  Reise,  p.  104.  'Range  from  the 
sources  of  the  Brazos  and  Colorado,  rivers  of  Texas,  over  the  great  Prairies, 
to  the  waters  of  the  Arkansas  and  the  mountains  of  Rio  Grande.'  Ludeicig's 
Ab.  Lang.,  p.  51.  Concurrent  statements  in  Wilson's  Amer.  Hist.,  p.  625; 
Prichard's  Nat.  Hist.  Man,  vol.  ii.,  p.  549;  Ward's  Mexico,  vol.  ii.,  p.  557; 
Moore's  Texas,  p.  30;  Dewees'  Texas,  p.  233;  Holley's  Texas,  p.  152;  Dragoon 
Camp,  p.  153.  '  La  iiacion  comanche,  que  esta  situada  entre  el  Estado  de 
Texas  y  el  de  Nuevo  Mexico . . . .  se  compone  de  las  siguientes  tribus  d  pueb 
los,  a  saber:  Yaparehca,  Cuhtzuteca,  Penande,  Pacarabo,  Caiguaras,  Noconi 
6  Yiuhta,  Napuat  ;6  Quetahtore,  Yapaine,  Muviuabore,  Sianabone,  Caigua, 
Sarritehca  y  Quitzaene.'  Garcia  Rejon,  in  Pimentel,  Cuadro,  torn,  ii.,  p.  347. 
'  Extends  from  the  Witchita  Mountains  as  far  as  New  Mexico,  and  is  divided 
into  four  bands,  called  respectively  the  Cuchanticas,  the  Tupes,  the  Yam- 
paxicas,  and  the  Eastern  Comanches.'  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  21. 
See  also:  Kennedy's  Texas,  vol.  i.,  p.  344,  348-9;  Foote's  Texas,  vol.  i.,  p. 
298;  Frost's  Ind.  Wars,  p.  293. 

The  Apaches  may  be  said  to  '  extend  from  the  country  of  the  Utahs,  in 
latitude  38 J  north  to  about  the  30th  parallel.'  Bartlett's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  1.,  p. 
325.  'Along  both  sides  of  the  Rio  Grande,  from  the  southern  limits  of  the 
Navajo  country  at  the  parallel  of  34:.  to  the  extreme  southern  line  of  the 
Territory,  and  from  thence  over  the  States  of  Chihuahua,  Sonora,  and  Du- 
rango,  of  Mexico.  Their  range  eastward  is  as  far  as  the  valley  of  the  Pecos, 
and  they  are  found  as  far  to  the  west  as  the  Pimos  villages  on  the  Gila.' 
Pope,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Repi.,  vol,  ii.,  p.  13.  Scattered  'throughout  the  whole 
of  Arizona,  a  large  part  of  New  Mexico,  and  all  the  northern  portion  of  Chi 
huahua  and  Sonora,  and  in  some  parts  of  Durango.'  Cremony's  Apaches,  p. 


APACHE  TRIBES.  593 

141.     Range  'over  some  portions  of  California,  most  of  Sonora,  the  frontiers 

of  Durango,  and Chihuahua.'  Gregg's  Com.  Prairies,  vol.  i.,  p.  291.    Apats- 

chee,  a  nation  'welche  um  ganz  Neu-Biscaya,  und  auch  an  Tarahumara 
granzet.'  Steffel,  in  Murr,  Nachrichten,  p.  302.  '  Reicht  das  Gebiet  der 
Apache-Indianer  vom  103.  bis  zum  114.  Grad.  westlicher  Lange  von  Green 
wich,  und  von  den  Grenzen  des  Utah-Gebietes,  deni  38.  Grad,  bis  himmter 
zum  30.  Grad  nordlicher  Breite.'  Mollhausen,  Tagebitch,  p.  229.  Inhabit  'all 
the  country  north  and  south  of  the  Gila,  and  both  sides  of  the  Del  Norte, 
about  the  parallel  of  the  Jornada  and  Dead  Man's  lakes."  Emory's  Recon 
naissance,  p.  132.  '  Tota  hcec  regio,  quam  No  vain  Mexicanam  vocant,  ab 
omnibus  pene  lateribus  arnbitur  ab  Apachibus.'  De  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  316. 
•  Recorren  las  provincias  del  Norte  de  Mexico,  llegando  algunas  veces  hasta 
cerca  de  Zacatecas.'  Pimentel,  Cuadro,  torn,  ii.,  p.  251.  '  Derramadas  desde 
la  Intendencia  de  San  Luis  Potosi  hasta  la  extremidad  setentrional  del  golfo 
de  California.'  Balbi,  in  Orozcoy  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  385.  '  Se  extieuden  en 
el  vasto  espacio. . .  .que  comprenden  los  grados  30  a  38  de  latitud  norte,  y 
264  a  277  de  longitude  de  Tenerife.'  Cordero,  in  Id.,  p.  369;  see  also  Id., 
p.  40.  '  From  the  entrance  of  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  Gulf  of  California.' 
Pike's  Explor.  Trav.,  p.  337.  'The  southern  and  south-western  portions 
of  New  Mexico,  and  mainly  the  valley  of  the  Gila.'  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol. 
v.,  p.  203;  Bent,  in  Id.,  vol.  i.,  p.  243.  '  Scarcely  extends  farther  north  than 
Albuquerque ....  nor  more  than  two  hundred  miles  south  of  El  Paso  del 
Norte;  east,  the  vicinity  of  the  White  Mountains;  west,  generally  no  further 
than  the  borders  of  Sonora.'  Henry,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  207. 
'  Us  ont  principalement  habite  le  triangle  forme  par  le  Rio  del  Norte,  le  Gila 
et  le  Colorado  de  1'ouest.'  Turner,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1852,  torn. 
cxxxv.,  pp.  307,  313.  Concurrent  authorities:  Gallatin,  in  Id.,  1851,  torn, 
cxxxi.,  pp.  298,  301;  Malte-Brun,  Precis  de  la  Geog.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  453;  Lude- 
icig's  Ab.  Lang.,  pp.  8,  186;  Kennedy's  Texas,  vol.  i.,  p.  345;  Stanley's  Por 
traits,  p.  57;  Pattie's  Pers.  Nar.,  p.  297;  Prichard's  Nat.  Hist.  Man,  vol.  ii., 
p.  549;  Western  Scenes,  p.  233;  Will's  Hist.  Hex.,  p.  170;  Delaporte,  Reisen, 
torn,  x.,  p.  456;  Conder's  Mex.  Gnat.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  74-5;  Domenech's  Deserts, 
vol.  ii.,  pp.  4-6;  Graves,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1854,  p.  180;  Poston,  in  Id., 
1864,  p.  155;  Clark,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.  Spec.  Corn.,  1867,  p.  336. 

The  Apache  nation  is  divided  into  the  following  tribes;  Chiricaguis, 
Coyoteros,  Faraones,  Gilenos,  Copper  Mine  Apaches,  Lipaues,  Llaneros, 
Mescaleros,  Mimbreiios,  Natages,  Pelones,  Pinalenos,  Tontos,  Vaqueros,  and' 
Xicarillas. 

The  Lipanes  roam  through  western  Texas,  Coahuila,  and  the  eastern 
portion  of  Chihuahua.  Their  territory  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the 
'  lands  of  the  Llaneros;  on  the  north,  the  Comanche  country;  on  the  east, 
the  province  of  Cohagui'la;  and  on  the  south,  the  left  bank  of  the  Rio 
Grande  del  Norte.'  Cortez,  in  Pac.  E.  E.  Kept.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  119;  Whipple, 
Ewbank,  and  Turner's  Kept.,  p.  8,  in  Id.;  Pope,  in  Id.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  14.  The 
Lee  Panis  '  rove  from  the  Rio  Grande  to  some  distance  into  the  province  of 
Texas.  Their  former  residence  was  on  the  Rio  Grande,  near  the  sea  shore.' 
Pike's  Explor.  Trav.,  p.  363.  Su  'principal  asiento  es  en  Coahuila,  Nuevo 

Lecn  y  Tarnaulipas.'  Pimentel,   Cuadro,  torn,  ii.,  p.  251.     'Dividese  en  dos 
VOL  I.    38 


594  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

clases la  primera  ha  estado  enlazada  con  los  mescaleros  y  llaiieros,  y 

ocupa  los  terrenes  contiguos  a  aquellas  tribus:  la  segunda  vive  general - 
mente  en  la  frontera  de  la  provincia  de  Tejas  y  orillas  del  mar. . .  .For  el 
Pouiente  son  sus  1  unites  los  llaneros;  por  el  Norte  los  comauches;  por  el 
Oriente  los  carancaguaces  y  borrados,  provincia  de  Tejas,  y  por  el  Sur  nuestra 
frontera  (Mexico).'  Cordero,  in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia.  p.  382.  'From 
time  immemorial  has  roved  and  is  yet  roving  over  the  Bolson  de  Mapiini.' 
Wislixenus'  Tour,  p.  70.  '  Frequented  the  bays  of  Aransas  and  Corpus 
Christi,  and  the  country  lying  between  them  and  the  Rio  Grande.'  Kennedy's 
Texas,  vol.  i.,  p.  349;  Footers  Texas,  p.  298.  See  also:  Malte-Brun,  Precis  de 
.la  Geog.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  289;  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  p.  210;  Moore's  Texas,  p.  31; 
Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  6. 

The  Mescaleros  inhabit  '  the  mountains  on  both  banks  of  the  river  Pecos, 
•jus  far  as  the  mountains  that  form  the  head  of  the  Bolson  de  Mapiini,  and 
:there  terminate  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande.  Its  limit  on  the  west 
is  the  tribe  of  the  Taracones;  on  the  north,  the  extensive  territories  of  the 
Comanche  people;  on  the  east,  the  coast  of  the  Llanero  Indians;  and  on  the 
;south,  the  desert  Bolson  de  Mapimi.'  Cortez,  in  Pac.  E.  E.  Eept.,  vol.  iii.,  p. 
119.  'Im  Bolson  de  Mapimi  und  in  den  ostlichen  Granzgebirgeu  del  Cha- 
nate,  del  Diablo  puerco  und  de  los  P flares.'  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii., 
pt  ii.,  p.  521.  '  Occupent  le  Bolson  de  Mapiini,  les  moutagnes  de  Chanate, 
•«t  celles  de  los  Organos,  sur  la  rive  gauche  du  Rio  Grande  del  Norte.'  Hum- 
•boldt,  EssaiPol,  torn,  i.,  p.  289.  Live  '  east  of  the  Rio  del  Norte.'  Gregg's 
•  Com.  Prairies,  vol.  i.,  p.  290;  Carleton,  in  Smithsonian  Eept.,  1854,  p.  315; 
Western  Scenes,  p.  233;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  6;  Kennedy's  Texas, 
vol.  i.,  p.  343.  '  On  the  east  side  of  the  Rio  Grande,  and  on  both  sides  of 
;the  Pecos,  extending  up  the  latter  river. ...  to  about  the  thirty-fourth  parallel.' 
Merriwether,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1854,  p.  170-1.  See  also:  Steck,  in  Id., 
1858,  pp.  195-8,  1863,  p.  108;  Coffins,  in  Id.,  1862,  p.  240;  Cooky,  in  Id., 
1865,  p.  20;  Norton,  in  Id.,  1866,  p.  145 

'The  Copper  Mine  Apaches  occ.i^y  the  country  on  both  sides  of  the  Rio 
•Grande,  and  extend  west  to  the  country  of  the  Coyoteros  and  Pinalinos,  near 
ihe  eastern  San  Francisco  River.'  JBarllett's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  323. 

The  Faraones,  Pharaones  or  Taracones,  '  inhabit  the  mountains  between  the 
river  Grande  del  Norte  and  the  Pecos.'  Cortez,  in  Pac.  E.  E.  Eept.,  vol.  iii.,  p. 
119.  The  following  concur;  Muhlenpfordt,  SPjico,  torn,  i.,  p.  213,  torn.  ii.  pfc 
ii.,  p.  521;  Villa-Senor  y  Sanchez,  Theatro,  torn,  ii.,  p.  416;  Humboldt,  Essai 
Pol.,  torn,  i.,  p.  289. 

The  '  Xicarillas  anciently  inhabited  the  forests  of  that  name  in  the  far  ter 
ritories  to  the  north  of  New  Mexico,  until  they  were  driven  out  by  the 
Comanches,  and  now  live  on  the  limits  of  the  province,  some  of  them  having 
;gone  into  the  chasms  (canadas)  and  mountains  between  Pecuries  and  Taos, 
which  are  the  last  towns  of  the  province.'  Cortez,  in  Pac.  E.  E.  Eept.,  vol. 
iii.,  p.  119.  '  Inhabiting  the  mountains  north  of  Taos.'  Gregg's  Com.  Prai 
ries,  vol.  i.,  p.  285.  'Les  Jicorillas,  al'extremite  nord  duNouveau-Mexique.' 
Turner,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1852,  torn,  cxxxv.,  p.  310.  'From  the 
Rio  Grande  eastward  beyond  the  Red  river,  between  the  thirty-fourth  and 
thirty-seventh  parallels.'  Merriwether,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Eept.,  1854,  p.  170.  'In 


APACHE  TKIBES.  595 

the  mountains  which  lie  between  Santa  Fe,  Taos,  and  Abiquin.'  Collins,  in 
Id.,  1860,  pp.  159-60.  'At  the  Cimarron.'  Graves,  in  Id.,  1866,  p.  133. 
'Upon  Rio  Ose,  west  of  the  Rio  Grande.'  Davis,  in  Id.,  1868,  p.  160; 
Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  8. 

The  Llaueros  occupy  '  the  great  plains  and  sands  that  lie  between  the 
Pecos  and  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Grande  del  Norte.'  Cortez,  in  Pac.  R. 
R.  Kept.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  119.  Inhabit  the  '  cajoues  de  la  Cabellera  y  Pitaycachi, 
Sierra  de  Mimbres,  Lagnna  de  Guzman.'  Barrangan,  in  El  Orden,  Mex.,  Dc- 
cemb.  27,  1853.  '  Ocupan. . .  .los  llanos  y  arenales  situados  entre  el  rio  de 
Pecos,  nombrado  por  ellos  Tjunchi,  y  el  Colorado  que  llaman  Tjulchide.' 
Cordero,  in  Orozcoy  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  381;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  6. 
The  Mimbreiios  have  their  hunting  grounds  upon  the  Mimbres  Mount 
ains  and  River,  and  range  between  the  sierras  San  Mateo  and  J'lorida  on  the 
north  and  south,  and  between  the  Burros  and  Mogoyen  on  the  west  and  east. 
Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  v.,  p.  207.  'Sudlich  von  den  Apaches  Gilenos,  an 
den  Granzen  von  Chihuahua  und  Neu-Mejico  jageninden  Gebirgenim  Osten 
die  Apaches  Mimbreiios.'  Muhknpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  i.,  p.  211.  'La  pro- 
vincia  de  Nuevo  Mexico  es  su  confin  por  el  Norte;  por  el  Poniente  la  par- 
cialidad  mimbreiia;  por  el  Oriente  la  faraona,  y  por  el  Sur  nuestra  frontera.' 
Cordero,  in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  380.  See  also:  Cortez,  in  Pac.  R. 
R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  119;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  6.  '  In  the  wild 
ravines  of  the  Sierra  de  Acha.'  Mill's  Hist.  Mex.,  p.  185. 

The  Chiricaguis  adjoin  on  the  north  'the  Tontos  and  Moquinos;  on  the 
east  the  Gilenos;  and  on  the  south  and  west  the  province  of  Sonora.'  Cortez, 
in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  119.  'Live  in  th'e  mountains  of  that  name, 
the  Sierra  Largua  and  Dos  Cabaces.'  Steck,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1859,  pp. 
345-6. 

The  Toutos  '  inhabit  the  northern  side  of  the  Gila  from  Antelope  Peak 
to  the  Pimo  villages.'  Cremony's  Apaches,  p.  130.  '  Between  Rio  Verde 
and  the  Aztec  range  of  mountains,'  and  '  from  Pueblo  creek  to  the  junction 
of  Rio  Verde  with  the  Salinas.'  Whipple,  Eicbank,  and  Turner's  Rept.,  p.  14- 
15;  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii;  Cortez,  in  Id.,  p.  118.  '  Sudlich  von  den 
Wohnsitzen  der  Cocomaricopas  und  dem  Rio  Gila.'  Muhknpfordt,  Mejico, 
torn,  i.,  p.  211.  On  the  '  rio  Puerco.'  Barrangan,  in  El  Orden,  Mex.,  Decemb, 
27,  1853.  '  In  the  canons  to  the  north  and  east  of  the  Mazatsal  peaks. '  Smart, 
in  Smithsonian  Rept.,  1867,  p.  417.  See  Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xvii., 
p.  460;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  i.,  p.  185,  vol.  ii.,  p.  7.  'Inhabit  the  Tonto 
basin  from  the  Mogollon  Mountains  on  the  north  to  Salt  River  on  the  south, 
and  between  the  Sierra  Ancha  on  the  east  to  the  Mazatsal  Mountains.' 
Colyer,  in  Ind.  Aff,  Rept.,  1869,  p.  94.  'On  both  sides  of  the  Verde  from 
its  source  to  the  East  Fork,  and. . .  .around  the  headwaters  of  the  Chiquito 
Colorado,  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Black  Mesa  or  Mogollon  Mountains 

on  the  north,  to  Salt  River  on  the  south,  and  between  the  Sierra  Ancha 

on  the  east  and  the  Mazatsal  Mountains  on  the  west.'  Jones,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
Rept.,  1869,  p.  221. 

The  Pinalenos,  Pinols  or  Finals  range  '  over  an  extensive  circuit  between 
the  Sierra  Final  and  the  Sierra  Blanca.'  Bartlelt's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  308. 
'Batween  the  Colorado  Chiquito  and  Rio  Gila.'  Whipple,  Ewbank,  and  Tur- 


596  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

ner's  Sept.,  p.  14,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Kept.,  vol.  iii.  See  also:  Mollhausen,  Tage- 
buch,  p.  147;  Ludeicig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  150.  In  'the  country  watered  by  the 
Salinas  and  other  tributaries  of  the  Gila.'  Steck,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1859,  p. 
346;  also  Whittier,  in  Id.,  1868,  p.  141;  Colyer,  in  Id.,  1869,  p.  94;  Jones,  in 
Id.,  p.  222. 

The  Coyoteros  '  live  in  the  country  north  of  the  Gila  and  east  of  the  San 
Carlos.'  Colyer,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1869,  p.  223.  'Upon  the  Rio  San  Fran 
cisco,  and  head  waters  of  the  Salinas.'  Steck,  in  Id.,  1859,  p.  346;  Domenech's 
Deserts,  vol.  i.,  p.  185;  Hardy's  Trav.,  p.  430. 

'  The  Gilenos  inhabit  the  mountains  immediately  on  the  river  Gila 

bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Chiricagiiis;  on  the  north  by  the  province  of 
New  Mexico;  on  the  east  by  the  Mimbreiio  tribe.'  Cortez,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept., 
vol.  iii.,  p.  119.  '  Oestlich  von  diesem  Flusse  (Gila),  zwischen  ihm  und  dem 
Budlichen  Fusse  der  Sierra  de  los  Mimbres,  eines  Theiles  der  Sierra  Madre.' 
Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p.  421;  Cordero,  in  Orozco  y  Berra, 
Geograffa,  p.  380;  Maxwell,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1873,  p.  116. 

The  Apache  Mojaves  are  '  a  mongrel  race  of  Indians  living  between  the 
Verde  or  San  Francisco  and  the  Colorado.'  Poston,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1864, 
p.  156. 

The  Navajos  occupy  '  a  district  in  the  Territory  of  New  Mexico,  lying 
between  the  San  Juan  river  on  the  north  and  northeast,  the  Pueblo  of  Zuni 
on  the  south,  the  Moqui  villages  on  the  west,  and  the  ridge  of  land  dividing 
the  waters  which  flow  into  the  Atlantic  ocean  from  those  which  flow  into  the 
Pacific  on  the  east.'  Letherman,  in  Smithsonian  Rept.,  1855,  p.  283.  'Ex 
tending  from  near  the  107th  to  lllth  meridian,  and  from  the  34th  to  the  37th 
parallel  of  latitude.'  Clark,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  viii.,  p.  280.  Northward  from 
the  35th  parallel  '  to  Rio  San  Juan,  valley  of  Tune  Cha,  and  Canon  de 
Chelle.'  Whipple,  Ewbank,  and  Turner's  Rept.,  p.  13,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept., 
vol.  iii.  '  Between  the  Del  Norte  and  Colorado  of  the  West, '  in  the  northwest 
ern  portion  of  New  Mexico.  Eaton,  in  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol  iv.,  p.  216. 
'  In  the  main  range  of  Cordilleras,  150  to  200  miles  west  of  Santa  Fe,  on 
the  waters  of  Rio  Colorado  of  California.'  Gregg's  Com.  Prairies,  vol.  i., 
p.  285-6.  'Between  the  del  Norte  and  tha  Sierra  Anahuac,  situated  upon 
the  Rio  Chama  and  Puerco, — from  thence  extending  along  the  Sierra  de  los 
Mimbros,  into  the  province  of  Sonora.'  Scenes  in  the  Rocky  Mts,  p.  180.  'La 
Provincia  de  Navajoos,  que  esta  situada  a  la  parte  de  el  Norte  del  Moqui, 
y  a  la  del  Noruest  de  la  Villa  de  Santa  Fee.'  Villa-Senor  y  Sanchez,  Theatro, 
torn,  ii.,  p.  426.  'Esta  nacion  dista  de  las  fronteras  de  Nuevo-Mexico  como 
veinticinco  leguas,  entre  los  pueblos  de  Moqui,  Zuni  y  la  capital  (Santa  Fe).' 
Barreiro,  Ojeada  sobre  N.  Mex.,  app.,  p.  10.  '  Habita  la  sierra  y  mesas  de 
Navajo.'  Cordero,  in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  382.  See  also:  Alcedo,  Dic- 
cionario,  torn,  iii.,  p.  295.  '  Along  the  34th  parallel,  north  latitude.'  Mowry's 
Arizona,  p.  16.  '  On  the  tributaries  of  the  river  San  Juan,  west  of  the  Rio 
Grande,  and  east  of  the  Colorado,  and  between  the  thirty-fifth  and  thirty- 
seventh  parallels  of  north  latitude.'  Merriwether,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1854,  p. 
172.  'From  Canon  de  Chelly  to  Rio  San  Juan.'  Palmer,  in  Harper's  Mag., 
vol.  xvii.,  p.  460.  '  From  the  Rio  San  Juan  to  the  Gila.'  Graves,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
R°pi.,  1854,  p.  179.  'Directly  west  from  Santa  Fe,  extending  from  near  the 


MOJAVES  AND  YUMAS.  597 

Bio  Grande  on  the  east,  to  the  Colorado  on  the  west;  and  from  the  land  of 
the  Utahs  on  the  north,  to  the  Apaches  on  the  south.'  Backus,  in  School- 
craft's  Arch.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  209.  'Fifty  miles  from  the  Eio  del  Norte.'  Pattie's 
Pers.  Nar.,  p.  102.  'From  the  33°  to  the  38°  of  north  latitude.'  and  'from 
Soccorro  to  the  valley  of  Taos.'  Hughes'  Doniphdn's  Ex.,  p.  202.  Concur 
rent  authorities:  Simpson's  Jour.  Mil.  Recon.,  p.  78;  Domenech's  Deserts, 
vol.  i.,  p.  184;  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  132. 

The  Mojaves  dwell  on  the  Mojave  and  Colorado  rivers,  as  far  up  as  Black 
Canon.  The  word  Mojave  '  appears  to  be  formed  of  two  Yuma  words — 
hamook  (three,)  and  ha'bi  (mountains) —and  designates  the  tribe  of  Indians 
which  ocupies  a  valley  of  the  Colorado  lying  between  three  mountains.  The 
ranges  supposed  to  be  referred  to  are:  1st,  "  The  Needles,"  which  terminates 
the  valley  upon  the  south,  and  is  called  Asientic-habi,  or  first  range;  2d, 
the  heights  that  bound  the  right  bank  of  the  Colorado  north  of  the  Mojave 
villages,  termed  Havic-habi,  or  second  range ;  and,  3d,  the  Blue  Ridge,  extend 
ing  along  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  to  which  has  been  given  the  name  of 
Hamook-habi,  or  third  range.'  Whipple,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  30. 
'  Von  34°  36'  nordwarts  bis  zum  Black  Canon. '  Mollhausen,  Reisen  in  die 
Felsengeb.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  430-4.  'Inhabit  the  Cottonwood  valley.'  Ives'  Colo 
rado  Riv.,  p.  79.  '  Occupy  the  country  watered  by  a  river  of  the  same  name, 
which  empties  into  the  Colorado.'  BartletVs  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  178. 
'The  Mohaves,  or  Hamockhaves,  occupy  the  river  above  the  Yumas.' 
Mowry,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1857,  p.  302.  See  further:  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang., 
p.  122;  Col.  Mercantile  Jour.,  vol.  i.,  p.  227;  Jones,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1869, 
p.  217;  Willis,  in  Id.,  Spec.  Com.,  1867,  pp.  329-30;  Stratton's  Capt.  Oatman 
Girls,  p.  123. 

The  Hualapais  are  '  located  chiefly  in  the  Cerbat  and  Aquarius  Mount 
ains,  and  along  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Black  Mountains.  They  range 
through  Hualapai,  Yampai,  and  Sacramento  valleys,  from  Bill  Williams  Fork 
on  the  south  to  Diamond  River  on  the  north.'  Jones,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept., 
1869,  p.  217.  'In  the  almost  inaccessible  mountains  on  the  Upper  Colo 
rado.'  Poston,  in  Id.,  1863,  p.  387.  '  On  the  north  and  south  of  the  road 
from  Camp  Mohave  to  Prescott.'  Whittier,  in  Id.,  1868,  p.  140.  '  In  the 
northwest  part  of  Arizona.'  Willis,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.  Spec.  Com.,  1867,  p. 
329. 

The  Yumas  or  Cuchans  range  '  from  the  New  River  to  the  Colorado,  and 
through  the  country  between  the  latter  river  and  the  Gila,  but  may  be  said 
to  inhabit  the  bottom  lands  of  the  Colorado,  near  the  junction  of  the  Gila 
and  the  Colorado.'  Ind.  Traits,  vol.  i.,  in  Hayes  Collection.  '  Both  sides  of 
the  Colorado  both  above  and  below  the  junction  with  the  Gila,'  Bartlett's 
Pers.  Nar., vol.  ii.,  pp.  177-9.  'From  about  sixty  miles  above  Fort  Yuma  to 
within  a  few  miles  of  the  most  southern  point  of  that  part  of  the  Colorado 
forming  the  boundary.'  Emory's  Rept.  V.  S.  and  Mex.  Boundary  Sur 
vey,  vol.  i.,  p.  107.  '  Das  eigentliche  Gebiet  dieses  Stammes  ist  das  Thai  des 
untern  Colorado;  es  beginnt  dasselbe  ungefahr  achtzig  Meilen  oberhalb  der 
Mundung  des  Gila,  und  erstreckt  sich  von  da  bis  nahe  an  den  Golf  von  Cali- 
fornien.'  Mollhausen,  Reisen  in  die  Felsengeb.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  122,  43*0-1,  434. 
'La  junta  del  Gila  con  el  Colorado,  tierra  poblada  de  la  nacion  yuma.' 


598  TRIBAL  BOUNDAKIES. 

Sedelmair,  Relation,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  849.  'Le  nord 
de  la  Basse-Calif ornie,  sur  la  rive  droite  du  Rio-Colorado.'  Soc.  Geog.,  Bulk- 
tin,  serie  v.,  No.  96,  p.  186.  '  For  ten  or  fifteen  miles  north  and  south  '  in  the 
valley  near  the  mouth  of  the  Gila.  lues'  Colorado  Riv.,  p.  42.  See  Whip- 
pie,  Ewbank,  and  Turner's  Kept.,  p.  101,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.;  La 
tham's  Comparative  Philology,  vol.  viii.,  p.  420;  Lachapelle,  Raousset-Boulbon, 
p.  78;  Howry's  Arizona,  p.  33;  McKinstry,  in  San  Francisco  Herald,  June,  1853; 
Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  205;  Mowry,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1857,  pp.  301-2;  Bai 
ley,  in  Id.,  1858,  p.  202;  Jones,  in  Id.,  1869,  p.  216;  Howard,  in  Id.,  1872, 
pp.  161-2;  Prichard's  Nat.  Hist.  Man,  vol.  ii.,  p.  561. 

The  Cosninos  'roam  northward  to  the  big  bend  of  the  Colorado.'  Whip- 
pie,  Ewbank,  and  Turner's  Rept.,  p.  14,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.  'In  the 
vicinity  of  Bill  Williams  and  San  Francisco  Mountains.'  Jones,  in  Ind.  Aff. 
Rept.,  1869,  p.  221.  See  also:  Figuier's  Hum.  Race,  p.  484;  Domenech's 
Deserts,  vol.  i.,  p.  185. 

The  Yampais  inhabit  the  country  west  and  north-west  of  the  Aztec  range 
of  mountains  to  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Virgen.  Whip2)le,  Ewbank,  and  Tur 
ner's  Rept.,  p.  14,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.  'Am  obern  Colorado.' 
'  Nordlich  von  den  Mohaves.'  Mollhausen,  Reisen  in  die  Felsengeb.,  torn,  i.,  pp. 
431,  277.  '  On  the  west  bank  of  the  Colorado,  about  the  mouth  of  Bill  Wil- 
liams's  fork.'  Mowry,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1857,  p.  302;  Poston  in  Id.,  1863,  p. 
387. 

The  Yalchedunes  or  Talchedunes  '  live  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Colorado, 
and  their  tribes  first  appear  in  lat.  33°  20V  Cortez,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol. 
iii.,  p.  124. 

The  Yamajabs  or  Tamajabs  '  are  settled  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Colorado 
from  34°  of  latitude  to  35 V  Cortez,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  124; 
Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  62. 

The  Cochees  are  in  the  '  Chiricahua  mountains,  southern  Arizona  and 
northern  Sonora.'  Whittier,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1868,  p.  141. 

The  Nijoras  dwell  in  the  basin  of  the  Rio  Azul.  'Petite  tribu  des 
bords  du  Gila.'  Ruxton,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1850,  torn,  cxxvi.,  p. 
47;  Gallatin,  in  Id.,  1851,  torn,  cxxxi.,  p.  291. 

The  £ooneslive  'near the  head  waters  of  the  Salinas.'  Emory's  Reconnois- 
sance,  p.  133;  Gallatin,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1851,  torn,  cxxxi.,  p.  296. 
The  Cocopas  'live  along  the  Colorado  for  fifty  miles  from  the  mouth.' 
lues'  Colorado  Riv.,  p.  31.  '  On  the  Colorado  bottoms  were  the  Cocopahs, 
the  southern  gulf  tribes  of  which  Consag  calls  the  Bagiopas,  Hebonomas,. 
Quigyamas,  Cuculetes,  and  the  Alcheduinas.'  Browne's  Explor.  of  Lower 
Cal.,  p.  54.  '  On  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Colorado,  from  lat.  32°  18'  up 
ward.'  Cortez,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  123.  'Range  all  the  way 
from  .Port  Isabel,  upon  the  east  bank  of  the  river  (Colorado),  to  the  boundary 
line  between  the  Republic  of  Mexico  and  the  United  States.'  Johnson's  Hist. 
Arizona,  p.  10.  'Between  the  Gila  and  the  Gulf,  and  near  the  latter.' 
Bartlett's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  179.  See  also:  Emory's  Rept.  V.  S.  and  Mex. 
Boundary  Survey,  vol.  i.,  p.  107;  Mowry,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1857,  p.  301; 
Poston,'in  Id.,  1863,  p.  386;  Bailey,  in  Id.,  1858,  p.  202;  Howard,  in  Id., 
1872,  p.  149. 


PUEBLO  FAMILY.  599 

Without  definitely  locating  them,  Salmeron  enumerates  the  following 
nations,  seen  by  Onate  during  his  trip  through  New  Mexico: 

The  Cruzados,  somewhere  between  the  Moquis  and  the  Bio  Gila,  near  a 
river  which  he  calls  the  Bio  Sacramento.  '  Dos  jornadas  de  alii  (Cruzados) 
estaba  un  rio  de  poco  agua,  por  donde  ellos  iban  a  otro  muy  grande  que 
entra  en  la  mar,  en  cuyas  orillas  habia  una  nacion  que  se  llama  Amacava.' 

'Pasada  esta  nacion  de  amacabos llegaron  a  la  nacion  de  los  Baha- 

cechas.'  'Pasada  esta  nacion  de  Bahacecha,  llegaron  a  la  nacion  de  los 
indios  ozaras.'  '  La  primera  nacion  pasado  el  rio  del  nombre  de  Jesus,  es 
Halchedoma.'  'Luego  esta  la  nacion  Cohuana.'  '  Luego  esta  la  nacion 
Haglli.'  'Luego  los  Tlalliquamallas.'  Salmeron,  Relaciones,  in  Doc.  Hist. 
Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  pp.  31-6.  'La  nacion  Excanjaque  que  habita 
cien  leguas  del  Nuevo-Mexico,  rumboNordeste.'  Id.,  p.  92.  '  Habitan  indios 
excanjaques  aquel  tramo  de  tierra  que  en  cuarenta  y  seis  grades  de  altura  al 
polo  y  ciento  sesenta  y  dos  de  longitud,  se  tien  de  obli'cuamente  al  abrigo  que 
unas  serranfas  hacen  a  un  rio  que  corre  Norueste,  Sur  deste  a  incorporarse 
con  otro  que  se  va  a  juntar  con  el  Misissipi,  son  contermino  de  los  pana- 
nas.'  Id.,  p.  107.  '  Cerca  de  este  llano  de  Matanza,  esta  otro  llano  de  esa 
otra  parte  del  rio  en  que  hay  siete  cerros,  habitados  de  la  nacion  Aixas.'  Id., 
p.  92.  '  La  nacion  de  los  Aijados,  que  hace  frente  por  la  parte  del  Oriente  y 
casi  confina  con  la  nacion  Quivira  por  la  parte  del  norte,  estando  vecina  de 
los  Tejas  por  Levante.'  Paredes,  in  Id.,  p.  217. 

In  the  PUEBLO  FAMILY,  besides  the  inhabitants  of  the  villages  situated  in 
the  valley  of  the  Bio  Grande  del  Norte,  I  include  the  seven  Moqui  villages 
lying  west  of  the  former,  and  also  the  Pimas,  the  Maricopas,  the  Papagos, 
and  the  Sobaipuris  with  their  congeners  of  the  lower  Gila  river .  '  The  num 
ber  of  inhabited  pueblos  in  the  Territory  [New  Mexico]  is  twenty-six  ... 
Their  names  are  Taos,  Picoris,  Nambe,  Tezuque,  Pojuaque,  San  Juan,  San 
Yldefonso,  Santo  Domingo,  San  Felipe,  Santa  Ana,  Cochiti,  Isleta,  Silla, 
Laguna,  Acoma,  Jemez,  Zuni,  Sandia,  and  Santa  Clara ....  In  Texas,  a  short 
distance  below  the  southern  boundary  of  New  Mexico,  and  in  the  valley  of 
the  Del  Norte,  is  a  pueblo  called  Isleta  of  the  South, '  and  another  called 
Los  Lentes.  Davis'  El  Gringo,  pp.  115-16.  San  Geronimo  de  Taos,  San 
Lorenzo  de  Picuries,  San  Juan  de  los  Caballeros,  Santo  Tomas  de  Abiquiu, 
Santa  Clara,  San  Ildefonso,  San  Francisco  de  Nambe,  Nuestra  Seiiora  de 
Guadalupe  de  Pojuaque,  San  Diego  de  Tesuque,  N.  S.  de  los  Angeles  de 
Tecos,  San  Buena  Ventura  de  Cochiti,  Santo  Domingo,  San  Felipe,  N.  S.  de 
los  Dolores  de  Sandia,  San  Diego  de  Jemes,  N.  S.  de  la  Asumpcion  de  Zia, 
Santa  Ana,  San  Augustin  del  Isleta,  N.  S.  de  Belem,  San  Estevan  de  Acoma, 
San  Josef  de  La  Laguna,  N.  S.  de  Guadalupe  de  Zuni.  Alencaster,  in  Meline's 
Two  Thousand  Miles,  p.  212.  Taos,  eighty-three  miles  north  north-east  of 
Santa  Fe;  Picuris,  on  Bio  Picuris,  sixty  miles  north  by  east  of  Santa  Fe; 
San  Juan,  on  the  Bio  Grande,  thirty-four  miles  north  of  Santa  Fe,  on  road 
to  Taos;  Santa  Clara,  twenty-six  miles  north  north-west  of  Santa  Fe;  San 
Ildefonso,  on  Bio  Grande,  eighteen  miles  north  of  Santa  Fe;  Nambe,  on 
Nambe  Creek,  three  miles  east  of  Pojuaque;  Pojuaque,  sixteen  miles  north 
of  Santa  Fe;  Tesuque,  eight  miles  north  of  Santa  Fe;  Cochiti,  on  west  bank 


600  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

of  Rio  Grande,  twenty-four  miles  south-west  of  Santa  Fe;  Santo  Domingo, 
on  Rio  Grande,  six  miles  south  of  Cochiti;  San  Felipe,  on  Rio  Grande,  six 
miles  south  of  Santo  Domingo;  Sandia,  on  Rio  Grande,  fifteen  miles  south 
of  San  Felipe;  Isleta,  on  Rio  Grande,  thirty  miles  south  of  Sandia;  Jemes, 
on  Jemes  River,  fifty  miles  west  of  Santa  Fe;  Zia,  near  Jemes,  fifty-five 
miles  west  of  Santa  Fe;  Santa  Ana,  near  Zia,  sixty-five  miles  west  of  Santa 
Fe;  Laguna,  west  of  Albuquerque  forty-five  miles,  on  San  Jose  River;  Acoma, 
one  hundred  and  fifteen  miles  west  of  Santa  Fe,  on  a  rock  five  hundred  feet 
high,  fifteen  miles  south-west  of  Laguna;  Zuiii,  one  hundred  and  ninety 
miles  west  south-west  of  Santa  Fe,  in  the  Navajo  country,  on  Zuni  River. 
Meline's  Two  Thousand  Miles,  p.  222.  See  Abert,  in  Emory's  Reconnoissance, 
pp.  488-94;  Whipple,  Ewbank,  and  Turner's  Kept.,  pp.  10-12,  in  Pac.  R.  E. 
Kept.,  vol.  iii.;  Ward,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1864,  pp.  191,  193-4;  Barreiro, 
Ojeada  sobre  N.  Hex.,  p.  15.  '  La  primera,  entrando  sur  a  norte,  es  la 

nacion  Tigua Estan  poblados  junto  a  la  sierra  de  Puruai,  que  toma  el  nom- 

bre  del  principal  pueblo  que  se  llama  asi,  y  orillas  del  gran  rio fueran  de 

este,  pueblan  otros  dos  pueblos,  el  uno  San  Pedro,  rio  abajo  de  Puruai  y  el 
otro  Santiago,  rio  arriba ....  La  segunda  nacion  es  la  de  Tahanos,  que  al 
rumbo  oriental  y  mano  derecha  del  camiuo,  puebla  un  rio  que  de  la  parte  del 
Oriente ....  viene  a  unirse  con  el  rio  Grande ;  su  pueblo  principal  es  Zandia 
con  otros  dos  pueblos ....  La  tercera  nacion  es  la  de  los  Gemex,  que  a  la  parte 
Occidua  puebla  las  orillas  del  Rio-Puerco  cuyo  principal  pueblo  Qicinzigua 
....  La  cuarta  nacion  es  de  los  teguas,  que  estan  poblados  al  Norte  de  los 
tahanas,  de  esa  otra  parte  del  rio,  su  principal  es  Galisteo ....  con  otros  dos 
pueblos,  y  hay  al  rumbo  oriental,  encaramada  en  una  sierra  alta,  la  quinta  de 
Navon  de  los  Pecos,  su  principal  pueblo  se  llama  asf,  otro  se  llama  el  Tuerto, 
con  otras  rancherfas  en  aquellos  picachos ....  La  sesta  nacion  es  la  de  los 
queres ....  El  pueblo  principal  de  esta  nacion  es  Santo  Domingo ....  la 
setima  nacion  al  rumbo  boreal  es  la  de  los  tahos. . .  .La  octava  nacion  es  la 
de  los  picuries,  al  rumbo  Norueste  de  Santa  Cruz,  cuyo  pueblo  principal  es 
San  Felipe,  orillas  del  rio  Zama,  y  su  visita  Cochite,  orilla  del  mismo  rio .... 
La  ultima  nacion  es  la  de  los  tompiras,  que  habita  de  esa  otra  parte  de  la 
Canada  de  Santa  Clara  y  rio  Zama,  en  un  arroyo  que  junta  al  dicho  rio,  y  es 
las  fronteras  de  los  llanos  de  Cibola  6  Zuni.'  Salmeron,  Relaciones,  in  DOG. 
Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  pp.  98-100. 

'  Some  sixty  miles  to  the  south  southeast  of  Fort  Defiance  is  situated  the 
pueblo  of  Zuni,  on  a  small  tributary  of  the  Colorado  Chiquito.'  Davis'  El 
Gringo,  p.  422.  '  On  the  Rio  de  Zuni.'  Simpson's  Jour.  Mil.  Recon.,  p.  90. 
4  To  the  N.  E.  of  the  Little  Colorado,  about  lat.  35°,  are  the  Zunis.'  Prichard's 
Nat.  Hist.  Man,  vol.  ii.,  p.  563. 

The  Moquis,  are  settled  '  West  from  the  Navajos,  and  in  the  fork  between 
the  Little  and  the  Big  Colorados.'  The  names  of  their  villages  are,  according 
to  Mr  Leroux,  '  Oraibe,  Shiimuthpa,  Mushaima,  Ahlela,  Gualpi,  Shiwinna, 
Tequa.'  Whipple,  Ewbank,  and  Turner's  Kept.,  p.  13,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Kept., 

vol.  iii.     '  Westward  of  the  capital  of  New  Mexico Oraibe,  Taucos,  Mos- 

zasnavi,  Guipaulavi,  Xougopavi,  Gualpi.'  Cortez,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol. 
iii.,  p.  121.  '  Desde  estos  parages  (Zuni)  corriendo  para  el  Vest  Noruest, 
empiezan  los  Pueblos,  y  Rancherfas  de  las  Provincias  de  Moqui  Oraybe :  los 


THE  PIMAS  OF  AKIZONA.  601 

Pueblos  Moquinos  son:  Hualpi,  Tanos,  Moxonavi,  Xongopavi,  Quianna, 
Aguatubi,  y  Rio  grande  de  espeleta.'  Villa-Sefwr  y. Sanchez,  Theatro,  torn,  ii., 
pp.  425-6;  Venegas,  Noticia  de  la  CaL,  torn,  ii.,  p.  527.  'The  five  pueblos 
in  the  Moqui  are  Orayxa,  Masanais,  Jongoapi,  Gualpa,  and  another,  the 
name  of  which  is  not  known.'  Ruxton's  Adven.  Mex.,  p.  195.  'The  three 
eastern  villages  are  located  on  one  bluff,  and  are  named  as  follows:  Taywah, 
Sechomawe,  Jualpi ....  Five  miles  west  of  the  above-named  villages ....  is .... 

the  village  of  Meshonganawe .  . .  .One  mile  west  of  the  last-named  village 

is ....  Shepowlawe.  Five  miles,  in  a  northwestern  direction,  from  the  last- 
named  village  is. . .  .Shungopawe.  Five  miles  west  of  the  latter. ..  .is  the 
Oreybe  village.'  Crothers,  in  Ind.  Af.  Kept.,  1872,  p.  324.  Further  authori 
ties:  Palmer,  in  Id.,  1870,  p.  133;  Browne's  Apache  Country,  p.  290;  Dome- 
nech's  Deserts,  vol.  i.,  p.  185,  vol.  ii.,  p.  40;  Humboldt,  Essai  Pol.,  torn,  i., 
p.  305;  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  p.  278;  Ives'  Colorado  Riv.,p.  127;  Marcy's  Life 
on  the  Border,  p.  111. 

'  The  Pimas  inhabit  the  country  on  both  banks  of  the  Gila  River,  two 
hundred  miles  above  its  mouth.  They  claim  the  territory  lying  between  the 
following  boundaries :  Commencing  at  a  mountain  about  twelve  miles  from 
the  bend  of  the  Gila  River,  the  line  runs  up  said  river  to  the  Maricopa  Cop 
permine.  The  north  line  extends  to  Salt  River  and  the  southern  one  to 
the  Picacho.'  Walker's  Pimas,  MS.  'La  partie  la  plus  septentrionale  de 
1'intendance  de  la  Sonora  porte  le  nom  de  la  Pimeria...  On  distingue  la 
Pimeria  alta  de  la  Pimeria  baxa.'  Ilumboldt,  Essai  Pol.,  torn,  i.,  p.  296. 
'  Corre,  pues,  esta  Pimeria  alta,  de  Sur  a  Norte  desde  los  30  grades  hasta  los 
34  que  se  ci»entan  desde  esta  mision  de  Nuestra  Senora  de  los  Dolores  hasta 
el  rio  del  Gila. . .  .y  de  Oriente  a  Poniente  desde  el  valle  de  los  pimas,  llama- 
dos  sobaipuris,  hasta  las  cercanias  y  costas  del  seno  del  mar  californio,  habita- 
das  de  los  pimas  sobas. . .  .Por  el  Sur  tiene  el  resto  de  las  naciones  opata, 
eudeves,  pertenecientes  a  dicha  provincia  y  entre  ellas  y  la  sierra-madre,  de 
Oriente  a  Poniente,  la  Pimerfa  baja.'  Mange,  Itinerario,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex., 
serie  iv.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  345-6.  'Los  pueblos  de  pimas  bajos  son...  desde 
Taraitzi  hasta  Cuinuripa,  Ouapa,  Nuri,  Movas  y  Oanbas  lo  son  hacia  el  Sur 
de  Cumuripa,  Suaqui,  San  Jose  de  Pimas,  Santa  Rosalfa,  Ures  y  Nacameri 
hacia  el  Pouiente,  son  la  f  rontera  contra  los  seris ....  Los  pimas  altos  ocupan 
todo  el  terrene  que  hay  desde  de  Cucurpe  por  Santa  Ana  Caborca  hasta  la  mar 
de  Oriente  a  Poniente  y  Sur  Korte,  todo  lo  que  desde  dicha  mision  tirando 
por  Dolores,  Remedios,  Cocospera  el  presidio  de  Terrenate,  y  desde  este 
siguiendo  el  rio  de  San  Pedro  6  de  los  Sobaipuris  hasta  su  junta  con  el  rio 
Xila,  y  por  ambas  orillas  de  este  hasta  el  Colorado  y  entre  la  mar,  o  seno  de 
Californias  se  encierra.'  Sonora,  Descrip.  Geog.,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie 
iii.,  torn,  iv.,  pp.  553-4.  'From  the  river  Yaqui  in  Sonora,  northward  to 
the  Gila  and  even  beyond  the  Tomosatzi  (Colorado)  eastward  beyond  the 
mountains  in  the  province  of  Taraumara,  and  westward  to  the  sea  of  Cortez,' 
Smith,  Grammar  of  the  Pima  or  Nevome  Language,  p.  viii;  Id.,  Heve  Lan 
guage,  pp.  5-7;  Arricivita,  Cronica  Serdfica,  p.  396;  Alegre,  Hist.  C'omp. 
de  Jesus,  torn,  ii.,  p.  216.  'Nordlich  vom  Flusse  Yaqui;  vom  Dorfe  S. 
Jose  de  Pimas  bis  zu  dem  uber  60  Leguas  nordlicher  gelegenen  Dorfe  Cucu- 
rape,  bewohnen  die  Pimas  bajas  die  Mitte  des  Landes.'  'Nordlich  vom 


602  TRIBAL  BOUND  ABIES. 

Fluss  Ascension,  von  der  Kuste  weit  ins  Land  hinein,  treffen  wir  die  Pimas 
alias.'  Miihlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  pp.  419-20.  'Pimerie  haute  et 
basse.  La  premiere  s'etend  depuis  les  Rios  Colorado  et  Gila  jusqu'k  la  ville 
de  Hermosillo  et  au  Riode  losUres,  et  la  seconde  depuis  cettelimite  jusqu'au 
Rio  del  Fuerte  qui  la  separe  de  Sinaloa.'  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  i.,  p.  208. 
4  Los  pimas  altos  ocupan  lospartidos  de  la  Magdalena  y  del  Altar;  lindaii  al 
Norte  con  el  Gila;  al  Este  con  los  apaches  y  con  los  dpatas,  sirviendo  de 
li'mite  el  rio  San  Pedro  6  de  Sobaipuris;  al  Oeste  el  mar  de  Cortes,  y  al  Sur 
el  terreno  que  ocuparon  los  seris.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografi'a,  p.  347.  See 
also:  Malte-Brun,  Sonora,  pp.  14-15;  Mill's  Hist.  Mex.,  p.  191;  Lachapelle, 
Raousset-Boulbon,  p.  81;  Hardy's  Trav.,  p.  437;  Cults'  Conq.  Cal.,  p.  195; 
Stanley's  Portraits,  p.  58;  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  296;  Cremony's 
Apaches,  pp.  89-90;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  50. 

The  Maricopas  inhabit  both  sides  of  the  Gila  River,  for  about  36  leagues 
in  the  vicinity  of  its  junction  with  the  Asuncion  River.  Apostolicos  Afanes, 
p.  354.  '  On  the  northern  bank  of  the  Gila,  a  few  miles  west  of  that  of  the 
Pimas,  in  about  west  longitude  112°.'  Whipple,  Ewbank,  and  Turner's  Kept., 
p.  102,  in  Pac.  R.  R.  Rept.,  vol.  iii.  'Desde  Stue  Cabitic,  se  estienden  a  lo 
largo  del  rio  (Gila)  como  treinta  y  seis  leguas.'  Sedelmair,  Relation,  in  Doc. 
Hist.  Mex.,  serie,  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  849;  Villa- Senary  Sanchez,  Theatro,  torn,  ii., 
pp.  404-5.  '  Vom  siidlichen  Ufer  desGila  bis  zum  ostlichen  des  Colorado.' 
Miihlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p.  420;  Emory's  Reconnoissance,  pp. 
131-2;  Mollhausen,  Reisen  in  die  Felsengeb,  torn,  i.,  p.  123.  '  Au  sud  du  rio 
Gila,  sur  une  etendue  de  pres  de  150  milles,  en  remontant  depuis  1'embou- 
chure.'  Gallatin,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1851,  torn,  cxxxi.,  p.  291; 
Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  18;  Escudero,  Noticias  de  Chihuahua,  p.  228. 

The  Pimas  and  Maricopas  live  '  on  the  Gila,  one  hundred  and  eighty 
miles  from  its  junction  with  the  Colorado.'  Howry's  Arizona,  p.  14.  'Wo 
der  112te  Grad  westlicher  Lange  den  Gila-Strom  Kreuzt,  also  ungefahr  auf 
der  Mitte  der  Strecke,  die  der  Gila,  fast  vom  Rio  Grande  del  Norte  bis  an  die 
Spitze  des  Golfs  von  Kalifornien,  zu  durchlaufen  hat,  liegen  die  Dorfer  der 
Pimos  und  Coco-Maricopas.'  Mollhausen,  Fliichtling,  torn,  iv.,  p.  137.  'Non 
loin  du  confluent  du  rio  Salinas,  par  112°  environ  de  longitude.'  Gallatin, 
in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1851,  torn,  cxxxi.,  pp.  289-90.  'On  the  Gila 
river,  about  one  hundred  miles  above  the  confluence  of  that  stream  with 
the  Colorado.'  Dole,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1864,  p.  20.  'Claimed  as  their  own 
property  the  entire  Gila  valley  on  both  sides,  from  the  Piilal  mountains  to 
the  Tesotal.'  Mowry,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1859,  p.  358.  '  From  Maricopa  Wells 
to  a  short  distance  beyond  Sacaton.'  Whitlier,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1868,  p.  142. 
Limits  also  given  in  Bartlett's  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  232;  Ives'  Colorado  Riv., 
p.  45;  Bailey,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1858,  pp.  203;  Poston,  in  Id.,  1864,  p.  152. 

The  Pdpagos  '  inhabit  that  triangular  space  of  arid  land  bounded  by  the 
Santa  Cruz,  Gila,  and  Colorado  rivers,  and  the  Mexican  boundary  line.'  Pos 
ton,  in  Ind.  Aff.  Rept.,  1863,  p.  384.  '  Nordlich  von  diesen  (Pimas  altas) 
hausen  im  Osten  der  Sierra  de  Santa  Clara,  welche  sich  unter  31%°  nord- 
licher  Breite  dicht  am  ostlichen  Ufer  des  Meerbusens  von  Californien  erhebt, 
die  Papagos  oder  Papabi-Ootam.'  Miihlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  i.,  p.  210. 
'Junto  al  rio  de  San  Marcos:  50  leguas  mas  arriba  habita  la  nacion  de  los 


LOWER  CALIFORNIANS.  603 

Papagos.'  Alcedo,  Diccionario,  torn,  iv.,  p.  217.  'In  the  country  about  San 
Xavier  del  Baca,  a  few  miles  from  Tucson.'  Parker,  in  2nd,  Aff.  Kept.,  1869, 
p.  19;  Jones,  in  Id.,  p.  220;  Dole,  in  Id.,  1864,  p.  21.  '  Wander  over  the 
country  from  San  Javier  as  far  west  as  the  Tinajas  Altas.'  Emory's  JKept. 
Mex.  and  U.  S.  Boundary  Survey,  vol.  i.,  p.  123.  See  also:  Davidson,  in 
Ind.  Aff.  Kept.,  1865,  p.  133;  LacJiapelle,  Raousset-Boulbon,  p.  81. 

The  Sobaipuris,  a  nation  related  to  the  Pimas,  live  among  the  lower 
Pimas.  '  Por  una  sierrezuela  que  hay  al  Oriente  de  este  rio  y  sus  ranche- 
rias,  se  dividen  estas  del  valle  de  los  pimas  sobaipuris,  que  a  poca  distancia 
tienen  las  suyas  muchas  y  muy  iiumerosas,  las  mas  al  Poniente  y  pocas  al 
Oriente  del  rio,  que  naciendo  de  las  vertientes  del  cerro  de  Terrenate,  que 
esta  como  treinta  leguas  al  Norte  de  esta  mision,  corre  de  Sur  a  Norte  hasta 
juntarse  con  el  tantas  veces  nombrado  de  Gila  y  juntos  corren  al  Poniente.' 
Mange,  Itinerario,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  i.,  p.  349.  Reference 
also  in  Alcedo,  Diccionario,  torn,  iv.,  p.  218;  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  i., 
p.  210. 

The  LOWER  CALIFORNIAN  FAMILY  includes  all  the  nations  inhabiting  the 
Peninsula  of  Lower  California,  northward  to  the  mouth  of  the  Colorado 
River. 

The  Cochimis  inhabit  the  peninsula  north  of  the  twenty-sixth  degree  of 
north  latitude.  '  I  Cochimi  ne  presero  la  parte  settentrionale  da  gr.  25  sino 
a  33,  e  alcune  isole  vicine  delMarPacifico.'  Clavigero,  Storia  della  Cat.,  torn. 
i.,  p.  109.  'Desde  el  territorio  de  Loreto,  por  todo  lo  descubierto  al  Norte 
de  la  Nacion  Cochimi,  6  de  los  Cochimies.'  'La  Nacion,  y  Lengua  de  los 
Cochimies  azia  el  Norte,  despues  de  la  ultima  Mission  de  San  Ignacio.'  '  Los 
Laymones  son  los  mismos,  que  los  Cochimies  del  Norte.'  Venegas,  Noticia 
de  la  Cal.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  63-7.  '  Los  Cochimies  ocupaban  la  peninsula  desde 
Loreto  hasta  poco  mas  alia  de  nuestra  frontera.  Los  de  las  mision es  de  San 
Francisco  Javier  y  San  Jose  Comondu  se  llamaban  edues;  los  de  San  Igna 
cio  didiies.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  366;  Forbes'  Cal.,  p.  21;  Lude~ 
wig's  Ab.  Lang.,  pp.  49,  99;  Pimentel,  Cuadro,  torn,  ii.,  p.  207;  Buschmann, 
Spuren  der  Aztek.  Spr.,  pp.  469-70.  'Between  San  Fernando  and  Moleje 
were  the  Limonies,  divided  (going  from  north)  into  the  Cagnaguets,  Adacs 
and  Kadakamans.'  'From  Santo  Tomas  to  San  Vicente  they  were  termed 
leas.'  Browne's  Lower  Cal.,  p.  54;  Hist.  Chre'tienne  de  la  Cal,  p.  163.  'Nord- 
lich  von  Loreto  schwarmt  der  zahlreiche  Stamm  der  Cochimies,  auch  Co- 
chi'mas  oder  Colimies  genannt.  Zu  ihnen  gehoren  die  Laimones  und  die 
leas,'  Miihlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p.  443. 

The  Guaicuris  roam  south  of  the  Cochimis,  as  far  as  Magdalena  Bay. 
'Si  stabilirono  tra  i  gr.  23%  e  26.'  Clavigero,  Storia  della  Cal.,  torn,  i.,  p. 
109.  '  Los  guaicuras  se  subdividen  en  guaicuras,  coras,  conchos,  uchitas, 
y  aripas.  Los  guaicuras  vivian  principalmente  en  la  costa  del  Pacffico, 
desde  el  puerto  de  San  Bernabe  hasta  el  de  la  Magdalena.  Los  coras  en  la 
costa  del  Golfo,  desde  los  pericues  hasta  la  mision  de  los  Dolores,  compren- 
diendo  el  puerto  de  la  Paz.  Entre  los  guaicuras,  los  coras,  y  los  peri- 
cues  estaban  los  uchitas  6  uchities.  Hasta  el  mismo  Loreto,  o  muy  cerca 
llegaban  los  conchos  d  monquies,  a  quienes  los  jesuitas  pusieron  lauretanos, 


604  .  TKIBAL  BOUNDABIES. 

. . .  .una  rama  de  su  nacion  nombrada  monqui— laimon  6  monqui'es  del  in 
terior,  porque  vivian  lejos  de  la  costa,  y  se  encuentran  tambien  nombrados 
por  solo  laimones.  Los  aripas  al  Norte  de  los  guaicuras.'  Orozco  y  Berra, 
Geografia,  pp.  365-6.  '  Desde  la  Paz  hasta  mas  arriba  del  Presidio  Real  de 
Loreto,  es  de  los  Monquis a  si  mismos  se  llaman  con  vocablo  general  Mon 
qui,  6  Monquis..  .  .los  Vchities,  que  pueblan  las  cercanias  de  la  Bahia,  y 
Puerto  de  la  Paz;  y  la  de  los  Guaycuras,  que  desde  la  Paz  Be  estienden  en  la 
Costa  interior  hasta  las  cercanfas  de  Loreto.  Los  Monquis  mismos  se  dividcn 
en  Liyues,"  Didius,  y  otras  ramas  menores.'  Venegas,  Noticia  de  la  Cat.,  torn, 
i.,  pp.  63-7.  '  Los  Guaicuras  se  establecieron  entre  el  paralelo  de  23°  30'  y 
el  de  26°.'  Pimentel,  Cuadro,  torn,  ii.,  p.  207.  '  Von  La  Paz  bis  uber  den  Pre 
sidio  von  Loreto  dehnt  der  Stamm  Monqui,  Moqui  oder  Mongui  sich  aus, 
welcliem  die  Familien  Guayciira  und  Uchfti  oder  Vehiti  angehoren,  die  je- 
doch  von  einigen  Beisenden  fiir  ganz  vershiedene  Stamme  gehalten  werden.' 
Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p.  443;  Buschntann,  Spuren  der  Aztek. 
Spr.,  p.  473;  Forbes'  Cal.,  p.  21;  Browne's  Lower  Cal..  p.  54;  Ludewig's  Ab. 
Lang.,  p.  198.  'La  nacion  ya  nombrada  Guaicure,  que  habita  el  ramalde 
la  sierra  giganta,  que  viene  costeando  el  puerto  de  la  Magdalena  hasta  el  de 
San  BernabeV  Salmeron,  Relaciones,  in  Doc,  Hist.  Hex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv., 
p.  64. 

The  Pericuis  live  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  Peninsula  from  Cape 
San  Lucas  northward  to  La  Paz.  '  Desde  el  Cabo  de  San  Lucas,  hasta  mas 

aca  del  Puerto  de  la  Paz  de  la  Nacion  Pericu A  los  Indies,   que  caen  al 

Sur,  6  Mediodia  de  su  territorio,  llaman  Edu,  6  Equu,  6  Edues  . .  se  divide 
en  varias  Nacioncillas  pequenas,  de  las  quales  la  mas  nombrada  es  la  de  los 
Coras,  nombre  propio  de  una  Bancherfa,  que  se  ha  comunicado  despues  a 
algunos  Pueblos,  y  al  Bio,  que  desagua  en  la  Bahia  de  San  BernabeV  Vene 
gas,  Noticia  de  la  Cal.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  63-7.  '  Los  periciies  habitan  en  la  mision 
de  Santiago,  que  tiene  sujeto  a  San  Jose  del  Cabo  y  en  las  islas  de  Cerralvo, 
el  Espiritu  Santo  y  San  Jose.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  365.  '  I  Pericui 
ne  occuparono  la  parte  australe  dal  C.  di  S.  Luca  sino  a  gr.  24,  e  le  isole 
adjacenti  di  Cerralvo,  dello  Spirito  Santo,  e  di  S.  Giuseppe.'  Clavigero,  Storia 
della  Cal.,  torn,  i.,  p.  109.  '  Im  Siiden,  vom  Cp,p  San  Lucas  bis  uber  den 
Hafen  Los  Pichilmgues  und  die  Mission  La  Paz  h'inaus  wohnen  die  Pericues 
zu  welchen  die  Familien  Edu  oder  Equu  und  Cora  gerechnet  werden.' 
Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p.  443.  See  also:  Pimentel,  Cuadro, 
torn,  ii.,  p.  207;  Californias,  Noticias,  carta  i.,  p.  86;  Browne's  Lower  Cal.,  p. 
45;  Forbes'  Cal.,  p.  21;  Buschmann,  Spuren  der  Aztek.  Spr.,  p.  480. 

The  NORTHERN  MEXICAN  FAMILY  is  composed  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
States  of  Sonora,  Sinaloa,  Chihuahua,  Coahuila,  Nuevo  Leon,  and  portions 
of  Tamaulipas,  Durango,  and  Zacatecas,  south  as  far  as  23°  north  latitude, 
divided  as  follows: 

The  Seris  '  live  towards  the  coast  of  Sonora,  on  the  famous  Cerro  Prieto, 
and  in  its  immediate  neighborhood.'  Cortez,  in  Pac.  R.  E.  Kept.,  vol.  iii.,  p. 
123.  '  Beside  in  the  village  near  Hermosillo,  occupy  the  island  of  Tiburon 
in  the  Gulf  of  California,  north  of  Guaymas.'  BartleWs  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  i., 
p.  464.  '  Son  las  Islas  nombradas  S.  Antonio,  Taburon,  S.  Estevan,  Boca- 


CERIS  AND  6PATAS.  605 

linas,  Salsipuedes,  la  Tortuga,  la  ensenada  de  la  Concepcion,  habitadas  de 
Indies  de  la  nacion  Seris.'  Padilla,  Conq.  N.  Galicia,  MS.,  p.  490.  '  Su 
principal  abrigo  es  el  famoso  cerro  Prieto,  al  Poniente  de  San  Jose  de  los 
Pimas,  doce  leguas,  y  doce  casi  al  Sur  del  Pitic;  del  niar  como  cerca  de 
catorce  leguas  al  Orieute,  y  de  la  boca  del  rio  Hiaqui  al  Norte,  treinta  leguas. . . 
Otro  asilo  tienen,  asi  en  su  isla  del  Tiburon,  casi  como  cuarenta  leguas  al 
Poniente  de  la  hacienda  del  Pitic  y  como  una  legua  de  la  costa,  en  el  seno  de 
Calif ornias;  como  en  la  de  San  Juan  Bautista,  cerca  de  nueve"  leguas  del 
Tiburon  al  Sud-sudtaeste  y  a  mas  de  dos  leguas  de  tierra.'  Sonora,  Descrip. 
Geog.,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  559-60.  '  Los  ceris. . .  .[1779] 
estabau  situados  en  la  villa  de  Horcasitas  en  un  pueblo  llamado  el  Populo, 
una  legua  hacia  el  Este  de  dicha  villa,  camino  para  Nacameri.  De  alii  se 
trasladaron  en  1789  al  pueblo  de  Ceris.'  Velasco,  Noticias  de  Sonora,  p.  124. 
'  The  Ceres  are  confined  to  the  island  of  Tiburon,  the  coast  of  Tepoca,  and 
the  Pueblo  of  Los  Ceres,  near  Pitic.'  Hardy's  Trav.,  p.  437.  4  Zwischendem 
Flecken  Petic  und  der  Kiiste,  und  diese  hinauf  bis  zum  Flusse  Ascension.' 
Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  vol.  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p.  419.  The  country  adjacent  to  the  Bay 
of  San  Juan  Bautista  was  occupied  by  the  Ceris.  Browne's  Apache  Country, 
p.  247.  '  Sus  madrigueras  las  han  tenido  en  el  famoso  cerro  Prieto,  doce 
leguas  al  Oeste  de  San  Jose  de  los  Pimas,  en  la  cadena  que  se  extiende  hacia 
Guaymas,  en  el  rincon  de  Marcos,  en  las  sierras  de  Bocoatzi  Grande,  en  la 
sierra  de  Picu  cerca  de  la  costa,  y  sobre  todo  en  la  isla  del  Tiburon,  situada 
en  el  Golfo  de  Calif  ornias,  a  una  legua  de  la  playa.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia, 
p.  354;  Pajaken,  in  Cal.  Farmer,  June  13,  1862.  Concurrent  authorities:  La- 
chapelle,  Eaousset-Boulbon,  p.  79;  Dillon,  Hist.  Mex.,  p.  215;  Ward's  Mexico, 
vol.  i.,  p.  565;  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  34;  Domenech's  Deserts,  vol.  ii.,  p.  57; 
Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  i.,  p.  214;  Stone,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  v.,  p.  166. 

The  Salineros  'hacia  los  confines  de  la  Pimeria  alta.'  Orozco  y  Berra, 
Geografia,  p.  354. 

The  Tepocas  are  south  of  the  latter.  '  Ordinarily  live  on  the  island  of 
Tiburon.'  Cortez,  in  Pac.  E.  R.  Kept.,  vol.  iii..  p.  122.  'Los  mas  proximos  a 
la  isla  del  Tiburon.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  354;  Malte-Brun,  Sonora, 
pp.  20-1;  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  i.,  p.  214. 

The  Guaymas  and  Upanguaymas  live  near  the  like-named  port.  '  Ocupa- 
ban  el  terreno  en  que  ahora  se  encuentra  el  puerto  de  ese  nombre,  y  que  se 
redujeron  al  pueblo  de  Belen.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  354. 

The  Opatas  occupy  central  and  eastern  Sonora.  '  In  the  eastern  part  of 
the  State,  on  the  banks  of  the  Sonora  and  Oposura,  and  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  town  of  Arispe  and  the  mineral  region  of  Noc&sari.'  Mayer's  Mex.  Aztec, 
etc.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  300.  '  Leurs  villages  couvrent  les  bords  des  rivieres  de  Yaqui, 
de  Sonora  et  de  Nacameri,  ainsi  que  la  belle  vallee  d'Oposura.'  Zuniga,  in 
Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1842,  torn,  xciii.,  pp.  238-9.  « Im  Osten  des 
Staats,  an  den  Ufern  der  Flusse  Sonora  und  Oposiira  und  bis  gegen  die 
Stadt  Arispe  und  den  Minendistrict  von  Nacosari  hinauf.'  Muhlenpfordt, 
Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p.  420.  'Habita  el  centre  del  Estado  de  Sonora. ' 
Pimentel,  Cuadro,  torn,  i.,  p.  403.  '  Le  long  des  rivieres  de  San  Miguel  de 
Horcasitas,  d'Arispe,  de  los  Ures  et  d'Oposura.'  Ternaux-Compans,  in  Nou- 
velles  Anmlcs  des  Poy.,  1842,  torn,  xcv.,  p.  319.  '  Coufinan  al  Norte  con  los 


606  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

pimas  y  con  los  apaches;  al  Este  con  la  Tarahumara;  al  Sur  con  la  Pimeria 
baja,  y  al  Oeste  con  los  pimas  y  con  los  seris.'  '  Ocupan  en  el  Estado  de  So- 
nora  los  actuales  partidos  de  Sahuaripa,  Oposura,  Ures,  Arizpe  y  parte  del 
de  Magdalena.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  pp.  338,  343-4.  The  6patas, 
Eudebes,  and  Jovas  '  pueblan  la  mayor  parte  de  la  Sonora,  desde  muy 
adentro  de  la  sierrra,  son  sus  terrenes  hacia  al  Sur  desde  este  que  pusimos 
por  lindero  al  Oriente,  por  el  desierto  pueblo  de  Natora,  Aribetzi,  Bacanora, 
Tonitzi,  Soyopa,  Nacori,  Alamos,  parte  de  Tires,  Nacameri,  Opodepe,  Cu- 
curpe  hacia  el  Poniente ;  desde  aqni  Arispe,  Chinapa,  Bacoatzi,  Cuquiaratzi 
hasta  Babispe  hacia  el  Norte,  y  desde  esta  mision  la  poco  ha  citado  sierra 
hasta  Natora,  los  que  la  terminan  hacia  el  Oriente.'  Sonora,  Descrip.  Geog., 
in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  pp.  552-3.  See  also:  Wappdus,  Geog. 
u.  Stat.,  p.  174;  Mofras,  Explor.,  torn,  i.,  p.  213;  Malte-Brun,  Sonora,  p.  14; 
BartleWs  Pers.  Nar.,  vol.  i.,  p.  444;  Hardy's  Trav.,  p.  437;  Pajaken,  in 
Cal.  Farmer,  June  6,  1862;  Prichard's  Nat.  Hist.  Man,  torn,  ii.,  p.  562; 
Ward's  Mexico,  vol.  i.,  p.  597;  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  139;  Velasco,  Noticias 
de  Sonora,  pp.  117,  145.  In  early  days  '  they  occupied  the  whole  western 
slope  of  the  Sierra,  from  the  headquarters  of  the  Sonora  River  to  Nuri,  near 
the  Yaqui  towns.  They  were  then  esteemed  different  tribes  in  different 
localities,  and  are  named  in  the  old  records  as  Jobas,  Teqiiimas,  Teguis, 
and  Cogiiinachies.'  Stone,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  v.,  p.  166.  'La  nacion  opata 
se  subdivide  en  opatas  tegiiis,  avecindados  en  los  pueblos  de  Opodepe,  Ter- 
rapa,  Ci^urpe,  Alamos,  Batuco.  En  opatas  teguimas  en  Sinoquipe,  Bana- 
michi,  Huepaca,  Aconchi,  Babiacora,  Chinapa,  Bacuachi,  Cuquiarachi, 
Cumpas.  Opatas  Cogiiinachis  en  Toniche,  Matape,  Oputo,  Oposura,  Gua- 
savas,  Bacadeguachi,  Nacori  (otro),  Mochopa.  Los  del  pueblo  de  Santa 
Cruz  se  dice  que  son  de  nacion  contla.  Los  Batucas,  en  el  pueblo  de  Batuco 
corresponden  tambieri  a  los  opatas,  asi  como  los  sahuaripas,  los  himeris  y 
los  guasabas.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  pp.  343-4,  and  Velasco,  Noticias 
de  Sonora,  pp.  155-6. 

To  the  Jovas  'pertenecen  los  pueblos  de  San  Jose  Teopari,  Los  Do 
lores,  Sahuaripa,  donde  hay  tambien  opatas,  Ponida,  Santo  Tornas,  Arivetzi, 
San  Mateo  Malzura.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  345;  Pimentel,  Cuadro, 
torn,  ii.,  p.  249.  Ovas,  'esta  nacion  esta  poblada  a  orillas  del  rio  Papi- 
gochic,  variedad  de  alguuos  pueblos  y  corre  hasta  cerca  del  partido  de 
Samaripa  y  uno  de  sus  pueblos  llamado  Teopari  (que  es  de  nacion  ova 
su  geiite)  y  corre  como  se  ha  dicho  poblada  en  este  rio  hasta  cerca  de 
la  mision  de  Matachic.'  Zapata,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  iii., 
p.  341.  'Los  ovas,  tribu  que  vive  priucipalmente  en  Sonora.... en  Chi 
huahua  esta  poblada  orillas  del  rio  Papigochi  (el  Yaqui),  llegando  hasta 
cerca  de  Yepomera,  de  la  mision  de  tarahumares  de  Matachic;  sus  ran- 
cherfas  se  llamaron  Oparrapa,  Natora,  Bacaniyahua  d  Baipoa,  Orosaqui 
y  Xiripa.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  325. 

The  Sobas  '  ocuparon  a  Caborca,  encontrandose  tarnbien  en  los  alrede- 
dores.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  348. 

The  Potlapiguas,  '  uacion  gentil  cerca  de  Babispe  y  de  Bacerac,  colocada 
en  la  frontera.'  Ib. 

The  Tepahues  were  '  habitadores  de  una  peninsula  que  forman  dos  rios  d 
brazos  del  Mayo  al  Oriente  de  los  de  esta  nacion.'  Id.,  p.  356. 


SINALOAS  AND  MAYOS.  607 

The  Tecayaguis,  Cues  or  Macoyahuis  were  '  en  las  vertientes  del  rio, 
antes  de  los  tepahues. . .  .sus  restos  se  encuentran  en  el  pueblo  de  la  Cou- 
cepciou  de  Macoyahui.'  Ib. 

The  Hymeris,  '  nacion  situada  en  los  varios  valles  que  forma  la  Sierra 
Madre  entre  Occidente  y  Norte  del  valle  de  Sonora.'  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp. 
de  Jesus,  torn,  ii.,  p.  243. 

The  Sonoras  inhabit  the  valley  of  Sonora,  which  '  cae  a  la  banda  del 
Norte,  apartado  de  la  villa  (Sinaloa)  ciento  y  treinta  leguas.'  Ribas,  Hist, 
de  los  Triumphos,  p.  392. 

The  Eudeves,  Eudebes,  Hegues,  Hequis,  Heves,  Eudevas  or  Dohme 
dwell  in  the  villages  'Matape,  Nacori,  Los  Alamos,  Robesco,  Bacanora, 
Batuco,  Tepuspe,  Cucurpe,  Saracatzi,  Toape,  and  Opodepe.'  Orozco  y  Berra, 
Geografia,  p.  344. 

The  Sibubapas  'del  pueblo  de  Suaqui.'  Id.,  p.  351. 

The  Nures,  '  habitadores  del  pueblo  de  Nuri.'  2b.  '  Habita  cerca  de  la  de 
los  Nebomes.'  Alcedo,  Diccionario,  vol.  iii.,  p.  350. 

The  Hios,  'a  ocho  leguas  al  Este  deTepahue.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Gtografia, 
p.  351. 

The  Huvagueres  and  Tehuisos  are  neighbors  of  the  Hios.  11). 

The  Basiroas  and  Teatas,  '  mas  al  Este.'  Ib. 

The  Tupocuyos  are  four  leagues  Northwest  of  Santa  Magdalena.  '  De 
Santa  Magdalena  en ....  el  rtimbo  al  Noroeste ....  a  4  leguas  de  distaucia 
llegamos  a  la  rancher  fa  del  Tupocuyos.'  Mange,  Itinerario,  in  Doc.  Hist. 
Alex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  i.,  p.  232. 

'The  Indians  of  the  state  of  Cinaloa  belong  to  different  tribes:  towards 
the  south,  in  the  country  and  in  the  Sierra,  the  Coras,  Najarites,  and  Huei- 
colhues  are  to  be  found;  to  the  north  of  Culiacan,  the  Cinaloas,  Cochitas 
and  Tuvares;  and  towards  the  town  of  El  Fuerte,  and  farther  north,  we  find 
the  Mayos  Indians,  to  which  belong  also  the  tribes  Quasare,  Ahome,  and 
Ocoronis.'  Sevin,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxx.,  p.  12;  Muhlenpfordt, 
Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p.  402. 

The  Sinaloas  '  tiene  su  assiento  y  poblaciones  en  el  mismo  rio  de  Tegueco, 
y  Quaque,  en  lo  mas  alto  del,  y  mas  cercauas  a  las  haldas  de  serranias 
de  Topia;  y  sus  pueblos  comien^an  seis  leguas  arriba  del  fuerte  de  Mon- 
tesclaros.'  Ribas,  Hist,  de  los  Triumphos,  pp.  199,  47.  « Los  mas  orieutales 
de  las  gentes  que  habitaban  las  riberas  del  que  ahora  llamanios  rio  del 
Fuerte.'  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesiis,  torn,  i.,  p.  460.  '  Avecindudos  en  una 
parte  de  las  orillas,  hacia  las  fueutes  del  rio  del  Fuerte.'  Orozco  y  Berra, 
Geografia,  p.  329. 

The  Mayos  occupy  the  banks  of  the  rivers  Mayo  and  Fuerte.  The  Mayo 
river  '  bafia  todos  los  pueblos  de  indigenas  llamados  los  Mayos.'  Velasco, 
Noticias  de  Sonora,  p.  82.  '  Die  eigentlichen  Mayos  wohneu  hauptsuchlich 
westlichund  nordwestlich  von  der  Stadt  Alamos.'  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn, 
ii.,  ptii.,  p.  402.  'Los  mayos,  sobre  el  rio  Mayo.  .  .  .  estan  distribuidos  en 
los  pueblos  de  Santa  Cruz  de  Mayo,  Espfritu  Santo  Echojoa  6  Echonova, 
Natividad  Navajoa  6  Navohoua,  Coiicepcion  Cuirinipo,  San  Ignacio  de  Tesia, 
Santa  Catalina  Cayamoa  6  Camoa,  San  Bartolome  Batacosa,  Masiaca. '  Orozco 
y  Berra,  Geografia,  pp.  356,  354;  Malte-Brun,  Sonora,  p.  13.  'The  Mayos  on 


608  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

ihe  river  Mayo  inhabit  the  following  towns:  Tepague,  Conecare,  Camoa, 
Tesia,  Navahda,  Curinghda,  Echehda,  and  Santa  Cruz  de  Mayo,  a  seaport. 
Towns  of  the  same  nation  on  the  Rio  del  Fuerte:  Tdro,  Baca,  Chois,  Omi, 
San  Miguel,  Charac,  Sivilihoa,  and  Tegueco.'  Hardy's  Trav.,  pp.  438,  390; 
Ward's  Mexico,  vol.  i.,  p.  583,  vol.  ii.,  p.  606;  also:  Stone,  in  Hist,  Mag., 
vol.  v.,  p.  165;  Mayer's  Mex.,  Aztec,  etc.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  299. 

The  Yaquis  are  settled  on  the  Rio  Yaqui  and  between  it  and  the  Rio 
Mayo.  On  the  Yaqui  River  at  a  distance  of  twelve  leagues  from  the  sea, 
'esta  poblada  la  famosa  Nacion  de  Hiaquis.'  Ribas,  Hist,  de  los  Triumphos, 
p.  284.  '  Lista  de  los  pueblos  del  rio  Yaqui,  contados  desde  Cocori,  primer 
pueblo  al  otro  lado  del  rio  de  Buenavista,  al  Este  del  Estado,  camino  para  la 
ciudad  de  Alamos,  y  rio  abajo  hasta  Belen:  Cocori,  Bacum,  Torin,  Bicam, 
Potam,  Rahum,  Huirivis.'  Velasco,  Noticias  de  Sonora,  p.  84.  '  Zwischen 

den  Fliissen  Mayo  und  Yaqui Die  Ortschaften  des  Stammes  Yaqui  (Hia- 

qui)  sind  besonders:  Beleii,  Huadibis,  Ravin,  Potan,  Bican,  Torin,  Bacun 
und  Cocorun.'  Miihlenpfordt,  Mejico,  vol.  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p.  419;  Malte-Brun,  So- 
nora,  p.  13.  '  Les  habitations  des  Yaquis  commencent,  a  partir  de  la  riviere 
de  ce  nom,  et  s'etendent  egalement  sur  le  Rio  de  Mayo  Fuerte  et  de  Sinaloa, 
sur  tine  etendue  de  plus  de  140  lieues.'  Zuniga,  in  Nouvelles  AnnalesdesVoy., 
1842,  torn,  xciii.,  p.  239;  Ternaux-Compans,  in  Id.,  torn,  xcv.,  p.  306.  'Tara- 
umara  es  la  resiclencia  de  los  Indios  Yaquis.'  '  Are  still  farther  north  (than 
the  Mayos),  and  belong  entirely  to  the  state  of  Sonora.'  Sevin,  in  Lond.  Geog. 
Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxx.,  p.  12:  Stone,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  v.,  pp.  164-5;  Paja- 
Jcen,  in  Cal.  Farmer,  June  6,  1862;  Alcedo,  Diccionario,  torn,  v.,  p.  46.  '  Oc- 
cupent  le  pays  situe  au  sud  de  Guaymas  jusqu'au  Rio  del  Fuerte.'  Mofras, 
Explor.,  torn,  i.,  p.  212.  See  further:  Ferry,  Scenes  de  la  Vie  Sauvage,  pp. 
15,  45;  Ward's  Mexico,  vol.  i.,  p.  582,  vol.  ii.,  p.  606;  Hardy's  Trav.,  pp. 
437-8;  Combier,Voy.,  p.  200:  Mex.  in  1842,  pp.  67-8:  Hist.  Chre'tienne  de  la 
Cal.,  p.  244. 

The  Zuaques  have  their  villages  between  the  Mayo  and  Yaqui  rivers. 
1  Los  zuaques  estaban  adelante,  a  cinco  leguas  de  los  tehuecos,  y  sus  tierras 
corrian  por  espacio  de  diez  leguas.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  332.  '  Sus 
pueblos. ..  .eran  tres....el  principal  dellos,  llamado  Mochicaui.'  Ribas, 
Hist,  delos  Triumphos,  p.  163;  Miihlenpfordt,  Mejico,  vol.  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p.  419. 

The  Tehuecos  are  west  of  the  Sinaloas.  '  Seis  leguas  al  Oeste  del  ultimo 
de  sus  pueblos  (Sinaloas)  seguian  los  teguecos  6  tehuecos.'  Orozco  y  Berra, 
Gwgrafia,  p.  332.  « Los  pueblos  desta  Nacion,  que  en  sus  priucipios  fueron 
tres,  comen9auan  quatro  leguas  rio  arriba  del  vltimo  delos  Cuaques.'  Ribas, 
Hist,  de  los  Triumphos,  p.  171. 

The  Ahornes  dwell  on  the  Rio  Zuaque  four  leagues  from  the  sea.  '  La 
Nacion  Ahome.  y  su  principal  pueblo. . .  .Dista  quatro  leguas  de  la  mar  de 
Calif ornias.'  Ribas,  Hist,  de  los  Triumphos,  p.  145;  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia, 
p.  332;  Alcedo,  Diccionario,  vol.  i.,  p.  33;  Schoolcraft's  Arch.,  vol.  iii.,p.522. 

The  Vacoregues  '  vivian  en  las  playas  del  mar  y  en  los  medanos, . . . .  un 
pueblo,  orillas  del  rio  (Fuerte),  no  lejos  de  Ahome.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geogra 
fia,  p.  332. 

The  Batucaris  '  frecuentaban  un  lagunazo  a  tres  leguas  de  Ahome.'  Ib. 

The  Comoporis  '  existian  en  una  peninsula,  siete  leguas  de  Ahome.'  Ib. 


TKIBES  OF  SINALOA.  609 

'  En  vna  peninsula  retirada,  y  en  los  Medanos,  6  montes  de  arena  del  mar, 
viuian  las  rancherias  de  la  gente  fiera  destos  Comoporis.'  Ribas,  Hist,  de  los 
Triumphos,  p.  153. 

The  Guazaves  '  distante  diez,  y  doze  leguas  de  la  villa  '  (Cinaloa).  Id.,  p. 
46.  'Habitadores  de  San  Pedro  Guazave  y  de  Tamazula,  orillas  del  rio 
Sinaloa.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  332. 

The  Zoes  '  eran  Indies  serranos,  que  tenian  sus  poblaciones  en  lo  alto  del 
mismo  rio  de  los  Cinaloas,  y  a  las  haldas  de  sus  serranias.'  Ribas,  Hist,  de 
los  Triumphos,  p.  208.  '  Se  establecieron  a  las  faldas  de  la  Sierra,  en  las 
f uentes  del  rio  del  Fuerte  cercanos  a  los  sinaloas. '  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia, 
p.  333.  '  Confinan  con  los  tubares.'  Zapata,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Hex.,  serie  iv., 
torn,  iii.,  p.  395. 

The  Huites  'Vivian  en  la  Sierra,  a  siete  leguas  de  los  sinaloas.'  Orozco  y 
Berra,  Geografia,  p.  333. 

The  Ohueras  and  Cahuimetos  dwell  at  '  San  Lorenzo  de  Oguera. . .  .situado 
4  seis  leguas  al  E.  de  la  villa  de  Sinaloa  y  sobre  el  rio.'  Id.,  p.  334. 

The   Chicoratos  and  Basopas,  '  en  la  sierra,  y  a  siete  leguas  al  E.  de 

Oguera,  se  encuentra  la  Concepcion  de  Chicorato Cinco  leguas  al  Norte 

tiene  a  San  Ignacio  de  Chicuris,  en  que  los  habitantes  son  tambienbasopas.' 
16. 

The  Chicuras  'eran  vecinos  de  los  chicoratos.'  Ib. 

The  Tubares  or  Tovares  live  in  the  *  pueblos  de  Concepcion,  San  Ignacio 
y  San  Miguel.'  'habitan  uno  de  los  afluentes  del  rio  del  Fuerte.'  Id.,  pp. 
323-4.  '  Poblada  en  varias  rancherias  sobre  los  altos  del  rio  grande  de  Cina 
loa.'  Ribas,  Hist,  de  los  Triumphos,  p.  117.  '  En  el  distrito  de  Mina.'  Pimen- 
tel,  Cuadro,  torn,  ii.,  p.  254. 

The  Chinipas,  Guailopos,  and  Maguiaquis  live  '  en  San  Andres  Chinipas.' 
Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  324;  Ribas,  Hist,  de  los  Triumphos,  p.  95. 

The  Hizos  are  in  '  Nuestra  Senora  de  Guadalupe  de  Voragios  6  Taraichi.' 
Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  324. 

The  Varogios,  Husorones,  Cutecos  and  Tecargonis  are  in  '  Nuestra  Senora 
de  Loreto  de  Voragios  d  Sinoyeca  y  en  Santa  Ana.'  Ib. 

The  Tarahumares  inhabit  the  district  of  Tarahumara  in  the  state  of  Chi 
huahua.  '  Provincia ....  confina  por  el  O  con  la  de  Sonora,  por  el  E  con  el 
Nuevo  Mexico,  sirviendole  de  limites  el  rio  Grande  del  Norte,  por  este  ruinbo 

no  estan  conocidos  aun  sus  terminos,  por  el  S  O  con  la  de  Cinaloa toma 

el  nombre  de  la  Nacion  de  Indies  asi  llamada,  que  confinaba  con  la  de  los  Te- 
peguaues.'  Alcedo,  Diccionario,  torn,  v.,  p.  46;  Pimentel,  Cuadro,  torn,  i.,  p. 
363.  '  In  den  tiefen  uiid  wilden  Schluchten  von  Tararecua  und  Santa  Sinfo- 
rosa,  jagen  verschiedene  Farailien  der  Tarahumaras.'  Miihlenpfordt,  Mejico, 
toin.  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p.  521;  Mexilcanische  Zastande,  torn,  i.,  p.  74.  'Bewohnen 
einen  Theil  des  Berglandes  im  W.  der  Hauptstadt,  wo  sie  namentlich  indem 
schonen  Hochthale  des  Rio  Papigdchic  in  alien  Ortschaften  einen  Theil  der 
Bevolkerung  bilden.'  Wappaus,  Geog.  u.  Stat.,  p.  213.  'Inhabit  the  towns  in 
Mulatos.'  Hardy's  Trav.,  p.  438.  'En  la  raya  que  divide  los  Reynos  de  la 
Vizcaya  y  de  la  Galicia  no  en  los  terminos  limitados  que  hoy  tiene  que  es 
Acaponeta,  sino  en  los  que  antes  tubo  hasta  cerca  de  Sinaloa.'  Padilla, 
Conq.  N.  Galicia,  MS.,  p.  491.  '  Al  Oriente  tienen  el  rio  de  los  Conchos  y  al 
VOL.  I.  39 


610  TKIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

Poniente  la  Sinaloa,  Sonora  y  las  regiones  del  Nuevo  Mexico,  al  Norte  y  al 
Austro  la  Nacion  de  los  Tepehuanes.  '  Se  estiendan  por  el  Norte  hasta  mas 
abajo  de  San  Buenaventura.'  'Vivian  en  S.  Jose  de  Bocas,  cabecera  de 
una  de  las  misiones  de  los  jesuitas,'  in  Durango.  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia, 
pp.  319-25.  'Atres  leguas  de  San  Jose  Temaichic  esta  otro  pueblo  y 
mucha  gente  en  el  llamada  tarauniar  Pachera.'  Zapata,  in  Doc.  Hist. 
Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  333;  Richthofen,  Mexico,  p.  448.  '  Les  Tahues 
etaient  probable  tnent  les  memes  que  ceux  que  Ton  designe  plus  tard 
sous  le  nom  de  Tarahumaras.'  'Leur  capitale  etait  Teo-Colhuacan.'  Bras- 
seur  de  Bourbourg,  Popol  Vuh,  preface,  p.  191. 

The  Conchos  inhabit  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Conchos,  near  its  confluence 
with  the  Rio  del  Norte.  '  Enderecjo  su  camino  hazia  el  Norte,  y  a  dos  jorna- 
das  topo  mucha  cantidad  de  Indies  de  los  que  llaman  Conchos.'  Espejo,  in 
HakluyVs  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  384,  390.  'En  en  Real  del  Parral.'  Arlegui, 
Chron.  de  Zacatecas,  p.  97.  '  Se  estiende  hasta  las  orillas  del  rio  grande  del 
Norte.  Por  la  parte  del  septentrion  confina  con  los  laguneros,  y  al  Medio- 
dia  tiene  algunos  pueblos  de  los  tepehuanes  y  valle  de  Santa  Barbara.' 
Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  ii.,  p,  58. 

The  Passaguates  live  twenty-four  leagues  north  of  the  Conchos.  '  Anda- 
das  las  veinte  y  quatro  leguas  dichas  (from  the  Conchos;,  toparon  otra  nacion 
de  Indios,  llamados Passaguates.'  Espejo,  in  HakluyVs  Voy,,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  384, 
391. 

The  Mamites,  Colorados,  Arigames,  Otaquitamones,  Pajalames,  Poaramas 
were  in  the  neighborhood,  of  the  Conchos.  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  325. 
The  Guazapares  are  '  a  veinte  leguas  de  distancia  del  pueblo  y  partido  de 
Loreto  al  Sur,  reconociendo  al  Oriente,  y  solas  diez  del  pueblo  y  partido  de 
Santa  Ines,  caminando  derecho  al  Oriente,  esta  el  pueblo  y  partido  de  Santa 
Teresa  de  Guazapares,  llamado  en  su  lengua  Guazayepo.'  Zapata,  in  Doc. 
Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  389. 

The  Temoris  dwell  in  the  '  pueblo  de  Santa  Maria  Magdalena  de  Temoris 
....  A  cinco  leguas  de  distancia  hacia  el  Norte  del  pueblo  y  cabecera  de  Santa 
Teresa  esta  el  pueblo  llamado  Nuestra  Sefiora  del  Valle  Humbroso.  Id.,  p. 
390. 

The  Tobosos  are  north  of  the  Tarahumares  and  in  the  Mission  of  San 
Francisco  de  Coahuila,  in  the  state  of  Coahuila.  '  Se  extendian  por  el  Bolson 
de  Mapimi,  y  se  les  encuentra  cometiendo  depredaciones  asi  en  Chihuahua 
y  en  Durango,  como  en  las  misiones  de  Parras,  en  las  demas  de  Coahuila  y 
en  el  Norte  de  Nuevo  Leon.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  pp.  308-9,  302,  325. 
In  Coahuila,  'Un  paraje. . .  .que  llaman  la  Cuesta  de  los  muertos,  donde 
tienen  habitacion  los  Indios  Tobosos.'  Villa-Senor  y  Sanchez,  Theatro,  torn. 
ii.,  pp.  296-7,  348-9.  'A  un  paraje  que  hoy  es  la  mision  del  Santo  nombre 
de  Jesus.'  Padilla,  Conq.  N.  Galicia,  p.  519. 

The  Sisimbres,  Chizos,  Cocoyomes,  Coclamas,  Tochos,  Babos,  and  Nures 
live  near  the  Tobosos.  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  325.  Valle  de  San  Bar- 
tholome,  Presidio  de  la  Provincia  de  Tepeguana. . .  .antigua  residencia  de  los 
Indios  Infieles  Cocoyomes.  Alcedo,  Diccionario,  torn,  i.,  pp.  222-3. 

The  Tepagues  are  'Cinco  leguas  arriba  del  rio  de  Mayo,  en  vn  arroyo.' 
Ribas,  Hist,  de  los  Triumphos,  p.  253. 


NORTH-EASTERN  MEXICAN  TRIBES.  611 

The  Conicaris  live  '  distante  de  Chinipadiezy  seis  leguas.'  Id.,  pp.,  265, 
254. 

A  multitude  of  names  of  nations  or  tribes  are  mentioned  by  different 
authorities,  none  of  which  coincide  one  with  the  other.  But  few  nations 
are  definitely  located.  I  therefore  first  give  the  different  lists  of  names,  and 
afterwards  locate  them  as  far  as  possible.  '  Babeles,  Xicocoges,  Gueiquiza- 
les,  Goxicas,  Manos  Prietas,  Bocoras,  Escabas,  Cocobiptas,  Pinanacas,  Co- 
dames,  Cacastes,  Colorados,  Cocomates,  Jaimamares,  Contores,  Filifaes, 
Babiamares,  Catujanes,  Apes,  Pachagues,  Bagnames,  Isipopolames,  Piez  de 
benado.  Chancafes,  Payaguas,  Pachales,  Jumes,  Johamares,  Bapancora- 
pinamacas,  Babosarigames,  Pauzanes,  Paseos,  Chahuanes,  Mescales,  Xara- 
mes,  Chachaguares,  Hijames,  ledocodamos,  Xijames,  Cenizos,  Pampapas, 
Gavilanes.  Sean  estos  nombres  verdaderos,  6  desfigurados  seguii  la  inteli- 
gencia,  caprichos,  o  voluntariedad  de  los  que  se  emplearon  en  la  pacificacion 
del  Pais,  6  de  los  fundadores  de  las  Doctrinas,  parece  mas  creible  que  los 
mencionados  Yndios,  fuesen  pequenas  parcialidades,  6  ramos  de  alguna  na- 
cion,  cuyo  nombre  generico  no  ha  podido  Saberse.'  Revillagigedo,  Carta,  MS. 
'  Pacpoles,  Coaquites,  Zibolos,  Canos,  Pachoches,  Sicxacames,  Siyan- 
guayas,  Sandajuanes,  Lignaces,  Pacuazin,  Pajalatames  y  Carrizos.'  Pa- 
dilla,  cap.  Ixix.,  quoted  in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  306.  'Negritos, 
Bocalos,  Xanambres,  Borrados,  Guanipas,  Pelones,  Guisoles,  Hualahuises, 
Alasapas,  Guazamoros,  Yurguimes,  Mazames,  Metazures,  Quepanos,  Coyo 
tes,  Bgaanas,  Zopilotes,  Blancos,  Amitaguas,  Quimis,  Ayas,  Comocabras, 
Mezquites.'  Archivo  General,  MSS.,  torn,  xxxi.,  fol.  208,  quoted  in  Ib.  Paogas, 
Caviseras,  Vasapalles,  Ahomamas,  Yanabopos,  Daparabopos,  Mamazorras, 
Neguales,  Salineros  y  Baxaneros,  conocidos  generalmente  bajo  la  apelacion 
de  Laguneros.  Id.,  p.  305.  '  Rayados  y  Cholomos.'  Id.,  p.  306. 

'  Las  tribus  que  habitaban  el  Valle  (del  rio  Nazas)  se  nombraban  Irritilas, 
Miopacoas,  Meviras,  Hoeras  y  Maiconeras,  y  los  de  la  laguna '  [Laguna 
grande  de  San  Pedro  or  Tlahuelila].  Id.,  p.  305. 

'  Pajalates,  Orejones,  Pacoas,  Tilijayas,  Alasapas,  Pausanes,  y  otras  mu- 
chas  diferentes,  que  se  hallan  en  las  misiones  del  rio  de  San  Antonio  y  rio 
grande  . .  .como  son;  los  Pacuaches,  Mescales,  Pampopas,  Tacames,  Chayo- 
pines,  Venados,  Pamaques,  y  toda  la  juventuddePihuiques,  Borrados,  Sani- 
paos  y  Manos  de  Perro.'  Id.,  p.  306;  Pimenlel,  Cuadro,  torn,  ii.,  p.  409.  '  A 
media  legua  corta  . .  .[de  San  Juan  Bautista]  se  fundo  la  misionde  San  Ber 
nardo  . . .  con  las  naciones  de  Ocanes,  Canuas,  Catuxanes,  Paxchales, 
Pomulumas,  Pacuaches,  Pastancoyas,  Pastalocos  y  Pamasus,  a  que  se  agrega- 
ron  despues  los  Pacuas,  Papanacas,  Tuancas  y  otras.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Oeo- 
grafta,  p.  303. 

The  Gijames  are  in  the  mountains  near  the  mission  of  El  Santo  Nombre 
de  Jesus  de  Peyotes.  Morfi,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Hex.,  serie  iii.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  434. 

The  Pitas  and  Pasalves  at  the  Mission  of  '  Nuestra  Senora  de  los  Do 
lores  de  la  Pimta.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  303. 

The  Pampopas  « habitaban  en  el  rio  de  las  Nueces,  a  22  leguas  al  Sur  de  la 
mision  de  San  Juan  Bautista;  los  Tilijaes  mas  abajo  de  los  anteriores;  al  Sur 
de  estos  los  Patacales,  y  los'Cachopostales  cerca  de  los  Pampopas.  Los  Paja- 
laques  vivian  en  el  rio  de  San  Antonio  coino  a  40  leguas  de  la  mision  de  San 


612  TBIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

Bernardo;  los  Pacos  y  los  Pastancoyas  a  15  leguas  en  el  paraje  nombrado  el 
Carrizo;  los  Panagues  a  18  leguas  de  la  mision  sobre  el  rio  de  las  Nueces; 
Los  Pauzanes  sobre  el  rio  de  San  Antonio,  y  los  Paguachis  a  15  leguas  del 
mismo  San  Bernardo.'. . . .'  Con  Indies  de  la  naciones  Mahuames,  Pachales, 

Mescales,  Jarames,  Ohaguames  y  Chahuames con  ellos  y  con  las  tribus 

de  Pampopas,  Tilofayas,  Pachalocos  y  Tusanes  situd  de  nuevo  la  mision  de 
San  Juan  Bautista,  junto  al  presidio  del  mismo  nombre,  cerca  del  rio  Bravo.' 
'  A  tiro  de  escopeta  [from  Santo  Nombre  de  Jesus  Peyotes]  se  encuentra 
San  Francisco  Vizarron  de  los  Pausanes  . . .  con  f amilias  de  Tinapihuayas, 
Pihuiques  y  Julimenos,  aunque  la  mayor  parte  fueron  Pauzanes.'  Orozco  y 
Berra,  Geografia,  pp.  303-4.  '  En  el  valle  de  Santo  Domingo,  a  orilla  del 

rio  de  Sabinas San  Juan  Bautista  ...lo  pobld  con  indios  Chahuanes, 

Pachales,  Mescales  y  Jarames,  a  que  se  agregaron  despues  algunos  Pampo 
pas,  Tilofayas,  Pachalocos  y  Tusanes.'  Morfi,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iii., 
torn.  iv.,pp.  440-1. 

The  Cabesas,  Contotores,  Bazaurigames  and  others  were  at  the  mission 
San  Buenaventura.  Padilla,  Conq.  N.  Galicia,  MS.,  p.  530. 

The  Gabilanes  and  Tripas  Blancas  roamed  over  a  stretch  of  country  sit 
uated  north  of  the  Presidio  of  Mapimi,  between  the  rivers  San  Pedro  and 
Conchos  to  their  confluence  with  the  Rio  Grande.  Villa-Senor  y  Sanchez, 
Theatro,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  348-9. 

The  Laguneros  '  poblados  a  las  margenes  de  la  laguna  que  llaman  Grande 
de  sau  Pedro,  y  algunos  dellos  en  las  isletas  que  haze  la  misma  laguna.' 
Ribas,  Hist,  de  los  Triumphos,  p.  669. 

Los  misioneros  franciscanos  atrajeron  de  paz  las  tribus  siguientes,  con 
los  cuales  fundaron  cinco  misiones.  )San  Francisco  de  Coahuila,  un  cuarto 
de  legua  al  Norte  de  Monclova,  con  indios  Boboles  y  Obayas,  a  los  cuales 
se  agregaron  algunos  Tobosos  y  Tlaxcaltecas  conducidas  de  San  Esteban 
del  Saltillo.  Santa  Rosa  de  Nadadores,  puesta  en  1677  a  cuarenta  leguas  al 
Noroeste  de  Coahuila,  de  indios  Cotzales  y  Manosprietas,  trasladada  junto  al 
rio  de  Nadadores  para  huir  de  la  guerra  de  los  Tobosos,  y  colocada  al  fin, 
en  1693,  a  siete  leguas  al  Noroeste  de  Coahuila:  se  le  agregaron  ocho  familias 
Tlaxcaltecas.  San  Bernardo  de  la  Candela,  con  indios  Catujanes,  Tilijais 
y  Milijaes,  y  cuatro  familias  Tlaxcaltecas.  San  Buenaventura  de  las  cuatro 
Cienegas,  veinte  leguas  al  Oeste  de  Coahuila,  con  indios  Cabezas,  C/onto- 
tores  y  Bauzarigames :  la  mision  repuesta  en  1692  con  los  Tocas  y  los  Colo- 
rados.  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  302. 

The  Irritilas  occupy  '  la  parte  del  partido  de  Mapimi  al  Este.'  Id.,  p.  319. 

The  Pisones  and  Xanambres  roam  '  Al  Sur  del  valle  de  la  Purfsima  y  al 
Norte  hasta  Rio  Blanco,  confinando  al  Oeste  con  los  Cuachichiles.'  Orozco  y 
Berra,  Geografia,  p.  298. 

Other  names  which  cannot  be  located  are:  Cadimas,  Pelones,  Nazas, 
Pamoranos,  Quedexefios,  Palmitos,  Piutos,  Quinicuanes,  Maquiapemes, 
Seguyones,  Ayagua,  Zima,  Canaina,  Comepescados,  Aguaceros,  Vocarros, 
Posuamas,  Zalaias,  Malahuecos,  Pitisfiafuiles,  Cuchinochis,  Talaquichis, 
Alazapas,  Pafaltoes.  Id.,  pp.  299-300. 

The  nations  or  tribes  of  Tamaulipas,  although  very  numerous,  are  mostly 
located. 


TRIBES  OF  TAMAULIPAS.  613 

The  Olives  live  in  Horcasitas.  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  293. 

The  Palagueques  are  at  the  Mission  of  San  Francisco  Xavier.  Ib. 

The  Anacanas,  '&  una  legua  de  Altamira.'  76. 

The  Aretines,  Panguais,  and  Caramiguais  in  the  '  sierra  del  Chapopote, 
que  remata  en  la  barra  del  Tordo.'  Ib. 

The  Mapulcanas,  Cataicanas,  Caramiguais,  Panguais,  and  Zapoteros  live 
hear  the  Salinas,  which  are  between  the  Cerro  del  Maiz  and  the  sea.  Ib. 

The  Caribays,  Comecamotes,  Ancasiguais,  Tagualilos,  and  Pasitas  .are  near 
De  Soto  la  Marina  and  Santander.  Ib. 

The  Moralenos  and  Panguajes  live  on  the  coast  between  Marina  and  Alta- 
mirano.  Ib. 

The  Martinez,  'en  la  Sierra  de  Tamaulipa  vieja.'  Ib. 

The  Mariguanes,  Caramariguanes,  Aretines,  '  habitada  desde  el  cerro  de 
S.  Jose  a  la  mar.'  Ib. 

The  Tumapacanes,  'en  el  camino  para  Santander.'  Ib. 

The  Inapanames,  '  a  una  y  media  leguas  de  la  priniera  villa  (Santillana).' 
Ib. 

The  Pintos  and  Quinicuanes  dwell  near  San  Fernando  de  Austria.  Ib. 

The  Tedexenos,  '  en  las  lagunas  de  la  barra.'  Ib. 

The  Comecrudos,  '  donde  el  rio  se  vacia  en  sus  crecientes.'  Ib. 

The  Tamaulipecos  and  Malinchenos  live  at  the  mission  of  S.  Pedro  Alcan 
tara.  Ib. 

The  Guixolotes,  Cadimas,  Canaynes,  and  Borrados  are  '  al  pie  de  la  sierra 
de  Tamaulipas,  teniendo  al  Sur  el  terreno  que  se  llama  la  Tamaulipa  Moza. ' 
Id.,  pp.  293-4. 

The  Nazas,  Nances,  Comecrudos,  and  Texones  are  at  the  mission  of  Rey- 
nosa.  Id.,  p.  294. 

The  Tanaquiapemes,  Saulapaguemes,  Auyapemes,  Uscapemes,  Comesaca- 
pemes,  Gummesacapemes,  Catanamepaques  are  '  rumbo  al  Este  y  sobre  el  rio, 
a  seis  leguas  de  la  mision. . .  .se  internan  a  las  tierras  llegando  en  sus  corre- 
rias  unicamente  hasta  el  mar.'  Ib. 

The  Carrizos,  Cotomanes,  and  Cacalotes  are  at  '  Camargo,  situado  sobre  el 
rio  de  S.  Juan....al  otro  lado  del  Bravo....los  cuales  por  fuera  del  rio 
Grande  llegaii  hasta  Revilla.'  Ib. 

The  Garzas  and  Malaguecos  live  near  rio  Alamo.  Id.,  p.  294. 

No  location  for  the  following  can  be  found:  Politos,  Mulatos,  Pajaritos, 
Venados,  Payzanos,  Cuernos  quemados.  Id.,  pp.  295-6. 

The  Tepehuanes  inhabit  the  mountains  of  southern  Chihuahua  and  the 
northern  portions  of  Durango,  a  district  commonly  called  the  partido  de 
Tepehuanes.  '  Estiende  desde  la  Sierra  del  Mezquital  hasta  el  Parral  . . . 
hasta  adelante  de  Topia,  muy  cerca  de  Caponeta.'  Arlegui,  Chron.  de  Zacate- 
cas,  pp.  187-8.  '  Se  extiende  esta  region  desde  la  altura  misma  de  Guadiana, 
a  poco  menos  de  25  grades  hasta  los  27  de  latitud  septentrional.  Sus  pueblos 
comienzan  a  las  veinticinco  leguas  de  la  capital  de  Nuevu-Vizcaya,  acia  el 
Noroeste  en  Santiago  de  Papasquiaro.  Al  Norte  tiene  a  la  provincia  de 
Taraumara,  al  Sur  la  de  Chiametlan  y  costa  del  seno  Californio,  al  Oriente 
los  grandes  arenales  y  naciones  vecinas  a  la  laguna  de  S.  Pedro,  y  al  Poni- 
ente  la  Sierra  Madre  de  Top 'a,  que  la  divide  de  estaprovinciay  la  de  Sinaloa.' 


614  TRIBAL  BOUNDAEIES. 

Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  i.,  p.  319.     *  Sus  pueblos,  parte  en  llanos, 

y  parte  en  sierra,  a  las  vertientes  de  la  de  Topia,  y  san  Andres Y  por  essa 

parte  vezinos  a  las  Naziones  Xixime,  y  Acaxee,  y  aun  a  las  de  la  tierra  mas 
adentro  de  Cinaloa.'  Ribas,  Hist,  de  los  Triumphos,  p.  573.  For  concurrent 
testimony  see:  Zapata,  in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  310;  Villa- 
Seiior  y  Sanchez,  Theatro,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  344-5;  Pimentel,  Cuadro,  torn,  ii.,  p. 
43;  Murr,  Nachrichten,  p.  323;  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  pp.  318-19. 

The  Acaxees  inhabit  the  valleys  of  the  mountain  regions  of  Topia  and  S. 
Andres  in  Durango  and  Sinaloa.  '  La  principal  Nacion,  en  cuyas  tierras  esta 
el  Keal  de  Topia,  es  la  Acaxee.'  Ribas,  Hist,  de  los  Triumphos,  p.  471.  'Lo 
limitan  al  Norte  y  al  Este  el  Tepehuan,  al  Sur  el  Xixime  y  al  Oeste  el  Sa- 
baibo  y  el  Tebaca.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  pp.  319,  310,  315;  Zapata, 
in  Doc.  Hist.  Mex.,  serie  iv.,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  416-17.  '  San  Pedro  valle  de 
Topia,  el  mineral  de  Topia,  Asuncion  Sianori,  San  Antonio  Tahuahueto  y 
los  Dolores  de  Agna  Caliente,  las  cuales  poblaciones  marcan  los  terrenes 
habitados  por  los  Acaxees.'  Tamaron,  in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  314. 

The  Tebacas  lived  among  the  Acaxees  in  the  mountain  districts  of  Topia 
and  S.  Andres.  Id.,  p.  334. 

The  Sabaibos  '  habitaban  en  el  partido  de  San  Ignacio  Otatitlan  y  pueblos 
de  Piaba,  Alaya  y  Quejupa.'  Ib. 

The  Cdcaris  dwell  in  Cacaria.  Id.,  p.  319. 

The  Papudos  and  Tecayas  were  settled  in  the  district  of  San  Andres. 
Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  i.,  pp.  379-80. 

The  Xiximes  inhabited  '  en  el  coraqon  desta  sierra  '  de  San  Andres. 
Ribas,  Hist,  de  los  Triumphos,  p.  531.  '  Ocupan  el  partido  de  San  Dimas.' 
Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  pp.  315-17. 

The  Ilinas  '  Habitan  la  mayor  parte  en  profundfsimas  quebradas  del  cen- 
tro  de  la  sierra,  y  muchos  a  las  margenes  del  rio  de  Humace,  que  en  su  em- 
bocadura  llaman  de  Piaxtla,  muy  cerca  de  su  nacimiento,  como  a  cinco  leguas 
de  Yamoriba.'  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  ii.,  p.  195.  '  Habitantes  de 
las  margenes  del  rio  de  Piaztla.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  316. 

The  Humes  are  in  the  Sierra  de  San  Andres.  '  Como  nueue  leguas  del 
pueblo  de  Quilitlan,  y  en  lo  mas  alto  de  toda  esta  sierra,  caminando  al  Ori- 
eiite.'  Ribas,  Hist,  de  los  Triumphos,  p.  562.  '  Nueve  leguas  mas  adelante 
del  lugar  de  Queibos  6  de  Santiago.'  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  ii., 
p.  199;  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  pp.  316,  325. 

The  Zacatecos  inhabit  the  like-named  State,  and  particularly  near  the  rio 
Nazas.  '  Baxo  la  Sierra,  que  oy  llaman  del  calabazal,  y  paro  a  las  orillas  de 
un  rio,  que  oy  llaman  de  Suchil.'  Arlegui,  Chron.  de  Zacatecas,  p.  26.  '  Los  que 
habitaii  en  el  rio  de  las  Nasas  son  indios  zacatecos.'  Doc.  Hist.  Mex., 
serie  iv.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  33.  '  Se  extendian  hasta  el  rio  Nazas.  Cuencame, 
Cerro  Gordo,  S.  Juan  del  Hio,  Nombre  de  Dios,  quedaban  comprendidos  en 
esta  demarcacion.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  319. 

The  Guachichiles,  Cuachichiles,  or  Huachichiles  '  corrian  por  Zacatecas 
hasta  San  Potosf  y  Coahuila.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  285.  'La  villa 
del  Saltillo  esta  fundada  sobre  el  terreno  que  en  lo  antiguo  ocuparon  los 
indios  cuachichiles.'  Ifi.,  pp.  301,  287;  De  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  281. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

WILD   TRIBES   OF   MEXICO. 

TERRITORIAL  ASPECTS— Two  MAIN  DIVISIONS;  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTRAL 
MEXICO,  AND  WILD  TRIBES  OF  SOUTHERN  MEXICO — THE  CORAS  AND 
OTHERS  IN  JALISCO  —  DESCENDANTS  OF  THE  AZTECS  —  THE  OTOMIS 
AND  MAZAHUAS  ADJACENT  TO  THE  VALLEY  OF  MEXICO — THE  FAMES — 
THE  TARASCOS  AND  MATLALTZINCAS  OF  MICHOACAN— THE  HUAZTECS  AND 
TOTONACS  OF  VERA  CRUZ  AND  TAMAULIPAS — THE  CHONTALES,  CHINAN- 
TECS,  MAZATECS,  CUICATECS,  CHATINOS,  MIZTECS,  ZAPOTECS,  MIJES,  HUA- 
VES,  CHIAPANECS,  ZOQUES,  LACANDONES,  CHOLES,  MAMES,  TZOTZILES,  TZEN- 
DALES,  CHOCHONES,  AND  OTHERS  OF  SOUTHERN  MEXICO. 

The  term  WILD  TRIBES  OF  MEXICO,  which  I  employ 
to  distinguish  this  from  the  other  groupal  divisions  of 
the  Native  Races  of  the  Pacific  States  needs  some  ex 
planation.  The  territory  embraced  under  this  title  ex 
tends  from  latitude  23°  north,  to  the  eighteenth  parallel 
on  the  Atlantic,  and  the  fifteenth  on  the  Pacific ;  that  is 
to  the  Central  American  line,  including  Yucatan  and 
excluding  Guatemala.  At  the  time  of  the  conquest,  a 
large  portion  of  this  region  as  well  as  part  of  Central 
America  was  occupied  by  those  nations  that  we  call  civi 
lized,  which  are  fully  described  in  the  second  volume  of 
this  work.  These  several  precincts  of  civilization  may 
be  likened  to  suns,  shining  brightly  at  their  respective 
centres,  and  radiating  into  the  surrounding  darkness 
with  greater  or  less  intensity  according  to  distance  and 
circumstances.  The  bloody  conquest  achieved,  these, 
suns  were  dimmed,  their  light  went  out ;  part  of  this  civi- 


616  WILD  TRIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

lization  merged  into  that  of  the  conquerors,  and 
part  fell  back  into  the  more  distant  darkness.  Later 
'many  of  the  advanced  aboriginals  became  more  and  more 
identified  with  the  Spaniards;  the  other  natives  soon 
came  to  be  regarded  as  savages,  who,  once  pacified, 
spread  over  the  seat  of  their  nation's  former  grandeur, 
obliterating  many  of  the  traces  of  their  peoples'  former 
high  advancement; — so  that  very  shortly  after  the 
Spaniards  became  masters  of  the  land,  any  description 
of  its  aborigines  could  but  be  a  description  of  its  savage 
nations,  or  of  retrograded,  or  partially  obliterated  peoples 
of  higher  culture.  And  thus  I  find  it,  and  thus  must 
treat  the  subject,  going  over  the  whole  territory  almost 
as  if  there  had  been  no  civilization  at  all. 

For  variety  and  striking  contrasts  the  climate  and 
scenery  of  central  and  southern  Mexico  is  surpassed  by 
no  region  of  equal  extent  in  the  world.  It  is  here  that 
the  tierra  caliente,  or  hot  border-land  of  either  ocean, 
the  tierra  templada,  or  temperate  belt  adjacent,  and  the 
tierra  fria,  or  cool  elevated  table-land  assume  their  most 
definite  forms.  The  interior  table-lands  have  an  aver 
age  elevation  above  the  sea  of  from  5,000  to  8,000  feet. 
The  geological  formation  is  on  a  Titanic  scale ;  huge  rocks 
of  basalt,  granite,  and  lava  rise  in  fantastic  shapes,  inter 
sected  by  deep  barrancas  or  ravines  presenting  un 
paralleled  scenes  of  grandeur.  Prominent  among  the 
surrounding  mountains  tower  the  snow-clad  crests  of 
Orizaba  and  Popocatepetl, — volcanic  piles  whose  slum 
bering  fires  appear  to  be  taking  but  a  temporary  rest. 
The  plateau  is  variegated  with  many  lakes;  the  soil, 
almost  everywhere  fertile,  is  overspread  with  a  multi 
tudinous  variety  of  nopal,  maguey,  and  forests  of  ever 
green,  among  which  the  graceful  fir  and  umbrageous  oak 
stand  conspicuous.  Seasons  come  and  go  and  leave  no 
mark  behind ;  or  it  may  be  said  that  spring,  satisfied 
with  its  abode,  there  takes  up  its  perpetual  rest;  the 
temperature  is  ever  mellow,  with  resplendent  sunshine 
by  day,  while  at  night  the  stars  shine  with  a  brilliancy 
nowhere  excelled.  The  limits  of  the  tierra  templada 


TRIBES  OF  CENTEAL  MEXICO.  617 

it  is  impossible  to  define,  as  the  term  is  used  in  a  some 
what  arbitrary  manner  by  the  inhabitants  of  different 
altitudes.  On  the  lowlands  along  the  coast  known  as 
the  tierra  caliente,  the  features  of  nature  are  changed ; 
vegetation  assumes  a  more  luxuriant  aspect ;  palms,  para 
sitical  plants  and  trees  of  a  tropical  character,  take  the 
place  of  the  evergreens  of  a  colder  clirne;  the  climate 
is  not  salubrious,  and  the  heat  is  oppressive.  On  the 
Atlantic  side  furious  storms,  called  '  northers/  spring 
up  with  a  suddenness  and  violence  unexampled  in  other 
places,  often  causing  much  destruction  to  both  life  and 
property. 

For  the  purpose  of  description,  I  separate  the  Wild 
Tribes  of  Mexico  in  two  parts, — the  Wild  Tribes  of  Cen 
tred  Mexico,  and  the  Wild  Tribes  of  Southern  Mexico.  The 
first  of  these  divisions  extends  from  23°  north  latitude 
to  the  northern  boundary  of  the  state  of  Oajaca,  or  rather 
to  an  imaginary  line,  taking  as  its  base  said  boundary 
and  running  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexi 
co,  that  is  to  say  from  Yera  Cruz  to  Acapulco. 

To  enumerate  and  locate  all  the  nations  and  tribes 
within  this  territory,  to  separate  the  uncivilized  from 
the  civilized,  the  mythical  from  the  real,  is  not  pos 
sible.  I  have  therefore  deferred  to  the  end  of  this 
chapter  such  authorities  as  I  have  on  the  subject, 
where  they  will  be  found  ranged  in  proper  order 
under  the  head  of  Tribal  Boundaries.  Of  the  tribes  that 
are  known  to  have  possessed  no  civilization,  such  as  was 
found  among  the  Aztecs  and  other  cultivated  nations,  I 
will  only  mention  the  people  denominated  ChichimecSj 
under  which  general  name  were  designated  a  multitude 
of  tribes  inhabiting  the  mountains  north  of  the  valley 
of  Mexico,  all  of  which  were  prominently  dependent 
on  the  result  of  the  chase  for  their  subsistence;  the 
ancient  Otomis  who  mostly  occupied  the  mountains 
which  inclose  the  valley  of  Mexico ;  and  the  Fames  in 
Queretaro.  South  of  Mexico  were  numerous  other 
nations  who  were  more  or  less  intermixed  with  those 
more  civilized.  Finally,  I  shall  describe  those  people 


618  WILD  TRIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

who,  since  they  came  in  contact  with  the  whites,  have 
retrogaded  in  such  a  degree,  that  their  manners  and  cus 
toms  can  only  be  given  in  connection  with  those  of  the 
Wild  Tribes,  and  which  comprise  a  large  proportion  of 
all  the  present  aborigines  of  Mexico.1 

The  natives  of  the  valley  of  Mexico  are  represented 
by  some  authorities  as  tall,  by  others  as  of  short  stature ; 
but  from  what  I  gather  we  may  conclude  that  on  the 
whole  they  are  over  rather  than  under  the  middle  height, 
well  made  and  robust.  In  Yera  Cruz  they  are  some 
what  shorter,  say  from  four  feet  six  inches  to  five  feet 
at  most,  and  clumsily  made,  having  their  knees  further 
apart  than  Europeans  and  walking  with  their  toes  turned 
in ;  the  women  are  shorter  than  the  men  and  become 
fully  developed  at  a  very  early  age.  In  Jalisco  both 
sexes  are  tall ;  they  are  also  well  built,  and  among  the 
women  are  found  many  forms  of  such  perfection  that 
they  might  well  serve  as  models  for  sculpture.  Through 
out  the  table- lands,  the  men  are  muscular  and  well  pro 
portioned.  Their  skin  is  very  thick  and  conceals  the 
action  of  the  muscles;  they  are  out-kneed,  turn  their 
toes  well  in,  and  their  carriage  is  anything  but  graceful.2 
Various  opinions  have  been  advanced  by  competent  per 
sons  in  regard  to  the  features  of  the  natives  of  Mexico. 
Baron  Yon  Humboldt  describes  them  as  resembling  the 
aborigines  of  Canada,  Peru,  Florida,  and  Brazil;  hav- 

1  Otomi; — '  Otho  en  la   misma  lengua   othorai  quiere  decir  nada,  j  mi, 
quieto,  o  sentado,  de  manera  que  traducida  literalmente  la  palabra,  significa 
nada-quieto,  cuya  idea  pudieramos  expresar  diciendo  peregrino  6  errante.' 
Pimentel,  .^Cuadro,    torn,   i.,  p.  118.     Chichimecs; — '  Los   demas  Indies  les 
llamaban  Chichimecos  (que  hoy  lo  mismo  es  chichi  que  perros  altaneros) 
por  la  ninguna  residencia.'    Padilla,  Conq.  N.  Galicia,  MS.,  p.  44.     Speak 
ing  of  Chichimecs,   '  debaxo  deste  nombre  estan  muchas  naciones  con  die- 
rencias  de  lenguas  como  son  Pamies,  Capuzes,  Samues,  Zanqas,  Maiolias, 
Guamares,  Guachichiles,  y  otros,  todos  diferentes  aunque  semejantes  en  las 
costumbres.'  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  viii.,  lib.  vi.,  cap.  xiv.     For  further 
etymology  of  tribes,  see  .Buschmann,  Ortsnamen. 

2  '  Hanno  d'altezza  piu  di  cinque  piedi  parigini.'  Clavir/ero,  Storia  Ant. 
del  Messico,  torn,  iv.,  p.  161.    '  De  pequena  estatura  [cuatro  pies  seis  pulgadas, 
a  cinco  pies  cuando  mas.]'  Berlandier  y  Thovel,  Diario,  p,  229.     In  Yalisco 
'casi  en  todo  este  reyno,  son  grandes,  y  hermosas.'    Gomara,   Hist.  Ind., 
fol.  271.     'Son  de   estatura  alta,  bien  hechos  y  fornidos.'   Ulloa,  Noticias 
Americanas,  p.  308;  Tylor's  Anahuac,  p.  182;  Burkart,  Mexico,  torn,  i.,  p.  49; 
Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  560;  Beaumont,  Cron  de  Mechoacan,  MS.,  p. 
236. 


PHYSICAL  JFEATUKES  IN  NOETHEKN  MEXICO.  619 

ing  elongated  eyes,  the  corners  turned  towards  the 
temples,  prominent  cheek-bones,  large  lips,  and  a  sweet 
expression  about  the  mouth,  forming  a  strong  contrast 
with  their  otherwise  gloomy  and  severe  aspect.  Rossi 
says  that  their  eyes  are  oval,  and  that  their  physiognomy 
resembles  that  of  the  Asiatics.  According  to  Prescott, 
they  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  Egyptians,  and 
Yiollet  le  Due  asserts  that  the  Malay  type  predominates. 
They  have  generally  a  very  narrow  forehead,  an  oval 
face,  long  black  eyes  set  wide  apart,  large  mouth  with 
thick  lips,  teeth  white  and  regular,  the  nose  small  and 
rather  flat.  The  general  expression  of  the  countenance 
is  melancholy,  and  exhibits  a  strange  combination  of 
moroseness  and  gentleness.  Although  some  very  hand 
some  women  are  to  be  found  among  them,  the  majority 
of  the  race,  both  men  and  women,  are  ugly,  and  in  old 
age,  which  with  the  \vomen  begins  early,  their  faces  are 
much  wrinkled  and  their  features  quite  harsh.  They  have 
acute  senses,  especially  that  of  sight,  which  remains  un 
impaired  to  a  very  advanced  age.  Long,  straight,  black, 
thick,  and  glossy  hair  is  common  to  all ;  their  beard  is  thin, 
and  most  of  them,  especially  in  the  capital  and  its  vicinity, 
have  a  small  moustache ;  but  very  few,  if  any,  have  hair 
on  their  legs,  thighs,  or  arms.  It  is  very  seldom  that  a 
gray-haired  native  is  found.  All  the  people  referred  to, 
are  remarkable  for  their  strength  and  endurance,  which 
may  be  judged  of  by  the  heavy  burdens  they  carry  on 
their  backs.  The  inhabitants  of  the  table-lands  are  of 
various  hues;  some  are  olive,  some  brown,  others  of  a 
red  copper  color.  In  the  Sierras  some  have-  a  bluish 
tint  as  if  dyed  with  indigo.  The  natives  of  the  tierras 
calientes  are  of  a  darker  complexion,  inclining  to  black. 
There  are  some  called  Indios  Pintos,  whose  cuticle  is  of 
a  less  deep  color,  inclining  more  to  yellowish  and  marked 
with  dark  copper-colored  spots.3 

3  '  In  complexion,  feature,  hair  and  eyes,  I  could  trace  a  very  great  re 
semblance  between  these  Indians  and  the  Esquimaux.'  Lyon's  Journal,  vol. 
i.,  p.  296,  see  also  vol.  ii.,  pp.  199,  239.  'Son  de  la  frente  ancha,  y  las  ca- 
bezas  chatas.'  Sahagun,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  133,  129.  See  further, 
Prichard's  Nat.  Hist.  Man.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  511;  Calderon  de  la  Barca's  Life  in 


620  WILD  TRIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

In  the  valley  of  Mexico  the  natives  wear  the  ichapilli^ 
or  a  sort  of  shirt  without  sleeves,  made  of  white  and  blue 
striped  cotton,  which  reaches  to  the  knees  and  is  gathered 
round  the  waist  with  a  belt.  This  is  frequently  the  only 
garment  worn  by  the  aborigines  of  the  Mexican  valley. 
In  lieu  of  the  ancient  feather  ornaments  for  the  head, 
they  -now  use  large  felt  or  straw  hats,  the  rim  of  which 
is  about  nine  inches  in  width ;  or  they  bind  round  the 
head  a  colored  handkerchief.  Most  of  the  men  and 
women  go  barefooted,  and  those  who  have  coverings  for 
their  feet,  use  the  cades,  or  huarackes,  (sandals)  made  of 
tanned  leather  and  tied  with  thongs  to  the  ankles.  The 
dress  of  the  women  has  undergone  even  less  change  than 
that  of  the  men,  since  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest. 
Many  of  them  wear  over  the  ichapilli  a  cotton  or  woolen 
cloth,  bound  by  a  belt  just  above  the  hips;  this  answers 
the  purpose  of  a  petticoat ;  it  is  woven  in  stripes  of  dark 
colors  or  embellished  with  figures.  The  ichapilli  is 
white,  with  figures  worked  on  the  breast,  and  is  longer 
than  that  worn  by  the  men.  In  Puebla  the  women 
wear  very  narrow  petticoats  and  elegant  quichemels  cover 
ing  the  breast  and  back  and  embroidered  all  over  with 
silk  arid  worsted.  In  the  state  of  Yera  Cruz  and  other 
parts  of  the  tierra  caliente  the  men's  apparel  consists  of  a 
short  white  cotton  jacket  or  a  dark-colored  woolen  tunic, 
with  broad  open  sleeves  fastened  round  the  waist  with  a 
sash,  and  short  blue  or  white  breeches  open  at  the  sides 
near  the  knee ;  these  are  a  Spanish  innovation,  but  they 
continue  to  wear  the  square  short  cloak,  tiltna  or  tilmatli, 
with  the  end  tied  on  one  of  the  shoulders  or  across  the 
breast.  Sometimes  a  pair  of  shorter  breeches  made  of 
goat  or  deer  skin  are  worn  over  the  cotton  ones,  and 
also  a  jacket  of  the  same  material.  The  women  wear  a 

Mex.,  vol.  i.,  p.  200;  Almaraz,  Memoria,  p.  79;  Huniboldt,  Essai  Pol.,  torn,  i., 
pp.  82,  86;  Rossi,  Souvenirs,  p.  280;  Viollet-Le-Duc.,  in  Charnay,  Euines  Ameri- 
caines,  p.  102;  PoinseWs  Notes  on  Mex.,  pp.  107-8;  Ottavio,  in  Nouvdks  Annales 
des  Voy.,  1833,  torn,  lix.,  pp.  73-4;  Fossey,  Mexique,  p.  391;  Vigneaux,  Souv. 


291. 


MEXICAN  COSTUMES.  621 

coarse  cotton  shift  with  large  open  sleeves,  often  worked 
about  the  neck  in  bright  •  colored  worsted,  to  suit  the 
wearer's  fancy ;  a  blue  woolen  petticoat  is  gathered  round 
the  waist,  very  full  below,  and  a  blue  or  brown  rebozo 
is  used  as  a  wrapper  for  the  shoulders.  Sometimes  a 
muffler  is  used  for  the  head  and  face.*  They  bestow 
great  care  on  their  luxuriant  hair,  which  they  arrange 
in  two  long  braids  that  fall  from  the  back  of  the  head, 
neatly  painted  and  interwoven  with  wwsted  of  lively 
colors,  and  the  ends  tied  at  the  waist-band  or  joined  be 
hind;  others  bind  the  braids  tightly  round  the  head, 
and  occasionally  add  some  wild  flowers.5  In  the  tierra 
fria,  a  thick  dark  woolen  blanket  with  a  hole  in  the 
centre  through  which  passes  the  head  protects  the  wearer 
during  the  day  from  the  cold  and  rain,  and  serves  at 
night  for  a  covering  and  often  for  the  bed  itself.  This 
garment  has  in  some  places  taken  the  place  of  the  til- 
matli.  Children  are  kept  in  a  nude  state  until  they  are 
eight  or  ten  years  old,  and  infants  are  enveloped  in  a  coarse 
cotton  cloth,  leaving  the  head  and  limbs  exposed.  The 
Huicholas  of  Jalisco  have  a  peculiar  dress ;  the  men  wear  a 
short  tunic  made  of  coarse  brown  or  blue  woolen  fabric, 
tightened  at  the  waist  with  a  girdle  hanging  down  in 
front  and  behind,  and  very  short  breeches  of  poorly 
dressed  goat  or  deer  skin  without  hair,  at  the  lower  edges 
of  which  are  strung  a  number  of  leathern  thongs.  Mar 
ried  men  and  women  wear  straw  hats  with  high  pointed 
crowns  and  broad  turned-up  rims ;  near  the  top  is  a  nar 
row  and  handsomely  woven  band  of  many  colors,  with 
long  tassels.  Their  long  bushy  hair  is  secured  tightly 


4  In  Mexico  in  1G98  the  costume  was  a  '  short  doublet  and  wide  breeches. 
On  their  shoulders  they  wear  a  cloak  of  several  colours,  which  they  call  Tilma. 

The  women  all  wear  the  Guaipil,  (which  is  like  a  sack)  under  the  Cobixa, 

which  is  a  fine  white  cotton  cloth ;  to  which  they  add  another  upon  their 
back Their  coats  are  narrow  with  figures  of  lions,  birds,  and  other  crea 
tures,  adorning  them  with  curious  ducks'  feathers,  which  they  call  Xilotcpec.' 
Gemelli  Careri,  in  Churchill's  Col.  Voyages,  vol.  iv.,  p.  491.  Dress  of  a  native 
girl  of  Mexico,  '  enaguas  blanqui'simas,  el  quisquemel  que  graciosamente  cubre 
su  pecho  y  espalda. . .  .dos  largas  trenzas  color  de  ebano  caen  a  los  lados  del 
cuello.'  Prieto,  Viajes,  pp.454,  190-1,  430-1.  '  Leur  costume  varie  selon  le 
terrain  et  le  climat.'  Loicenstern,  Mexique,  pp.  176,  339. 

*  See  Calderon  de  la  Barca's  Life  in  Mex.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  346-8. 


622  WILD  TRIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

round  the  crown  of  the  head  with  a  bright  woolen  rib 
bon.  Many  of  the  men  do  up  the  hair  in  queues  with 
worsted  ribbons,  with  heavy  tassels  that  hang  below  the 
waist.6  De  Laet,  describing  the  natives  of  Jalisco  early 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  speaks  of  square  cloths  made 
cf  cotton  and  maguey  tied  on  the  right  or  left  shoulder, 
and  small  pebbles  or  shells  strung  together  as  necklaces. 
Mota  Padilla,  in  his  history  of  New  Galicia,  says  that 
the  Chichimecs  at  Xalostitlan,  in  1530,  went  naked. 
The  inhabitants  of  Alzatlan  about  that  time  adorned 
themselves  with  feathers.  In  Zacualco,  the  common 
dress  of  the  women  about  the  same  period,  particularly 
widows,  was  the  huipil,  made  of  fine  cotton  cloth,  gen 
erally  black.  The  natives  of  the  province  of  Panuco, 
for  many  years  after  the  Spanish  Conquest,  continued 
to  go  naked;  they  pulled  out  the  beard,  perforated  the 
nose  and  ears,  and,  filing  their  teeth  to  a  sharp  point, 
bored  holes  in  them  and  dyed  them  black.  The  slayer 
of  a  human  being  used  to  hang  a  piece  of  the  skin  and 
hair  of  the  slain  at  the  waist,  considering  such  things  as 
very  valuable  ornaments.  Their  hair  they  dyed  in 
various  colors,  and  wore  it  in  different  forms.  Their 
women  adorned  themselves  profusely,  and  braided  their 
hair  with  feathers.  Sahagun,  speaking  of  the  Matlalt- 
zincas,  says  that  their  apparel  was  of  cloth  made  from 
the  maguey;  referring  to  the  Tlahuicas,  he  mentions 
among  their  faults  that  they  used  to  go  overdressed; 
and  of  the  Macoaques,  he  writes:  that  the  oldest  women 
as  well  as  the  young  ones  paint  themselves  with  a  varnish 
called  tecocavitl,  or  with  some  colored  stuff,  and  wear 
feathers  about  their  arms  and  legs.  The  Tlascaltecs 
in  1568  wore  cotton-cloth  mantles  painted  in  various 
fine  colors.  The  inhabitants  of  Cholula,  according  to 
Cortes,  dressed  better  than  the  Tlascaltecs;  the  better 
class  wearing  over  their  other  clothes  a  garment  re 
sembling  the  Moorish  cloak,  yet  somewhat  different, 
as  that  of  Cholula  had  pockets,  but  in  the  cloth,  the 

6  '  Usan  de  nna  especie  de  gran  pano  cuadrado,  que  tiene  en  el  centre  una 
abertura  por  donde  pasa  la  cabeza.'  Ikrlandier  y  Tfiovel,  Diario,  p.  229. 


DRESS  IN  MICHOACAN.  G23 

cut,  and  the  fringe,  there  was  much  resemblance  to  the 
cloak  worn  in  Africa.  Old  Spanish  writers  tell  us  that 
the  natives  of  Michoacan  made  much  use  of  feathers  for 
wearing-apparel  and  for  adorning  their  bodies  and 
heads.  At  their  later  religious  festivals,  both  sexes 
appear  in  white,  the  men  with  shirt  and  trowsers,  having 
a  band  placed  slantingly  across  the  breast  and  back,  tied 
to  a  belt  round  the  waist,  and  on  the  head  a  small  red 
cloth  arranged  like  a  turban,  from  which  are  pendant 
scarlet  feathers,  similar  to  those  used  by  the  ancient  Aztec 
warriors.  The  man  is  also  adorned  with  a  quantity  of 
showy  beads,  and  three  small  mirrors,  one  of  which  is 
placed  on  his  breast,  another  on  his  back,  and  the  third 
invariably  on  his  forehead.  At  his  back  he  carries  a 
quiver,  and  in  his  hand  a  bow,  adorned  with  bright  col 
ored  artificial  flowers,  or  it  may  be  the  Aztec  axe,  so 
painted  and  varnished  as  to  resemble  flint.  At  the 
present  time,  a  native  woman,  however  poor,  still  wears 
a  necklace  of  coral  or  rows  of  red  beads.  The  unmar 
ried  women  of  Chilpanzinco  used  to  daub  their  faces 
with  a  pounded  yellow  flower.  In  Durango,  the  na 
tives  were  accustomed  to  rub  their  swarthy  bodies  with 
clay  of  various  colors,  and  paint  reptiles  and  other  ani 
mals  thereon.7 

7  'Yuan  muy  galaues,  y  empenachados.'  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iv.,  lib. 
viii.,  cap.  i.  '  Senores  6  principales,  trafan  en  el  labio  un  bezote  de  chalchi- 
vite  6  esmeralda,  6  de  caracol,  6  de  oro,  d  de  cobre. . .  .Las  mugeres  cuando 
ninas,  tambien  se  rapaban  la  cabeza,  y  cuando  ya  mosas  dejaban  criar  los 
cabellos. . .  .cuando  alguna  era  ya  muger  hecba  y  habia  parido,  tocabase  el 
cabello.  Tambien  traian  sarcillos  6  orejeras,  y  se  piutaban  los  pechos  y  los 
brazos,  con  una  labor  que  quedaba  de  azul  muy  nno,  pintada  en  la  misma 
carne,  cortandola  con  una  navajuela.'  Sahagun,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  lib.  x., 
pp.  123-5,  133-4.  '  En  el  Pueblo  de  Juito  salieron  inuchos  Yudios  de  paz  con 
escapularios  blaucos  al  pecho,  cortado  el  cabello  en  modo  de  cerquillo  como 


j\ovus  uruis,  pp.  250,  252,  281;  Lafond,  Voyages,  torn.  I.,  p.  211;  Alec/re, 
Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  i.,  pp.  90,  279;  Lyon's  Journal,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  64, 
198;  Arlegui,  Chron.  de  Zacatecas,  p.  162;  Beaumont,  Cron  de  Meehoacan,  MS., 
p.  210;  Apostolicos  Afanes,  pp.  10,  67;  Alcedo,  Diccionario,  torn,  iii.,  p.  299; 
Vigneaux,  Souv.  Mex.,  pp.  276,  296;  Gomara,  Hist.  Ind.,  fol.  55-6;  Biart, 
in  Revue  Francaise,  Dec.  1864,  pp.  478-9;  Ottavio,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des 
Voy.,  1833,  toin.  lix.,  p.  61;  Tylor's  Anahuac,  p.  302;  Burkart,  Mexico,  torn. 
i.,  pp.  50-1. 


624  WILD  TRIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

The  dwellings  of  the  Wild  Tribes  of  Central  Mexico 
vary  with  climate  and  locality.  In  the  lowlands,  sheds 
consisting  of  a  few  poles  stuck  in  the  ground,  the  spaces 
between  filled  with  rushes,  and  the  roof  covered  with 
palm-leaves,  afforded  sufficient  shelter.  In  the  colder 
highlands  they  built  somewhat  more  substantial  houses 
of  trunks  of  trees,  tied  together  with  creeping  plants, 
the  walls  plastered  with  mud  or  clay,  the  roof  of  split 
boards  kept  in  place  with  stones.  In  treeless  parts, 
houses  were  constructed  .of  adobe  or  sun-dried  bricks  and 
stones,  and  the  interior  walls  covered  with  mats;  the 
best  houses  were  only  one  story  high,  and  the  humbler 
habitations  too  low  to  allow  a  man  to  stand  erect.  The 
entire  house  constituted  but  one  room,  where  all  the 
family  lived,  sleeping  on  the  bare  ground.  A  few  stones 
placed  in  the  middle  of  the  floor,  served  as  a  fireplace 
where  food  was  cooked.  In  Yera  Cruz  there  is  a  sep 
arate  small  hut  for  cooking  purposes.  The  wild  nomadic 
Chichimecs  lived  in  caverns  or  fissures  of  rocks  situated 
in  secluded  valleys,  and  the  Fames  contented  themselves 
with  the  shade  afforded  by  the  forest-trees.8 

Corn,  beans,  tomatoes,  chile,  and  a  variety  of  fruits 
and  vegetables  constitute  the  chief  subsistence  of  the 
people,  and  in  those  districts  where  the  banana  flour 
ishes,  it  ranks  as  an  important  article  of  food.  The 
natives  of  Yera  Cruz  and  Tamaulipas  gather  large  quan 
tities  of  the  pitahaya,  by  means  of  an  osier  basket 
attached  to  a  long  pole;  round  the  brim  are  arranged 
several  forks,  for  the  purpose  of  detaching  the  fruit, 
which  then  drops  into  the  basket.  From  the  blossoms 
and  buds  they  make  a  ragout,  and  also  grind  the  seeds 
for  bread.  From  the  sea  and  rivers  they  obtain  a  plen 
tiful  supply  of  fish,  and  they  have  acquired  from  child 
hood  a  peculiar  habit  of  eating  earth,  which  is  said  to 
be  injurious  to  their  physical  development.  It  has  been 

8  'Les  cabanes  sont  de  veritables  cages  en  bambous.'  Vigneaux,  Souv. 
Mex.,  p.  274;  Mayer's  Hex.  as  it  Was,  p.  170;  Ward's  Mexico,  vol.  ii.,  pp. 
179,  522;  Bustamante,  in  Prieto,  Viajes,  pp.  192,  195,  373,  437,  447;  Muhlen- 
pfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  i.,  pp.  223-4;  Beaufoy's  Mex.  Illustr.,  p.  258;  Pages' 
travels,  vol.  i.,  p.  159;  Dillon,  Hist.  Mex.,  p.  47. 


FOOD  AND  AGKICULTUKE.  625 

stated  that  in  former  days  they  used  human  flesh  as  food. 

The  Otomis  and  tribes  of  Jalisco  cultivated  but  little 
grain,  and  consumed  that  little  before  it  ripened,  trust 
ing  for  a  further  supply  of  food  to  the  natural  produc 
tions  of  the  soil  and  to  game,  such  as  rabbits,  deer, 
moles,  and  birds,  and  also  foxes,  rats,  snakes  and  other 
reptiles.  Corn-cobs  they  ground,  mixed  cacao  with  the 
powder,  and  baked  the  mixture  on  the  fire.  From  the 
lakes  in  the  valley  of  Mexico  they  gathered  flies'  eggs, 
deposited  there  in  large  quantities  by  a  species  of  flies 
called  by  the  Mexicans  axayacatl,  that  is  to  say,  'water- 
face,'  and  by  MM.  Meneville  and  Yirlet  d'Aoust  corixa 
femorata  and  notonecta  unifasciata.  The  eggs  being 
pounded,  were  moulded  into  lumps  and  sold  in  the 
market-place;  they  were  esteemed  a  special  delicacy, 
and  were  eaten  fried.  These  people  are  also  accused  by 
some  authors  of  having  eaten  human  flesh.9 

Other  tribes,  inhabiting  the  valley  of  Mexico,  Puebla, 
Michoacan,  and  Queretaro,  show  a  greater  inclination  to 
cultivate  the  soil,  and  live  almost  wholly  on  the  products 
of  their  own  industry.  They  plant  corn  by  making  a 
hole  in  the  ground  with  a  sharp-pointed  stick,  into 
which  the  seed  is  dropped  and  covered  up.  Honey  is 
plentiful,  and  when  a  tree  is  found  where  bees  are  at 
work,  they  stop  the  entrance  with  clay,  cut  off  the 
branch  and  hang  it  outside  their  huts;  after  a  short 
time  they  remove  the  clay,  and  the  bees  continue  their 
operations  in  their  new  locality,  as  if  they  had  not  been, 
disturbed.10 

Gremelli  Careri  thus  describes  a  novel  method  of 
catching  ducks:  " Others  contrive  to  deceive  ducks,  as 

9  Montanus,  Nieuwe  Weereld,  p.  250;  and  Dapper,  Neue  Welt,  p.  582.  « Estos 
Otomies  comian  los  zorrillos  que  hieden,  culebras  y  lirones,  y  todo  genero  de 
ratones,  comadrejas,  y  otras  sabandijas  del  campo  y  del  monte,  lagartijas  de 
todas  suertes,  y  abejones  y  langostas  de  todas  maneras.'  Sahagun,  Hist.  Gen., 
torn,  iii.,  lib.  x.,  pp.  126-7,  123-5.  In  Jalisco  'Los  indios  de  aquellas  pro- 
vincias  son  caribes,  que  comen  carne  humana  todas  las  ve<jes  que  la  pueden 
aver.'  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  568. 

iQ  In  Puebla  '  Los  Indios  se  han  aplicado  mas  al  cultivo  de  la  tierra  y 
plantio  de  frutas  y  legumbrps.'  In  Michoacan  '  Cultivan  mucho  maiz, 
frixoles  y  ulgodon.'  Alc.edo,  Diccionario,  torn,  i.,  pp.  494,  714.  In  Queretaro 
'  viven  del  cultivo  de  las  sementeras.'  Id.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  320. 


Vol.  I.    40 


626  WILD  TRIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

shy  as  they  are ;  for  when  they  have  us'd  'em  to  be  fre 
quently  among  calabashes  left  floating  on  the  lake  for 
that  purpose,  they  make  holes  in  those  calabashes,  so 
that  putting  their  heads  in  them,  they  can  see  out  of 
them,  and  then  going  up  to  the  neck  in  the  water,  they 
go  among  the  ducks  and  draw  'em  down  by  the  feet." 
For  making  tortillas,  the  corn  is  prepared  by  placing  it 
in  water,  to  which  a  little  lime  is  added,  and  allowing  it 
to  soak  all  night,  or  it  is  put  to  simmer  over  a  slow  fire; 
the  husk  is  then  easily  separated  and  the  corn  mashed 
or  ground  on  the  metate.  From  this  paste  the  tor 
tilla  is  formed  by  patting  it  between  the  hands  into  a 
very  thin  cake,  which  is  cooked  on  an  earthern  pan 
placed  over  the  fire;  the  tortilla  is  eaten  with  boiled 
beans,  and  a  mixture  of  chile  and  lard.  The  ground 
corn  is  also  mixed  with  water  and  strained  through  a 
sieve;  of  this  liquor  they  make  a  gruel,  to  which  is 
added  a  little  cacao  or  sugar.  The  sediment  which  re 
mains  in  the  sieve  is  used  to  make  tamales,  which  are 
a  combination  of  chopped  meat,  chile,  and  onions,  which 
ingredients  are  covered  with  the  corn  paste,  and  the 
whole  enveloped  in  corn  or  plantain  leaves  and  boiled  or 
baked.  The  Mexicans  are  very  moderate  eaters,  but 
have  an  insatiable  passion  for  strong  liquors.11 

Laziness  and  filth  follow  us  as  we  proceed  southward 
in  our  observations;  among  the  Mexicans,  the  poorer 
classes  especially  are  filthy  in  their  persons,  and  have  a 
disgusting  appearance,  which  increases  with  the  infirmi 
ties  of  age.  Many  of  them  indulge  freely  in  the  use 
'Of  a  stearn-bath  called  temazcalli,  similar  to  the  Russian 

11  '  They  boil  the  Indian  wheat  with  lime,  and  when  it  has  stood  a-while 
;grind  it,  as  they  do  the  cacao.'  Gemelli  Careri,  in  Churchill's  Col.  Voyages,  vol. 
v.,  pp.  496,  492,  513;  Walton's  Span.  Col.,  p.  305.  For  further  account  of 
food  see  Tylor's  Anahuac,  pp.  88-9,  156;  Sive.rs,  Mittelamerika,  p.  295;  Klemm. 
Cultar-Geschichte,  p.  102;  Delaporte,  Reisen,  torn,  x.,  p.  323;  Padllla,  Conq.  N. 
Galicia,  MS.,  pp.  31,  44,  53,  73,  127;  Humboldt,  Essai  Pol.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  79, 
87;  Larenaudiere,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1824,  torn,  xxiii.,  p.  67;  Pritto 
Viajes,  pp.  191-2,  373;  Mex.  in  1842,  pp.  46,  64,  68;  Mayer's  Mex.,  Aztec,  etc., 
vol.  ii.,  p.  32;  Albornoz,  in  Icazbalceta,  Col.  de  Doc.,  torn,  i.,  p.  488;  Muhlen- 
pfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  i.,  pp.  185,  218-19;  Armin,  Das  Heutige  Mexifco,  p.  245, 
with  plate;  Mendoza,  Hist,  de  las  Cosas,  p.  310;  Malte-Brun,  Precis  de  la  Ge'og., 
torn,  vi.,  p.  443. 


WEAPONS  AND  SHIELDS.  627 

vapor-bath,  but  it  does  not  appear  to  have  the  effect  of 
cleansing  their  persons.12 

All  these  tribes  use  bows  and  arrows ;  the  latter  car 
ried  in  a  quiver  slung  at  the  back,  a  few  spare  ones 
being  stuck  in  the  belt  for  immediate  use.  A  heavy 
club  is  secured  to  the  arm  by  a  thong,  and  wielded  with 
terrible  effect  at  close  quarters.  In  battle,  the  principal 
warriors  are  armed  with  spears  and  shields.  Another 
weapon  much  in  use  is  the  sling,  from  which  they  cast 
Btones  to  a  great  distance  and  with  considerable  accu 
racy.  The  natives  of  the  valley  of  Mexico  kill  birds 
with  small  pellets  blown  through  a  hollow  tube.13 

The  clubs,  which  are  from  three  to  four  feet  in  length, 
are  made  of  a  species  of  heavy  wood,  some  having  a 
round  knob  at  the  end  similar  to  a  mace,  others  broad 
and  flat,  and  armed  with  sharp  pieces  of  obsidian,  fas 
tened  on  either  side.  Acosta  states  that  with  these 
weapons  they  could  cut  off  the  head  of  a  horse  at  one 
stroke.  Spears  and  arrows  are  pointed  with  flint  or 
obsidian,  the  latter  having  a  reed  shaft  with  a  piece  of 
hard  wood  inserted  into  it  to  hold  the  point.  Their 
quivers  are  made  of  deer-skin,  and  sometimes  of  seal 
or  shark  skin.  Shields  are  ingeniously  constructed  of 
small  canes  so  woven  together  with  thread  that  they 
can  be  folded  up  and  carried  tied  under  the  arm.  When 
wanted  for  use  they  are  loosed,  and  when  opened  out 
they  cover  the  greater  part  of  the  body.14 

12  Ward's  Mexico,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  268-9.  '  One  would  think  the  bath  would 
make  the  Indians  cleanly  in  their  persons,  but  it  hardly  seems  so,  for  they 
look  rather  dirtier  after  they  have  been  in  the  temazcalli  than  before.'  Tylor's 
Anahuac,  p.  302. 

!3  Padilla,  Conq.  N.  Galicia,  MS.,  pp.  33,  72-3;  Beaumont,  Cron.  deMechoa- 
can,  MS.,  p.  235.  'El  arco  y  la  flecha  eran  sus  nrmas  en  la  guerra,  auuque 
para  la  caza  los  caciques  y  senores  usaban  tainbien  de  cervatanas.'  Akgre, 
Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  i.,  p.  279.  '  I  saw  some  Indians  that  kill'd  the 
least  birds  upon  the  highest  trees  with  pellets  shot  out  of  trunks.'  Gemelli 
Careri,  in  Churchill's  Col.  Voyages,  vol.  iv.,  p.  512,  and  in  Berenger,  Col.  de  Voy., 
torn,  ii.,  p.  397. 

"  West  und  Ost  Indischer  Lustgarl,  pfc  i.,  p.  102;  Clarigcro,  Storia  An.t  dd 
Messico,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  141-4,  with  plate;  Cartasal  Abate  de  Pradt,  p.  114;  Helps' 
Span.  Conq.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  286;  Arricivita,  Cronica  Serafca,  p.  89;  Sahagun,  Hist. 
Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  lib.  x.,  pp.  129,  133;  Ly on' s  Journal,  vol.  i.,  pp.  149,  293; 
Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  viii.,  cap.  ii.;  Muhknpfordt,  Mejico, 
torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p.  378.  '  Una  macana,  a  manera  de  porra,  llena  de  puutas  Ue 


628  WILD  TRIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

Aboriginally,  as  with  most  northern  nations,  warfare 
was  the  normal  state  of  these  people.  The  so-called 
Chichimecs  attacked  all  who  entered  their  domain, 
whether  for  hunting,  collecting  fruit,  or  fighting.  War 
once  declared  between  two  tribes,  each  side  endeavors 
to  secure  by  alliance  as  many  of  their  neighbors  as 
possible;  to  which  end  ambassadors  are  despatched  to 
the  chiefs  of  adjacent  provinces,  each  bearing  in  his 
hand  an  arrow  of  the  make  peculiar  to  the  tribe  of 
the  stranger  chief.  Arriving  at  the  village,  the  mes 
senger  seeks  out  the  chief  and  lays  the  arrow  at  his 
feet ;  if  the  proposal  of  his  master  be  accepted  by  the 
stranger  chief,  the  rendezvous  is  named  and  the  mes 
senger  departs.  The  ambassadors  having  returned  with 
their  report,  preparations  are  at  once  made  for  the  re 
ception  of  the  allies,  a  feast  is  prepared,  large  quanti 
ties  of  game  and  intoxicating  drink  are  made  ready, 
and  as  soon  as  the  guests  arrive  the  viands  are  placed 
before  them.  Then  follow  eating  and  drinking,  con 
cluding  with  drunken  orgies;  this  finished,  a  council 
is  held,  and  the  assault  planned,  care  being  taken  to 
secure  places  suitable  for  an  ambuscade  and  stones  for 
the  slingers.  A  regular  organization  of  forces  is  ob 
served  and  every  effort  made  to  outflank  or  surround 
the  enemy.  Archers  and  slingers  march  to  an  attack 
in  single  file,  always  occupying  the  van,  while  warriors 
armed  with  clubs  and  lances  are  drawn  up  in  the  rear ; 
the  assault  is  commenced  by  the  former,  accompanied 
with  furious  shouts  and  yells.  During  the  period  of 
their  wars  against  the  Spaniards,  they  often  expended 
much  time  and  labor  in  the  fortification  of  heights  by 
means  of  tree-trunks,  and  large  rocks,  which  were  so 
arranged,  one  on  top  of  another,  that  at  a  given  sig 
nal  they  might  be  loosened,  and  let  fall  on  their  assail 
ants.  The  chiefs  of  the  Tepecanos  and  contiguous  tribes 
carried  no  weapons  during  the  action,  but  had  rods 

piedras  pedernales.'  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  568.  'En  schilden  nit 
Btijve  stokjens  gevlochten,  van  welke  sick  verwonderens-waerdig  dienen  in 
den  oorlog.'  Montanus,  Nieuwe  Weerekl,  pp.  225-6,  and  Dapper,  Neue  Welt., 
p.  254. 


WAR  AND  TREATMENT  OF  CAPTIVES.  629 

with  which  they  chastised  those  who  exhibited  symp 
toms  of  cowardice,  or  became  disorderly  in  the  ranks.15 
The  slain  were  scalped  or  their  heads  cut  off,  and 
prisoners  were  treated  with  the  utmost  barbarity,  end 
ing  invariably  in  the  death  of  the  unfortunates;  often 
were  they  scalped  while  yet  alive,  and  the  bloody  tro 
phy  placed  upon  the  heads  of  their  tormentors.  The 
heads  of  the  slain  were  placed  on  poles  and  paraded 
through  their  villages  in  token  of  victory,  the  inhabi 
tants  meanwhile  dancing  round  them.  Young  children 
were  sometimes  spared,  and  reared  to  fight  in  the  ranks 
of  their  conquerors;  and  in  order  to  brutalize  their 
youthful  minds  and  eradicate  all  feelings  of  affection 
toward  their  own  kindred,  the  youthful  captives  were 
given  to  drink  the  brains  and  blood  of  their  murdered 
parents.  The  Chichimecs  carried  with  them  a  bone, 
on  which,  when  they  killed  an  enemy,  they  marked  a 
notch,  as  a  record  of  the  number  each  had  slain.  Mot  a 
Padilla  states  that  when  Nuno  de  Guzman  arrived  in 
the  valley  of  Coynan,  in  Jalisco,  the  chiefs  came  out  to 
meet  him,  and,  as  a  sign  of  peace  and  obedience,  dropped 
on  one  knee;  upon  being  raised  up  by  the  Spaniards, 
they  placed  round  their  necks  strings  of  rabbits  and 
quails,  in  token  of  respect.16 

As  the  wants  of  the  people  are  few  and  simple,  so  is 
the  inventory  of  their  implements  and  household  furni 
ture.  Every  family  is  supplied  with  the  indispensable 
metate,  an  oblong  stone,  about  twelve  by  eighteen  inches, 
smooth  on  the  surface  and  resting  upon  three  legs  in  a 
slanting  position ;  with  this  is  used  a  long  stone  roller, 

15  '  Siempre  procuran  de  acometer  en  malos  pasos,  en  tierras  dobladas  y 
pedregosas.'   Herrera,    Hist.    Gen.,    dec.  vii.,    lib.  ii.,  cap.   xii.     'Tres   mil 
Yndios  formaban  en  solo  una  fila  haciendo  freute  a  nuestro  campo.'  Padilla, 
Conq.  N.  Galicia,  MS.,  p.  34;   see  further,  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  p. 
572;  Beaumont,  Cron.  de  Mechoacan,  MS.,  p.  235. 

16  The  Chichimecs  '  Flea  their  heads,  and  fit  that  skin  upon  their  own 
heads  with  all  the  hair,  and  so  wear  it  as  a  token  of  valour,  till  it  rots  off  in 
bits.'  Gemelli  Careri,  in  Churchill's  CoL  Voyages,  vol.  iv.,  p.  513,  and  Berenger, 
Col.  deVoy.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  400.     '  Quitandoles  los  cascos  con  el  pelo,  se'los 
lie  van  a  su  Pueblo,  para"baylar  el  mitote  en  compania  de  sus  parientes  con  las 
cabezas  de  sus  euemigos  en  serial  del  triunfo.'  Arlegui,  Chron.  de  Zacatecas, 
pp.  179,  159-60.     Further  reference  in  Sahagun,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  lib.  x., 
pp.  133-4;  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  i.,  p.  281. 


630  WILD  TEIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

called  the  metlapilli,  for  rubbing  down  the  maiz,  and  a 
large  earthen  pan,  called  the  comatti,  on  which  to  bake  the 
tortillas.  Their  bottles,  bowls,  and  cups  are  made  from 
gourds,  often  prettily  painted,  and  kept  hanging  round 
the  walls;  some  unglazed  earthenware  vessels,  orna 
mented  with  black  figures  on  a  dull  red  ground,  are  used 
for  cooking,  a  block  of  wood  serves  for  a  stool  and 
table,  and  lastly  a  few  petates  (Aztec,  petlatlj  '  palm-leaf 
mat' ) ,  are  laid  upon  the  ground  for  beds.  These  com 
prise  the  whole  effects  of  a  native's  house.  For  agricul 
tural  purposes,  they  have  wooden  spades,  hoes,  and  sharp 
stakes  for  planting  corn.  Their  products  are  carried 
home  or  to  market  in  large  wicker-work  frames,  often 
five  feet  high  by  two  and  a  half  feet  broad,  made  from  • 
split  palm-leaves.17 

In  the  State  of  Jalisco,  the  natives  are  celebrated  for 
the  manufacture  of  blankets  and  woolen  mantas;  in 
other  parts  of  the  country  they  continue  to  weave  cot 
ton  stuffs  in  the  same  manner  as  before  the  conquest,  all 
on  very  primitive  hand-looms.  The  common  designs 
are  in  blue  or  red  and  white  stripes,  but  they  are  some 
times  neatly  worked  with  figures,  the  juice  from  the 
murex  or  purple  shell  supplying  the  vermilion  color  for 
the  patterns.  The  inhabitants  of  Tonala  exhibit  much 
taste  and  excellence  in  the  production  of  pottery,  mak 
ing  a  great  variety  of  toys,  masks,  figures,  and  orna 
ments,  besides  the  vessels  for  household  use.  In  the 
vicinity  of  Santa  Cruz,  the  fibres  of  the  aloe,  crushed 
upon  the  metate,  are  employed  for  the  manufacture  of 
ropes,  nets,  bags,  and  flat  round  pelotas,  used  in  rubbing- 
down  the  body  after  a  bath.  Palm-leaf  mats  and 
dressed  skins  also  figure  largely  among  the  articles  of 
native  industry.18 

17  Cassel,  in  Nouvettes  Annaks  des  Voy.,  1830,  torn,  xlv.,  p.  338;  Vigneaux, 
Souv.  Mex.,  p.    274;    Prieto,    Viajes,  p.  193;    Tylor's  Anahuac,  pp.  201-2; 
Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  i.,  pp.  224-6,  241;  Montanus,  Nieuwe  Weereld,  p. 
224;  and  Dapper,  Neue  Welt.,  p.  252. 

18  '  The  Indians  of  this  Countrie  doe  make  great  store  of  Woollen  Cloth  and 
Silkes.'  Purchas,   His  Pilgrimes,   vol.  iv.,  lib.  vii.,  p.  1433.      The  Otonifs 
'  sabian  hacer  lindas  labores  en.  las  innntas.  enaguas,  y  vipiles  que  tejian  muy 
curiosamente ;  pero  todas  elks  labraban  lo  dicho  de  hilo  de  maguey  que 


TEADE  AND  AKTS.  631 

In  Yera  Cruz,  they  have  canoes  dug  out  of  the  trunk 
of  a  mahogany  or  cedar  tree,  which  are  capable  of  hold 
ing  several  persons,  and  are  worked  with  single  paddles.19 

A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in  pottery,  mats, 
dressed  skins,  and  manufactures  of  the  aloe-fibre ;  also 
fruit,  feathers,  vegetables,  and  fish.  All  such  wares  are 
packed  in  light  osier  baskets,  which,  thrown  upon  their 
backs,  are  carried  long  distances  to  the  several  markets. 
In  the  province  of  Yera  Cruz,  vanilla,  jalap,  and  other 
herbs  are  important  articles  of  native  commerce,  and  all 
the  interior  tribes  place  a  high  value  on  salt,  for  which 
they  readily  exchange  their  products.20 

The  natives  display  much  patience  and  skill  in  orna 
mental  work,  especially  carvings  in  stone,  and  in  paint 
ing;  although  the  figures,  their  gods  bearing  witness, 
are  all  of  grotesque  shapes  and  appearance.  With  noth 
ing  more  than  a  rude  knife,  they  make  very  ingenious 
figures,  of  wax,  of  the  pith  of  trees,  of  wood,  charcoal, 
clay,  and  bone.  They  are  fond  of  music,  and  readily 
imitate  any  strain  they  hear.  From  time  immemorial 
they  have  retained  a  passion  for  flowers,  in  all  seasons 
of  the  year  tastefully  decorating  therewith  their  dwell 
ings  and  shops.  The  art  of  working  in  gold  and  silver 
is  well  known  to  the  natives  of  Jalisco,  who  execute 
well-shaped  specimens  of  cups  and  vases,  beautifully 
engraved  and  ornamented.21 

sacaban  y  beneficiaban  de  las  pencas.'  Sahagun,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  lib.  x., 
p.  127;  see  also,  Tylor's  Anahuac,  p.  201;  Bustamante,  in  Prieto,  Viajes,p. 
193;  Carpenter's  Trav.  Mex.,  p.  243;  Mex.  in  1842,  p.  66;  Muhlenpfordt,  Meji- 
co,  torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p.  341;  Lyon's  Journal,  vol.  ii.,  p.  43;  Thummel,  Mexiko, 
p.  63. 

is  Dale's  Notes,  p.  24. 

20  '  In  those  countreys  they  take  neither  golde  nor  silver  for  exchange  of 
any  thing,  but  onley  Suit.'  Chilton,  in  Hakluyt's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  459;  com 
pare  Lyon's  Journal,  vol.  i.,  p.  293,  and  vol.  ii.,  p.  198;  and  Tylor's  Anahuac, 
p.  85. 

21  Humboldt,  Essai  Pol.,  torn,  i.,  p.  98;  Tylor's  Anahuac,  p.  316;  Ward's 
Mexico,  vol.  ii.,  p.  237;   Lafond,  Voyages,  torn,  i.,  p.  131;  Muhlenpfordt,Meji- 
co,  torn,  i.,  p.  243;   MUl's  Hist.  Mex.,'  p.  6;    Carpenter's  Trav.  Mex.,  p.  243. 
'  Les  Mexicains  ont  conserve  un  gout  particulier  pour  la  peinture  et  pour 
1'art  de  sculpter  en  pierre  et  en  bois.'  Matte- Brun,  Precis  de  la  Geog.,  torn, 
vi.,  p.  44G.     '  Lo  particular  de  Michoacan  era  el  arte  de  pintar  con  las  plu- 
mas  de  diversos  colores.'  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  i.,  p.  90.     'Son 
ni'iy  bueuos  cantores  y  tafiedores  de  toda  suerte  de  instrumentos.'  Mendoza, 
Hist,  de  las  Cosas,  p.  3U8. 


632  WILD  TRIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

The  wild  tribes  surrounding,  and  in  places  intermixed 
with,  the  Civilized  Nations  of  Central  Mexico,  as  far  as 
I  can  learn,  do  not  appear  to  have  had  any  systematic 
tribal  government;  at  least,  none  of  the  old  historians 
have  given  any  account  of  such.  Some  of  the  tribes 
attach  themselves  to  chiefs  of  their  own  choice,  to  whom 
they  pay  a  certain  tribute  from  the  produce  of  their 
labor  or  hunting  expeditions,  while  others  live  without 
any  government  or  laws  whatsoever,  and  only  elect  a 
chief  on  going  to  war.22 

Marriage  takes  place  at  an  early  age,  and  girls  are 
seldom  found  single  after  they  attain  fourteen  or  fifteen 
years.  Gomara,  however,  says  that  women  in  the  dis 
trict  of  Tamaulipas  are  not  married  till  they  reach  the 
age  of  forty.  The  Otomis  marry  young,  and  if,  when 
arrived  at  the  age  of  puberty,  a  young  girl  has  not 
found  a  mate,  her  parents  or  guardians  select  one  for  her, 
so  that  none  shall  remain  single.  Among  the  Guachichi- 
les,  when  a  young  man  has  selected  a  girl,  he  takes  her  on 
trial  for  an  indefinite  period ;  if,  afterwards,  both  parties 
are  satisfied  with  each  other,  the  ceremony  of  marriage 
is  performed;  should  it  happen,  however,  that  the  man 
be  not  pleased,  he  returns  the  girl  to  her  parents,  which 
proceeding  does  not  place  any  obstacle  in  the  way  of  her 
obtaining  another  suitor.  The  Chichimecs  cannot  marry 
without  the  consent  of  parents ;  if  a  young  man  violates 
this  law  and  takes  a  girl  without  first  obtaining  the 
parental  sanction,  even  with  the  intention  of  mar 
rying  her,  the  penalty  is  death;  usually,  in  ancient 
times,  the  offender  was  shot  with  arrows.  When  one  of 
this  people  marries,  if  the  girl  proves  not  to  be  a  virgin, 
the  marriage  is  null,  and  the  girl  is  returned  to  her 
parents.  When  a  young  man  desires  to  marry,  his 
parents  make  a  visit  to  those  of  the  intended  bride,  and 
leave  with  them  a  bouquet  of  flowers  bound  with  red 

22  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  i.,  p.  281;  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec. 
viii.,  lib.  vi.,  cap.  xv.;  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  567;  Padilla,  Conq.  N. 
Galicia,  MS.,  pp.  31,68;  Ottavio,  in  Nouvelles  Annales des  Voy.,  1833,  torn,  lix., 
p.  61. 


MAKKIAGE  CUSTOMS.  633 

wool;  the  bride's  parents  then  send  round  to  the  houses 
of  their  friends  a  bunch  of  mariguana,  a  narcotic  herb, 
which  signifies  that  all  are  to  meet  together  at  the  bride's 
father's  on  the  next  night.  The  meeting  is  inaugurated 
by  smoking;  then  they  chew  mariguana,  during  which 
time  all  preliminaries  of  the  marriage  are  settled.  The 
following  day  the  resolutions  of  the  conclave  are  made 
known  to  the  young  man  and  woman,  and  if  the  decision 
is  favorable,  the  latter  sends  her  husband  a  few  presents, 
and  from  that  time  the  parties  consider  themselves  mar 
ried,  and  the  friends  give  themselves  up  to  feasting  and 
dancing.23 

A  plurality  of  wives  was  found  among  all  the  inhabi 
tants  of  this  region  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest, 
the  first  wife  taking  precedence  of  those  who  came  after 
her.  Many  had  concubines  who,  it  may  be  said,  ranked 
third  in  the  family  circle.  The  missionary  Fathers, 
however,  soon  put  an  end  to  the  custom  of  more  than 
one  wife,  whenever  they  had  the  power  to  do  so.  Her- 
rera  says  that  the  Chichimecs  indulged  in  one  wife  only, 
but  that  they  had  the  habit  of  repudiating  her  for  any 
slight  cause,  and  of  taking  another.  The  women  are 
kept  under  subjection  by  their  husbands,  and  not  only 
have  all  the  indoor  work  to  do,  such  as  cooking, 
spinning,  and  mat- making,  but  they  are  also  required  to 
carry  heavy  burdens  home  from  the  market,  and  bring 
all  the  wood  and  water  for  household  use.  Infants  are 
carried  on  the  mother's  back,  wrapped  in  a  coarse  cot 
ton  cloth,  leaving  the  head  and  legs  free.  Among  the 
Chichimecs,  when  a  woman  goes  out  of  her  house,  she 
places  her  child  in  a  wicker  basket,  and  there  leaves  it, 
usually  suspending  it  from  the  branch  of  a  tree.  A  child 
is  suckled  by  the  mother  until  another  comes  on  and 
crowds  it  out.  Mlihlenpfordt  relates  that  he  saw  a  boy  of 

23  Mayer's  Mex.,  Aztec,  etc.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  296;  Villa,  in  Prieto,  Viajes,  pp. 
428-30.  '  Tenian  uso  y  costumbre  los  otomies,  de  que  los  varones  siendo  muy 
muchachos  y  tiernos  se  casasen,  y  lo  mismo  las  mugeres'. '  Sahagun.  Hist. 
Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  lib.  x.,  p.  127.  Chicliimecs  '  casanse  con  las  parientas  mas 
cercanas,  pero  no  con  las  hermanas.'  Ilerrera,  Hist.  Gen.t  dec.  viii.,  lib.  vi., 
cap.  xv. 


634  WILD  TEIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

seven  or  eight  years  of  age  demanding  suck  and  receiv 
ing  it  from  his  mother.  A  woman  near  her  time  of 
confinement,  retires  to  a  dark  corner  of  the  house, 
attended  by  some  aged  woman,  who  sings  to  her,  and 
pretends  to  call  the  baby  from  afar;  This  midwife,  how 
ever,  does  not  in  any  way  assist  at  the  birth,  but  as 
soon  as  the  child  is  born  she  goes  out,  meanwhile  cover 
ing  her  face  with  her  hands,  so  that  she  may  not  see. 
Having  walked  once  round  the  house,  she  opens  her 
eyes,  and  the  name  of  the  first  object  she  sees  is  chosen 
as  the  name  of  the  child.  Among  the  Otorm's,  a  young 
woman  about  to  become  a  mother  is  the  victim  of  much 
unnecessary  suffering  arising  from  their  superstitious 
practices;  loaded  with  certain  amulets  and  charms,  she 
must  carefully  avoid  meeting  certain  individuals  and 
animals  whose  look  might  produce  evil  effects — a  black 
dog  especially  must  be  avoided.  The  song  of  a  mock 
ing-bird  near  the  house  is  held  to  be  a  happy  omen. 
At  certain  hours  the  mother  was  to  drink  water 
which  had  been  collected  in  the  mountains,  and  pre 
viously  presented  to  the  gods;  the  phases  of  the  moon 
were  carefully  watched.  She  was  obliged  to  undergo 
an  examination  from  the  old  crone  who  attended  her, 
and  who  performed  certain  ceremonies,  such  as  burning 
aromatic  herbs  mingled  with  saltpetre.  Sometimes, 
amidst  her  pains,  the  ancient  attendant  obliged  her 
charge  to  jump  about,  and  take  powerful  medicines, 
which  frequently  caused  abortion  or  premature  delivery. 
If  the  child  was  a  boy,  one  of  the  old  men  took  it  in 
his  arms  and  painted  on  its  breast  an  axe  or  some  im 
plement  of  husbandry,  on  its  forehead  a  feather,  and  on 
the  shoulders  a  bow  and  quiver;  he  then  invoked  for  it 
the  protection  of  the  gods.  If  the  child  proved  to  be 
a  female,  the  same  ceremony  was  observed,  with  the 
exception  that  an  old  woman  officiated,  and  the  figure  of 
a  flower  was  traced  over  the  region  of  the  heart,  while 
on  the  palm  of  the  right  hand  a  spinning-wheel  was 
pictured,  and  on  the  left  a  piece  of  wool,  thus  indicating 
the  several  duties  of  after  life.  According  to  the  Apos- 


CHILDREN  AND  AMUSEMENTS.  635 

tdticos  AfaneSj  the  Coras  call  the  child  after  one  of 
its  uncles  or  aunts.  In  twelve  months'  time  a  feast  is 
prepared  in  honor  of  said  young,  and  the  mother  and 
child,  together  with  the  uncle  or  aunt,  placed  in  the 
middle  of  the  circle  of  relatives.  Upon  these  occasions 
much  wine  is  drunk,  and  for  the  first  time  salt  is  placed 
in  the  child's  mouth.  As  soon  as  the  child's  teeth  are 
all  cut,  a  similar  meeting  takes  place,  and  the  child  is 
then  given  its  first  meal;  and  again,  at  the  age  of 
twelve,  the  ancients  come  together,  when  the  youth  is 
first  given  wine  to  drink.  As  a  rule,  young  people  show 
great  respect  and  affection  for  their  parents;  all  their 
earnings  being  at  once  handed  over  to  them.24 

In  early  times,  immorality  and  prostitution  existed 
among  these  nations  to  an  unparalleled  extent.  Gomara 
says  that  in  the  province  of  Tamaulipas  there  were  pub 
lic  brothels,  where  men  enacted  the  part  of  women,  and 
where  every  night  were  assembled  as  many  as  a  thou 
sand,  more  or  less,  of  these  worse  than  beastly  beings, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  village.  It  is  certain  that 
incest  and  every  species  of  fornication  was  commonly 
practiced,  especially  in  the  districts  of  Yera  Cruz,  Ta 
maulipas,  and  Queretaro.25 

Their  amusements  are  stamped  with  the  general  mel 
ancholy  of  their  character.  Dancing,  accompanied  with 
music  and  singing,  is  their  favorite  pastime,  but  it  is 
seldom  indulged  in  without  the  accompanying  vice  of 
intoxication.  When  the  Totonacs  join  in  their  na 
tional  dances,  they  attach  a  kind  of  rattle  called  aia- 
cachtli  to  a  band  round  the  head,  that  produces  a 
peculiar  sound  during  the  performance.  Among  some 
tribes  women  are  not  permitted  to  join  in  the  dances. 

24  Miihlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  i.,  pp.  246-8;  Bullock's  Mexico,  vol.  i.,  p. 
192;  Apostolicos  Afanes,  pp.  21-2;  Rittner,  Guatimozin,  p.  81.     'Elamanceba- 
miento  no  es  deshonra  entre  ellos.'  Zarfate,  in  Aletjre,  Hist.  Cornp.  de  Jesus, 
torn,  i.,  pp.  281,  335.     '  Zlingerden  de  kinderen  in   gevlochte  korven  aen 
boomtakken.'  Montanus,  Nieuwe  Weereld,  p.  219;  and  Dapper,  Neue  Well.,  p. 
246. 

25  '  La  mancebfa,  el  incesto,  y  cuanto  tiene  de  mas  asquerosamente  re- 
pugnante  el  desarreglo  de  la  concupiscencia,  se  ha  convertido  en  habito.' 
Prieto,  Viajes,  p.  379;  Fossey,  Mexique,  p.  27;  Gomara,  Hist.  Ind.,  fol.  56. 


636  WILD  TKIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

They  make  various  kinds  of  drinks  and  intoxicating 
liquors.  One  is  made  from  the  fruit  of  the  nopal  or 
prickly  pear,  which  is  first  peeled  and  pressed ;  the  juice 
is  then  passed  through  straw  sieves,  and  placed  by  a  fire 
or  in  the  sun,  where  in  about  an  hour  it  ferments. 
Another  drink,  called  chicha,  is  made  from  raw  sugar 
cane,  which  is  mashed  with  a  wooden  mallet  and  passed 
through  a  pressing-machine.  Their  principal  and  na 
tional  drink  is  pulque,  made  from  the  agave  americana, 
and  is  thus  prepared :  When  the  plant  is  about  to  bloom, 
the  heart  or  stalk  is  cut  out,  leaving  a  hole  in  the  center, 
which  is  covered  with  the  outer  leaves.  Every  twenty- 
four  hours,  or  in  the  hotter  climates  twice  a  day,  the 
cavity  fills  with  the  sap  from  the  plant,  which  is  taken 
out  and  fermented  by  the  addition  of  some  already-fer 
mented  pulque,  and  the  process  is  continued  until  the 
plant  ceases  to  yield  a  further  supply.  The  liquor 
obtained  is  at  first  of  a  thick  white  color,  and  is  at 
all  times  very  intoxicating.26 

Father  Joseph  Arlegui,  in  his  Chrdnica  de  la  Pro- 
vincia  de  Zacatecas,  which  province  then  comprised  a 
much  larger  extent  of  territory  than  the  present  state 
of  Zacatecas,  describes  a  singular  ceremony  nowhere 
else  mentioned.  It  is  employed  when  one  nation 
wishes  to  form  a  close  connection,  friendship,  alliance, 
family  or  blood  relationship,  so  to  say  (tratan  de  ha- 
cerse  parientes),  with  another  nation;  and  the  process 
is  as  follows:  From  the  tribe  with  which  the  alliance 
is  desired,  a  man  is  seized,  and  a  feast  or  drunken 
carousal  commenced.  Meanwhile  the  victim  destined 
to  form  the  connecting  link  between  the  two  bands, 
and  whose  blood  is  to  cement  their  friendship,  is  kept 
without  food  for  twenty-four  hours.  Into  him  is  then 
poured  of  their  execrable  beverages  until  he  is  filled, 

26  Humboldt,  Essai  Pol.,  torn,  i.,  p.  97;  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  p.  160; 
Sahagun,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  lib.  x.,  p.  131;  Apostolicos  Afanes,  p.  12;  Pa- 
dilla,  Cong.  N.  Galicia,  pp.  19,  127;  Wappiius,  Geog.  u.  Stat.,  p.  80;  Thum- 
mel,  Mexiko,  p.  61;  Alcedo,  Diccionario,  torn,  ii.,  p.  470;  Muhlenpfordt, 
Mejico,  torn,  i.,  p.  219;  Gemelli  Careri,  in  Churchill's  Col.  Voyages,  vol.  iv., 
p.  517. 


MAKING  AN  ALLIANCE.  637 

and  his  senses  are  deadened,  when  he  is  stretched 
before  a  fire,  built  in  a  wide  open  place,  where  all 
the  people  may  have  access  to  him.  Having  warmed 
well  his  body,  and  rubbed  his  ears,  each  aspirant  to  the 
new  friendship,  armed  with  a  sharp  awl-shaped  instru 
ment,  made  of  deer's  bone,  proceeds  to  pierce  the  ears  of 
the  prostrate  miserable,  each  in  turn  forcing  his  sharp 
ened  bone  through  some  new  place,  which  causes  the 
blood  to  spurt  afresh  with  every  incision.  With  the 
blood  so  drawn,  the  several  members  of  the  tribe  anoint 
themselves,  and  the  ceremony  is  done.  On  the  spot 
where  the  relative  of  a  Cora  is  killed  in  a  fight,  a 
piece  of  cloth  is  dipped  in  blood,  and  kept  as  a  remem 
brance,  until  his  death  be  avenged  by  killing  the  slayer, 
or  one  of  the  males  of  his  family.  When  meeting  each 
other  on  a  journey,  they  make  use  of  many  compli 
mentary  salutations,  and  a  kind  of  freemasonry  appears 
to  exist  among  them.  Major  Brantz  Mayer  mentions  a 
tribe  at  Cuernavaca  that,  in  the  event  of  a  white  man 
arriving  at  their  village,  immediately  seize  and  place 
him  under  guard  for  the  night  in  a  large  hut ;  he  and 
his  animals  are  carefully  provided  for  until  the  following 
day,  when  he  is  despatched  from  the  village  under  an 
escort,  to  wait  upon  him  until  far  beyond  the  limits  of 
the  settlement.  The  custom,  at  the  present  day,  of  hid 
ing  money  in  the  ground  is  universal ;  nothing  would 
induce  a  native  to  entrust  his  savings  with  another.  The 
inhabitants  of  Queretaro  spend  much  of  their  time  bask 
ing  in  the  sun,  and  if  the  sun  does  not  yield  sufficient 
warmth,  they  scoop  out  a  hole  in  the  ground,  burn  in  it 
branches  and  leaves  of  the  maguey,  and  when  properly 
heated,  lay  themselves  down  in  the  place,  and  cover 
themselves  with  a  mat  or  the  loose  earth.27 

27  Arlequi,  Chron.  de  Zacatecas,  pp.  161-2;  Mayer's  Mex.  as  it  Was,  pp. 
175-6;  Mendoza.  Hist,  de  las  Cosas,  p.  311;  Prieto,  Viajes,  p.  375;  Aposto- 
licos  Afanes,  p.  12.  '  Los  indios,  si  no  todos  en  su  mayor  parte,  \iven  liga- 
dos  por  una  especie  de  masoneria.'  Bustamante,  in  Prieto,  Viajes,  p.  199. 
*  Wenn  melirere  in  Gesellschaft  gehen,  nie  neben,  sondern  irnnier  hiiater  ein- 
ander  und  selten  ruhig  schreitend,  sondern  fast  immer  kurz  trabend.'  Wap- 
piius,  Geog.  u.  Stat.,  p.  39.  'L'Indien  enterre  son  argent,  et  au  moment  de 
sa  niort  il  ne  dit  pas  a  son  plus  proche  parent  oii  il  a  depose  son  tresor,  aim 


638  WILD  TEIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

The  Mexicans  are  not  subject  to  many  diseases.  Small 
pox,  brought  into  the  country  at  the  time  of  the  con 
quest,  typhoid  fever,  and  syphilis  are  those  which 
cause  the  greatest  destruction  of  life;  the  two  former 
are  aggravated  by  the  filthy  condition  of  the  villages. 
Yellow  fever,  or  black  vomit,  very  rarely  attacks  the 
aborigines.  The  measles  is  a  prevalent  disease.  Death 
is  likewise  the  result  of  severe  wounds,  fractures,  or 
bruises,  most  of  which  end  in  mortification,  owing  to 
neglect,  or  to  the  barbarous  remedies  applied  to  combat 
them.  The  Huastecs  of  Yera  Cruz  suffer  from  certain 
worms  that  breed  in  their  lips,  and  highly  esteem  salt 
for  the  curative  properties  they  believe  it  to  possess 
against  this  disorder.  At  the  village  of  Comala,  in  the 
state  of  Colima,  a  considerable  number  of  the  children 
are  born  deaf  and  dumb,  idiots,  or  deformed;  besides 
which,  when  they  reach  a  mature  age,  if  we  may  believe 
the  early  chroniclers,  the  goitres  are  more  or  less  devel 
oped  on  them,  notwithstanding  Humboldt's  assertion 
that  the  aborigines  never  suffer  from  this  disorder. 
There  is  another  disease,  cutaneous  in  its  character, 
which  is  quite  prevalent  in  many  parts  of  the  country, 
and  is  supposed  to  be  contracted  under  the  influence 
of  a  warm,  humid,  and  unhealthy  climate,  and  may 
be  described  as  follows:  Without  pain  the  skin  assumes 
a  variety  of  colors,  the  spots  produced  being  white,  red, 
brownish,  or  blue.  The  Pintos,  as  south-western  coast- 
dwellers  are  called,  the  chief  victims  to  this  disorder, 
experience  no  physical  pain,  except  when  they  go  into 
a  cold  climate;  then  they  feel  twitchings  in  the  places 
where  the  skin  has  changed  color.  The  disease  is  de 
clared  to  be  contagious :  and  from  all  accounts  no  remedy 
for  it  has  been  as  yet  discovered.  Formerly,  an  epidemic 
called  the  matlalmhiiail  visited  the  country  at  long  inter 
vals  and  caused  terrible  havoc.  All  the  Spanish  writers 
wrho  speak  of  it  call  it  the  peste,  and  suppose  it  to  be  the 
same  scourge  that  destroyed  nearly  the  whole  population ' 

r'il  ne  lui  fasse  pas  faute  quand  ilressuscitera.'  Cassel,  in  Nouvelles  Annales 
Voy.,  1830,  torn,  xlv.,  p.  339. 


MEDICAL  TREATMENT.  639 

of  the  Toltec  empire  in  the  eleventh  century.  Others 
believe  it  to  have  borne  a  greater  similarity  to  yellow 
fever.  The  disease,  whatever  it  is,  made  its  appearance 
in  1545,  1576,  and  1736,  since  which  date  I  find  no 
mention  of  it,  destroying  each  time  an  immense  num 
ber  of  people ;  but  upon  no  occasion  did  it  attack  the 
pure  whites  or  the  mestizos.  Its  greatest  havoc  was  in 
the  interior,  on  the  central  plateau,  and  in  the  coldest 
and  most  arid  regions,  the  lowlands  of  the  coast  being 
nearly,  if  not  entirely,  free  from  its  effects.28 

When  small-pox  was  first  introduced,  the  natives 
resorted  to  bathing  as  a  cure,  and  a  very  large  number 
succumbed  to  the  disease.  An  old  Spanish  author, 
writing  in  1580,  states  that  the  natives  of  the  kingdom 
of  New  Spain  had  an  extensive  knowledge  of  medicinal 
herbs;  that  they  seldom  resorted  to  bleeding  or  com 
pound  purgatives,  for  they  had  many  simple  cathartic 
herbs.  They  were  in  the  habit  of  making  pills  with 
the  India-rubber  gum  mixed  with  other  substances, 
which  they  swallowed,  and  rubbed  themselves  withal, 
to  increase  their  agility  and  suppleness  of  body.  Cold 
water  baths  are  commonly  resorted  to  when  attacked 
with  fever,  and  they  cannot  be  prevailed  upon  to  aban 
don  the  practice.  The  temazcalli  or  sweat-bath,  is  also 
very  much  used  for  cases  of  severe  illness.  The  bath 
house  stands  close  to  a  spring  of  fresh  water,  and  is 
built  and  heated  not  unlike  a  European  bake-oven. 
When  up  to  the  required  temperature  the  fire  is  taken 
out,  and  water  thrown  in ;  the  patient  is  then  thrust  into 
it  naked,  feet  foremost  and  head  near  the  aperture,  and 
laid  on  a  mat  that  covers  the  hot  stones.  The  hole  that 
affords  him  air  for  breathing  is  about  eighteen  inches 

28  '  La  petite  verole  et  la  rougeole  sont  deux  maladies  tres  communes. ' 
Chappe  d'  Auteroche,  Voyage,  p.  25.  The  Pintos  '  marked  with  great  daubs  of 
deep  blue. . .  .the  decoration  is  natural  and  cannot  be  effaced.'  Tylor's  Ana-> 
huac,p.  309.  See  further:  Fossey,  Mexique,  pp.  33-4,  395-6.  Compare  Hum- 
boldt,  Essai  Pol.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  66,  69-70,  88;  Montanus,  Nieuwe  Weereld,  p. 
250;  Dapper,  Neue  Welt,  p.  282;  Cassel,  in  NouveUes  Annales  des  Voy.,  1830, 
torn,  xlv.,  p.  340;  Lowenstern,  Mexique,  p.  207;  Charnay,  Ruincs  Anie'ricaines, 
pp.  502-3;  Matte-Brim,  Precis  de  la  Gfeog.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  443;  Woppilus,  Geo'j.  u. 
Stat.,  p.  40. 


640  WILD  TRIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

square.  When  sufficiently  steamed,  and  the  body  well 
beaten  with  rushes,  a  cold  water  bath  and  a  brisk  rub 
bing  complete  the  operation.29 

In  Michoacan,  the  natives  believe  that  the  leaves  of 
a  plant  called  cozolmecatl  or  olcacaran  applied  to  a  sore 
part  of  the  body  will  foretell  the  result  of  the  disorder; 
for  if  the  leaves  adhere  to  the  spot,  it  is  a  sure  sign  that 
the  sufferer  will  get  well,  but  if  they  fall  off,  the  con 
trary  will  happen.  When  prostrated  with  disease,  the 
nearest  relatives  and  friends  surround  the  patient's 
couch  and  hold  a  confab  tfpon  the  nature  of  his  ailment 
and  the  application  of  the  remedy.  Old  sorceresses  and 
charlatans  put  in  practice  their  spells;  fumigations  and 
meltings  of  saltpetre  abound ;  and  by  some  jugglery,  out 
of  the  crystallized  saltpetre  is  brought  a  monstrous  ant, 
a  horrible  worm,  or  some  other  object,  which,  as  they 
allege,  is  the  cause  of  the  disorder.  As  the  disease  pro 
gresses,  the  friends  of  the  sufferer  severally  recommend 
and  apply,  according  to  the  judgment  each  may  have 
formed  of  the'  matter,  oil  of  scorpions  or  of  worms, 
water  supposed  to  produce  miraculous  effects  on  fevers, 
or  like  applications,  and  these  empirical  remedies,  most 
of  which  are  entirely  useless,  and  others  extremely  bar 
barous,  are  applied  together  without  weight  or  measure.30 

In  common  with  other  peoples,  it  is  usual  with  these 
nations  to  place  several  kinds  of  edibles  in  the  grave 
with  the  deceased.  Among  the  Coras,  when  one  died, 
the  corpse  was  dressed  and  wrapped  in  a  mantle;  if  a 
man,  with  bow  and  arrows,  and  if  a  woman,  with  her 
distaff,  etc.,  and  in  this  manner  the  body  was  buried 
in  a  cave  previously  selected  by  the  deceased.  All 
his  worldly  goods  were  placed  at  the  door  of  his 

29  '  Los  Indies  son  grandes  herbolarios,  y  curan  siempre  con  ellas.'  Men- 
doza,  Hist,  de  Las  Cosas,  p.  311.  'For  fevers,  for  bad  colds,  for  the  bite  of  a 
poisonous  animal,  this  (the  temazcalli)  is  said  to  be  a  certain  cure;  also  for 
acute  rheumatism.'  Calderon  de  la  Bared1  s  Life  in  Mex.,  vol.  i.,  p.  255; 
Helps'  Span.  Conq.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  430;  Menonville,  Reise,p.  124;  Murr,  Nachrich- 
ten,  p.  306;  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  i.,  p.  250. 

so  'Notant  barbari,  folia  parti  affectee  aut  dolenti  applicata,  de  eventu 
morbi  prasjudicare:  nam  si  firmiter  ad  hsereant,  certum  signuni  esse  aegrum 
corivaliturum,  sin  decidant,  contra.'  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  271;  Villa,  in 
Prfc'to,  Viajes,  pp.  438-9. 


BUKIAL  AND  CHAKACTEK.  641 

former  house,  so  that  he  might  come  and  take  them 
without  crossing  the  threshold,  as  they  believed  the  dead 
returned  to  see  about  property.  If  the  deceased  had 
cattle,  his  friends  and  relatives  every  now  and  then 
placed  some  meat  upon  sticks  about  the  fields,  for  fear 
he  might  come  for  the  cattle  he  formerly  owned.  Five 
days  after  death  a  hired  wizard  essayed  to  conjure  away 
the  shade  of  the  departed  property  -  holder.  These 
spirit-scarers  went  smoking  their  pipes  all  over  the  dead 
man's  house,  and  shook  zapote-branches  in  the  corners, 
till  they  pretended  to  have  found  the  fancied  shadow, 
which  they  hurled  headlong  to  its  final  resting-place. 
Upon  the  second  of  November  most  of  the  natives  of 
the  Mexican  valley  bring  offerings  to  their  dead  rela 
tives  and  friends,  consisting  of  edibles,  live  animals, 
and  flowers,  which  are  laid  on  or  about  the  graves. 
The  anniversary  or  commemoration  of  the  dead  among 
the  ancient  Aztecs  occurred  almost  upon  the  same  day.31 
The  thick-skinned,  thoughtful  and  reserved  aborig 
inals  of  central  Mexico  are  most  enigmatical  in  their 
character.  Their  peculiar  cast  of  features,  their  natural 
reserve,  and  the  thickness  of  their  skin,  make  it  ex 
tremely  difficult  to  ascertain  by  the  expression  of  the 
face  what  their  real  thoughts  are.  The  general  char 
acteristics  of  this  people  may  be  summed  up  as  follows : 
peaceable,  gentle  and  submissive  to  their  superiors, 
grave  even  to  melancholy,  and  yet  fond  of  striking 
exhibitions  and  noisy  revelry ;  improvident  but  charita 
ble,  sincerely  pious,  but  wallowing  in  ignorance  and 
superstitions ;  quick  of  perception,  and  possessed  of  great 
facility  for  acquiring  knowledge,  especially  of  the  arts, 
very  imitative,  but  with  little  originality,  unambitious, 

31  The  remains  of  one  of  their  ancient  kings  found  in  a  cave  is  thus  de 
scribed;  '  estaba  cubierto  de  pedreria  texida  segun  su  costumbre  en  la  manta 
con  que  se  cubria  desde  los  hombros  hasta  los  pies,  sentado  en  la  mismasilla 
que  le  fingieron  el  solio,  con  tahalf,  brazaletes,  collares,  y  apretadores  de 
plata;  y  en  la  frente  una  corona  de  hermosas  plumas,  de  varies  colores  mez- 
cladas,  la  mano  izquierda  puesta  en  el  brazo  de  la  silla,  y  en  la  derecha  un 
alfange  con  guarnicion  de  plata.'  Alcedo,  Diccionario,  torn,  iii.,  p.  299.  See 
also:  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  i.,  pp.  259-60;  Apostdlicos  Afanes,  p.  22; 
Armin,  Das  Heutige  Mexiko,  p.  249. 
Vol.  I.  '41 


642  WILD  TRIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

unwilling  to  learn,  and  indifferent  to  the  comforts  of 
life.  Irascibility  is  by  no  means  foreign  to  their  nature, 
but  it  seems  to  lie  dormant  until  awakened  by  intox 
ication  or  some  powerful  impulse,  when  the  innate 
cruelty  flames  forth,  and  they  pass  suddenly  from  a 
state  of  perfect  calmness  to  one  of  unrestrained  fierce 
ness.  Courage  and  cowardice  are  so  blended  in  their 
character  that  it  is  no  easy  matter  to  determine  which 
is  the  predominant  trait.  A  fact  worthy  of  notice  is 
that  upon  many  occasions  they  have  proved  themselves 
capable  of  facing  danger  with  the  greatest  resolution, 
and  yet  they  will  tremble  at  the  angry  frown  of  a 
white  man.  Laziness,  and  a  marked  inclination  to 
cheating  and  stealing  are  among  the  other  bad  qualities 
attributed  to  them ;  but  there  is  abundant  evidence  to 
show,  that  although  naturally  averse  to  industry,  they 
work  hard  from  morning  till  night,  in  mining,  agri 
culture,  and  other  occupations,  and  in  their  inefficient 
way  accomplish  no  little  labor.  Murder  and  highway 
robbery  are  crimes  not  generally  committed  by  the 
pure  aboriginal,  who  steals  rarely  anything  but  food 
to  appease  his  hunger  or  that  of  his  family.  A  Mex 
ican  author  says,  the  Indian  cuts  down  a  tree  to  pick 
its  fruit,  destroys  an  oak  of  ten  years  growth  for  a 
week's  firewood;  in  other  words,  he  produces  little,  con 
sumes  little,  and  destroys  much.  Another  Mexican 
writer  affirms  that  the  Indian  is  active,  industrious, 
handy  in  agricultural  labor,  a  diligent  servant,  a  trusty 
postman,  humble,  hospitable  to  his  guests,  and  shows 
a  sincere  gratitude  to  his  benefactors.32 

32  D'Orbigny,  Voy.,  p.  353;  Calderon  de  la  Barca's  Life  in  Mex.,  vol.  i.,  p. 
200;  Mayer's  Mex.  as  it  Was,  pp.  170,  201;  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Voy. 
Tehuantepec,  pp,  114,  172;  Larenaudiere,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy., 
1824,  torn,  xxiii.,  p.  G7;  Ottavio,  in  Id.,  1833,  torn,  lix.,  p.  71;  Rittner,  Gua- 
.timozin,  pp.  81-2;  Villa,  in  Prielo,  Viajes,  pp.  446-7;  Arizcorreta,  Respuesta 
d,  pp.  24,  2G;  Sahagun,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  lib.  x.,  pp.  131,  135;  Rossi,  Sou 
venirs,  p.  285;  Lafond,  Voyages,  torn,  i.,  p.  213;  Wappiius,  Geog.  u.  Stat., 
pp.  40-1;  Padilla,  Cong.  N.  Galicia,  MS.,  p.  10;  Poinsett's  Notes  Mex.,  pp. 
108,  161;  Malte-Brun,  Precis  de  la  Geog.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  445;  Gemelli  Careri,  in 
Churchill's  Col.  Voyages,  vol.  iv.,  p.  492;  Berenger,  Col.  de  Voy.,  torn,  ii., 
pp.  383-4;  Bonny  castle' s  Span.  Am.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  49-50.  '  L 'indigene  mexi- 
caiii  est  grave,  melancolique,  silencieux,  aussi  long-temps  que  les  liqueurs 


CHARACTER  IN  NORTHERN  MEXICO.  643 

The  Fames,  Otomfs,  Pintos,  and  other  nations  north 
of  the  Mexican  valley  were,  at  the  time  of  the  conquest, 
a  barbarous  people,  fierce  and  warlike,  covetous  even  of 
trifles  and  fond  of  display.  The  Michoacaques  or  Taras- 
cos  are  warlike  and  brave,  and  for  many  years  after  the 
conquest  showed  themselves  exceedingly  hostile  tj  the 
whites,  whom  they  attacked,  plundered,  and  frequently 
murdered,  when  traveling  through  their  country.  In 
1751  they  were  already  quiet,  and  gave  evidences  of 
being  intelligent  and  devoted  to  work.  The  men  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  city  of  Yera  Cruz  are  careless,  lazy,  and 
fickle;  much  given  to  gambling  and  drunkenness;  but 
the  women  are  virtuous,  frugal,  cleanly,  and  extremely 
industrious.  The  natives  of  Jalapa,  judging  by  their 
countenance,  are  less  intelligent,  and  lack  the  sweetness 
of  character  that  distinguishes  the  inhabitants  of  the 
higher  plateau ;  they  are,  however,  peaceable  and  inoffen 
sive.  The  wild  tribes  of  the  north  are  rude,  revengeful, 
dull,  irreligious,  lazy,  and  given  to  robbery,  plunder, 
and  murder.  Such  are  the  characteristics  attributed  to 
them  under  the  name  of  Chichirnecs  by  old  Spanish  au 
thors  and  others.  Indeed,  the  only  creditable  traits  they 
were  allowed  to  possess,  were,  in  certain  parts,  courage 
and  an  independent  spirit.  Of  the  nations  of  Jalisco, 
both  ancient  and  modern  writers  bear  testimony  to  their 
bravery.  They  are  also  sagacious  and  somewhat  indus 
trious,  but  opposed  to  hard  labor  (as  what  savage  is  not), 
and  not  easily  kept  under  restraint.  Those  who  dwell 
on  Lake  Chapala  are  quiet  and  mild,  devoted  to  agricul 
tural  pursuits.  They  indeed  proved  themselves  high- 
spirited  and  efficient  in  defending  their  rights,  when 
long  oppression  had  exhausted  their  forbearance.  The 
Coras  were  hardy  arid  warlike,  averse  to  any  inter 
course  writh  the  whites  and  to  the  Christian  religion, 
but  by  the  efforts  of  the  missionaries,  and  the  heavy 

enivrantes  n'ont  pas  agi  sur  lui.'  Humboldt,  Essai  Pol.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  94,  96. 
1  The  most  violent  passions  are  never  painted  in  their  features.'  Mill's  Hist. 
Mex.,  pp.  5-6,  10.  '  Of  a  sharpe  wit,  and  good  vnderstanding,  for  what  so- 
euer  it  be,  Sciences  or  other  Arts,  these  people  are  very  apt  to  learne  it  with 
small  instructing.'  Purchas'  His  PUgrimes,  vol.  iv.,  p.  1433. 


644  WILD  TKIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

blows  of  the  Spanish  soldiers,  they  were  brought  under 
subjection,  and  became  tractable.33 

The  SOUTHERN  MEXICANS,  under  which  name  I  group 
the  people  inhabiting  the  present  states  of  Oajaca,  Guer 
rero,  Chiapas,  the  southern  portion  of  Yera  Cruz, 
Tabasco,  and  Yucatan,  constitute  the  second  and  last 
division  of  this  chapter.  Much  of  this  territory  is  sit 
uated  within  the  tierras  calientes,  or  hot  lands,  wherein 
every  variety  of  tropical  vegetation  abounds  in  luxuriant 
profusion.  The  heat,  especially  along  the  coast,  to  the 
unacclimated  is  most  oppressive.  The  great  chain  of 
the  cordillera  in  its  transit  across  the  Tehuantepec  isth 
mus,  approaches  nearer  to  the  Pacific  seaboard  than  to 
the  Atlantic,  and  dropping  from  the  elevated  table-land 
of  central  Mexico,  seeks  a  lower  altitude,  and  breaks 
into  cross-ridges  that  traverse  the  country  in  an  east  and 
west  direction.  Upon  the  northern  side  of  the  isthmus 
are  plains  of  considerable  extent,  of  rich  alluvial  soil, 
through  which  several  rivers,  after  draining  the  mount 
ain  districts,  discharge  into  the  Mexican  gulf.  These 
streams,  in  their  course  through  the  table-lands,  are  bor 
dered  by  rich  lands  of  greater  or  lesser  extent.  On  the 
southern  side,  nature  puts  on  a  bolder  aspect  and  a  nar 
rower  belt  of  lowlands  is  traversed  by  several  rivers, 
which  discharge  the  drainage  of  the  southern  slope  into 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  into  the  lagoons  that  border  the 
ocean.  One  of  the  most  important  features  of  Yucatan 
is  the  absence  of  any  important  river.  The  coast,  which 
is  of  great  extent,  has  in  general  a  bleak  and  arid  ap 
pearance,  and  is  little  broken  except  on  the  north-west, 

33  The  Pintos  of  Guerrero  are  'most  ferocious  savages.'  Tylor'sAnahuac, 
p.  309.  The  Chichimecs  are  '  los  peores  de  todos  y  los  mayores  homicidas 
y  salteadores  de  toda  la  tierra.'  Zarfate,  in  Alegre,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn, 
i.,  p.  281.  See  further,  Almaraz,  Memoria,  p.  18;  Keratry,  in  Revue  des  deux 
Mondes,  Sept.,  1866,  p.  453;  Delaporte,  Rcisen,  torn.  x.,p.323;  Orozco y  Berra, 
Geojmfia,  p.  284;  Lad,  Novus  Orbis,  pp.  269,  280;  Combier,  Voy.,  p.  394; 
Eiart,  'in  Revue  Francaise,  Dec.,  1864,  pp.  479,  485;  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec. 
viii.,  lib.  vi.,  cap.  xvi.;  Ribas,  Hist,  de  los  Triumphos,  p.  721;  Oviedo.  Hist. 
Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  560;  Gomara,  Hist.  Ind.,  fol.  271;  Beaumont,  Cron.  deMe- 
choacan,  MS.,  pp.  197,  235;  Pages'  Travels,  vol.  i.,  p.  150. 


THE  NATIONS  OF  SOUTHERN  MEXICO.  645 

where  it  is  indented  by  the  laguna  de  Terminos,  and 
on  the  eastern  side  by  the  bays  of  Ascension,  Espiritu 
Santo,  and  Chetumel.  The  central  part  of  the  Yucatan 
peninsula  is  occupied  by  a  low  ridge  of  mountains,  of 
barren  aspect.  A  short  distance  from  the  coast  the 
general  appearance  of  the  country  improves,  being  well- 
wooded,  and  containing  many  fertile  tracts. 

Many  of  the  nations  occupying  this  region  at  the 
time  of  the  conquest  may  be  called  cultivated,  or  at 
least,  progressive,  and  consequently  belong  to  the  civil 
ized  nations  described  in  the  second  volume  of  this  work ; 
others  falling  back  into  a  state  of  wildness  after  the  cen 
tral  civilization  was  extinguished,  makes  it  extremely 
difficult  to  draw  any  line  separating  civilization  from 
savagism.  Nevertheless  we  will  examine  them  as  best 
we  may ;  and  if  it  be  found  that  what  we  learn  of  them 
refers  more  to  the  present  time  than  has  been  the  case 
with  nations  hitherto  treated,  the  cause  will  be  obvious. 

The  Zapotecs,  who  were  in  former  times  a  very  pow 
erful  nation,  still  occupy  a  great  portion  of  Oajaca,  sur 
rounded  by  the  ruins  of  their  ancient  palaces  and  cities. 
The  whole  western  part  of  the  state  is  taken  up  by  the 
Miztecs.  Tributary  to  the  above  before  the  conquest, 
were  the  Mijes  and  other  smaller  tribes  now  residing  in 
the  mountain  districts  in  the  centre  of  the  isthmus. 
The  Huaves,  who  are  said  to  have  come  by  sea  from  the 
south,  and  to  have  landed  near  the  present  city  of  Te- 
huantepec,  spread  out  over  the  lowlands  and  around  the 
lagoons  on  the  south-western  coast  of  Oajaca.  In  the 
province  of  Goazacoalco,  and  in  Tabasco,  are  the  Alma- 
lukos,  and  Chontaks,  who  occupy  a  large  portion  of  the 
latter  state.  South  of  them  in  Chiapas  are  the  Choles, 
jfkendaks,  Zotziles,  Alai/nes,  and  Queknes,  and  in  the  ex 
treme  south-eastern  end  of  the  same  state,  and  extend 
ing  into  Central  America,  some  tribes  of  the  Lacandones 
are  located.  The  extensive  peninsula  of  Yucatan,  the 
ancient  name  of  which  was  Mayapan,  formed  the  inde 
pendent  and  powerful  kingdom  of  the  Mayas,  who  held 
undisputed  possession  of  the  country  until,  after  a  heroic 


646  WILD  TRIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

resistance,  they  were  finally  compelled  to  yield  to  the 
superior  discipline  and  weapons  of  the  Spanish  in 
vaders.34 

The  Zapotecs  proper  are  well-formed  and  strong ;   the 
features  of  the  men  are  of  a  peculiar  cast  and  not  pleas 
ing;  the  women,  however,   are  delicately  formed,  and 
graceful  with  handsome  features.     Another  tribe  of  the 
same  nation,  the  Zapotecs  of  Tehuantepec,  are  rather  un 
der  the  medium  height,  with  a  pleasing  oval  face  and  pre 
sent  a  fine  personal  appearance.     Not  a  few  of  them 
have  light-colored  hair,  and  a  somewhat  fair  complexion. 
Their  senses,  especially  that  of  sight,  are  acute,  and  the 
constitution  sound  and    robust,   notwithstanding   their 
habits  of  intoxication.     The  females  have  regular  and 
handsome  features,   and  though  of  small  stature    and 
bizarre  in  their  carriage,  are  truly  graceful  and  seduc 
tive.     Dark  lustrous  eyes,  long  eye-lashes,  well  defined 
eye-brows,  luxuriant  and  glossy  jet-black   hair,    play 
havoc  with  the  men.     Those  of  Acayucan  village  are 
particularly  noted   for  their  beauty.     But  not  all  are 
thus;  instance  the  Chatinos  who  are  remarkably  ugly. 
The  natives  of  Oajaca  are  generally  large  and  well- formed ; 
those  of  Sierra  are  of  a  light-yellow  complexion,  and 
their  women  are   tolerably  white  with  mild  features. 
Some  branches  of  the  Miztecs  and  Mazatecs  carry  upon 
their  shoulders  very  large  loads.     Farther  Burgoa  writ 
ing  of  the  Miztecs,  of  Yangiiistlan,  in  the  year  1541, 
speaks  of  their  beautiful  complexion  and  fine  forms. 
The  Mijes  are  of  good  height,  strongly  built,  hardy,  and 
active;  they  wear  a  beard,  and  altogether  their  aspect  is 
repulsive.     The  Zoques  are  very  much  like  the  Mijes, 
their  features  are  as  prominent  and  unprepossessing ;  but 
they  are  probably  more  athletic.      The  Chontales  are 

34  The  Mayas,  '  Sie  selbst  nennen  sich  heute  noch  Macegual,  d.  h.  Einge- 
borene  vom  Maya-Lande,  nie  Yucatanos  oder  Yucatecos,  was  spanischer 
Ausdruck  fur  die  Bewohner  des  Staates  ist.'  Wappfius,  Geoy.  u.  Stat.,  pp. 
142-3.  See  also  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geofirafia,  pp.  163,  173,  176,  196;  Brasseur 
de  Bourboury,  Popol  Vuh,  preface,  p.  clvii ;  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  i.,  p.  208; 
torn,  ii.,  pt  i.,  pp.  140-3;  Burgoa,  Geog.  Descrip',\om.  ii.,  pt  ii.,  fol.  396,400- 
1;  Kemesal,  Hist,  de  Chyapa,  pp.  264-5;  Juarros'  Hist.  GuaL,  p.  14. 


PHYSIQUE  IN  OAJACA  AND  YUCATAN.  647 

tall  and  very  robust.  In  the  village  of  Tequisistlan, 
Oajaca,  shortly  after  the  Spanish  conquest,  they  were 
all  reported  as  of  a  gigantic  stature.  The  Huaves  pre 
sent  a  different  appearance  from  any  of  the  other  natives 
of  the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec.  They  are  generally  well- 
made,  and  of  strong  constitutions.  The  natives  of  Ta 
basco  who  dwell  in  the  country  bordering  on  the  river  of 
that  name,  are  of  medium  height,  and  with  well-devel 
oped  limbs.  Both  men  and  women  have  round  flat 
faces,  low  foreheads,  small  eyes,  flattish  noses,  thick  lips, 
small  but  quite  full  mouths,  \vhite  teeth,  and  tawny 
complexions.  The  Ahualulcos  are  rather  under  the 
middle  height,  but  of  great  physical  strength.  They 
have  a  low  narrow  forehead,  salient  cheek-bones,  full 
lips,  white  teeth,  small  beard,  and  coarse  hair.  Their 
features  are  aquiline,  and  the  expression  of  their  coun 
tenance  is  melancholy,  one  of  gentleness  blended  with 
sternness.  They  strongly  resemble  the  descendants  of 
the  Aztecs  of  Mexico.  The  women  are  more  delicately 
made,  and  some  beautiful  ones  are  seen  among  them. 
They  move  quickly  and  with  much  natural  grace.35 

The  descendants  of  the  Mayas  are  of  medium  size, 
with  good  limbs,  large  faces  and  mouth,  the  upper  lip 
slightly  arched,  and  a  marked  tendency  to  stoutness; 
the  nose  is  somewhat  flat,  eyes  sleepy-looking  and  hair 
black  and  glossy,  which  rarely  turns  gray ;  complexion 
of  a  copper  color,  and  in  some  instances  yellowish.  Nat 
urally  strong,  the  Maya  or  Yucatec  can  carry  heavy 
loads  long  distances,  and  perform  a  great  deal  of  hard 
labor  without  showing  signs  of  fatigue.  An  old  Spanish 

35  Barnard's  Tehuantepec,  pp.  220,  224,  227;  Moro,  in  Garay,  Reconodmiento, 
pp.  89-94;  Miilihnpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  i.,  p.  215;  Macgregor's  Progress  of 
America,  pp.  848,  850:  Hermesdorf,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxii.,  p. 
543;  Charnay,  Ruines  Americaines,  pp.  287,  500-i;  Hutchings'  Cal.  Mag.,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  394.  Zapoteos  'bien  tallados,'  Mijes  'Arrogantes,  altiuos  de  condi- 
cion,  y  cuerpo, '  Miztecs  '  linda  tez  en  el  rostro,  y  buena  disposicion  en  el 
talle.'  Burgoa,  Geog.  Descrip.,  torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  fol.  202,  271,  354,  401,  torn,  i., 
pt  ii.,  p.  134.  'Tehuantepec  women:  Jet-black  hair,  silky  and  luxuriant,  en 
frames  their  light-brown  faces,  on  which,  in  youth,  a  warm  blush  on  the 
cheek  heightens  the  lustre  of  their  dark  eyes,  with  long' horizontal  lashes 
and  sharply-marked  eyebrows.'  Tempsky's  Mitla,  p.  '269.  The  Soques, 
'short,  with  large  chests  and  powerful  muscles. ..  .Both  men  and  w<  men 
have  very  repulsive  countenances.'  Shu/eldt's  Explor.  Tehuantepec,  p.  126. 


648  WILD  TRIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

writer  mentions  that  they  were  generally  bow-legged, 
and  many  of  them  squint-eyed.  The  same  author  says 
they  had  good  faces,  were  not  very  dark,  did  not  wear  a 
beard,  and  were  long-lived.  The  women  are  plump,  and 
generally  speaking  not  ugly.36 

Yery  scanty  was  the  dress  of  the  dwellers  on  Tehuan- 
tepec  isthmus.  In  Oajaca  and  Chiapas,  the  men  wore 
a  piece  of  deer  or  other  skin  fastened  round  the  waist, 
arid  hanging  down  in  front,  and  the  women  wore  aprons 
of  maguey-fibre.  Montanus  in  describing  the  Mijes  says 
they  were  quite  naked,  but  that  some  wore  round  the 
waist  a  white  deer-skin  dressed  with  human  hearts.  The 
Lacandones,  when  going  to  wrar,  wore  on  their  shoulders 
the  skin  of  a  tiger,  lion,  or  deer.  The  Quelenes  wrapped 
round  their  head  a  colored  cloth,  in  the  manner  of  a 
turban,  or  garland  of  flowers.  At  present,  the  usual 
dress  of  the  Zapotecs  is  a  pair  of  wide  Mexican  drawers, 
and  short  jacket  of  cotton,  with  a  broad-brimmed  hat, 
made  of  felt  or  straw — yet  the  Huaves  and  many  of  the 
poorer  class,  still  wear  nothing  but  a  breech-cloth.  The 
costume  of  the  women  is  simple,  and  not  without  ele 
gance.  That  of  the  Miztecs,  Zapotecs,  and  others  dwell 
ing  in  the  city  of  Tehuantepec  is  a  skirt  made  of  cotton, 
—sometimes  of  wool — that  reaches  nearly  to  the  ankles, 
prettily  and  often  elaborately  worked  in  various  designs 
and  colors.  The  upper  part  of  the  body  is  covered 
with  a  kind  of  chemisette,  with  short  sleeves  called  the 
liuipil,  of  fine  texture,  and  adorned  with  lace  and  gold 
or  silk  threads.  On  the  head  is  a  white  cotton  cover 
ing,  made  like  a  narrow  sack  or  sleeve,  which  is  drawn 
on  and  hangs  down  over  the  back.  In  Tabasco,  the 
dress  of  the  men  differs  little  from  that  of  the  people 
of  Tehuantepec;  the  Tabascan  women  wear  a  cotton 
petticoat  or  a  few  yards  of  calico  wrapped  round  the 
waist,  and  reaching  below  the  knees.  Over  the  petti- 

36  'Es  gente  la  de  Yucatan  de  buenos  cuerpos,  bien  hechos,  y  rezios'. . . . 
The  women  '  bien  hechas,  y  no  feas. . .  .no  son  blancas,  sino  de  color  bacjo.' 
Herrera,  Hist.  Gen,,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  iii.,  cap.  iv.  See  further:  Dam-pier's  Voy- 
af/es,  vol.  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p.  115;  Morclet,  Voyage,  torn,  i.,  p.  148;  Montanus,  Nieuwe 
Weereld,  p.  258;  Dapper,  Neue  Welt,  p.  291;  Tylor's  Anahuac,  p.  16. 


DBESS  IN  OAJACA  AND  YUCATAN.  649 

cbat  they  wear  a  frock  with  sleeves  to  the  wrist,  leaving 
the  bosom  and  neck  exposed.  Children  and  boys  go 
naked ;  indeed,  whenever  clothing  to  any  extent  is  found 
in  this  region,  we  may  be  sure  that  the  foreign  trader 
is  at  the  bottom  of  it.37 

Both  sexes  usually  wear  the  hair  long,  parting  it  in 
the  middle,  and  either  permit  it  to  hang  in  loose  tresses 
over  the  shoulders,  or,  binding  it  with  gay  colored  rib 
bons,  loop  it  up  on  the  back  of  the  head,  where  it  is 
fastened  with  a  large  comb.  On  festive  occasions  they 
interweave  flowers  with  the  hair,  and  also  mingle  with 
it  a  species  of  shining  beetle,  called  cucutto,  which  emits 
a  phosphorescent  light,  and  produces  a  very  pretty  effect. 
Among  the  Zoques  who  reside  at  San  Miguel  and  Santa 
Maria  Chimalapa,  the  males  shave  the  crown  of  the 
head,  a  custom  of  possible  monkish  origin  peculiar  to 
themselves.  Feather  tufts  and  skins  of  green  birds 
were  formerly  much  used  for  ornaments;  they  had  also 
necklaces  made  of  pieces  of  gold  joined  together,  and 
amber  beads.  Nose  and  ears  were  pierced,  and  pieces 
of  stone  or  amber  or  gold  rings  or  a  bit  of  carved  wood 
inserted.  Montanus  describes  a  kind  of  snake  called 
ibobaca,  which  he  says  the  inhabitants  of  Chiapas  wore 
round  the  neck.38  They  also  painted  and  stained  the 
face.  When  Fernandez  de  Cordova  explored  the  north 
ern  coast  of  Yucatan,  he  found  the  people  clad  in  cotton 
garments,  and  at  the  present  day  this  forms  the  princi 
pal  material  from  which  their  clothing  is  made.  Men 
now  wear  a  cotton  shirt  or  blouse,  usually  without 
sleeves,  and  wide  drawers;  round  the  waist  is  tied  a 

37  Burgoa,  Geog.  Descrip.,  torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  fol.  285;   Montanus,  Nieuwe  Wee- 
reld,  p.  255;  Dapper,  Neue  Welt,  p.  288;  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Voy.  de  Te- 
huantepec,  p.  194;  Falacios,  in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia.  p.  106;  Leon,  in  Id., 
p.  162;  Museo  Hex.  torn,  ii.,  p.  555.     '  Muchachos  ya  mayorcillos.     Todos 

desnudos  en  carries,  conio  nacierou  de  sus  madres Tras  ellos  venian 

inuchos  Indies  mayores,  casi  tan  desnudos  como  sus  hijos,  con  muchos  sar- 
tales  de  flores  . .   en  la  cabeza,  rebuxada  una  toca  de  colores,  como  tocado 
de  Armenio.'  Remesal,  Hist.  Chyapa,  p.  292. 

38  '  With  their  hair  ty'd  up  in  a  Knot  behind,  they  think  themselves  ex- 
tream  fine.'  Dampier's  Voyages,  vol.  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p.  114.    '  Muy  empenachados 
y  pintados.'  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.ii.,  lib.  iv.,  cap.  xi.;  Barnard's  Tehuante* 
pec,  pp.  221-2,  226. 


650  WILD  TKIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

white  or  colored  sash;  for  protection  from  the  sun,  a 
straw  hat  is  worn,  or  perhaps  a  piece  of  colored  calico, 
and  their  sandals  are  made  from  deer-skin.  Instead  of 
drawers,  they  used  to  wear  a  broad  cotton  band  passed 
round  the  loins,  the  ends  of  which  were  arranged  to 
hang  one  in  front  and  the  other  behind ;  a  cloak  or  man 
tle  of  cotton  called  zugen  was  thrown  over  the  shoulders. 
Colonel  Galindo  mentions  that  they  used  the  bark 
of  the  India-rubber  tree  for  making  garments,  and  Co- 
golludo  says  that  when  the  Spaniards  arrived  at  Ake,  in 
the  year  1527,  the  army  of  natives  were  in  a  state  of 
nudity,  with  only  their  privy  parts  covered,  and  the 
whole  body  besmeared  with  clay  of  different  colors.  The 
women  display  considerable  taste  in  the  style  of  their 
garments ;  over  a  petticoat,  which  reaches  to  their  ankles, 
and  prettily  bordered  at  the  bottom,  they  have  a  dress 
with  sleeves  down  to  the  elbow;  the  skirt  is  open  at  the 
sides,  and  does  not  fall  as  low  as  the  petticoat,  so  that 
the  border  of  the  latter  may  be  seen,  the  bosom  of  the 
dress  is  open,  and  on  each  side  of  the  breast  and  round 
the  neck  it  is  embroidered  with  coarse  silk,  as  in  Tehuan- 
tepec;  the  huipil  (Aztec,  vipitti)  is  also  worn.  In  country 
places  women  wear  the  petticoat  alone,  using  the  overskirt 
or  huipil  only  on  special  occasions.  When  out  of  doors, 
they  cover  the  head  and  part  of  the  face  with  a  piece  of 
cotton  cloth.39  All  permit  the  hair  to  attain  to  its  full 
length ;  the  men  plait  theirs  and  wind  it  round  the  head, 
leaving  a  short  end  to  hang  down  behind,  while  that  of 
the  women  hangs  in  dark  masses  over  their  shoulders, 
or  is  neatly  bound  up  behind  and  decorated  with  flowers 
or  feathers.  Herrera  states  that  it  was  customary  to 
scorch  the  faces  of  young  children  to  prevent  the  growth 

39  '  Their  apparell  was  of  Cotton  in  manifold  fashions  and  colours.'  Pur- 
chas'  His  PUgrimes,  vol.  v.,  p.  885.  The  Maya  woman's  dress  'se  reduce  al 
hipil  que  cubre  la  parte  superior  del  cuerpo,  y  al  fustan  6  enagua,  de  manta  de 
algodon.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geograf-ia,  p.  158.  Of  the  men  'un  calzoncillo 
ancho  y  largo  hasta  media  pierna,  y  tal  vez  hasta  cerca  del  tobillo,  de  la 
misma  manta,  un  cenidor  bianco  6  de  colores,  un  panuelo,  y  un  sombrero 
de  paja,  y  a  veces  una  alpargata  de  suela,  con  sus  cordones  de  mecate.' 
Registro  Yuvateco,  torn,  i.,  pp.  177-8.  See  further:  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  p. 
267;  Galindo,  in  Lond.Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  59;  Wilson's  Amer.  Hist., 
pp.  88,  114;  Morelet,  Voyage,  torn,  i.,  pp.  147,  179. 


ZAPOTEC  BUILDINGS.  651 

of  their  beards,  and  the  men  allowed  the  hair  to  grow 
down  over  the  eyebrows,  making  their  heads  and  fore 
heads  flat  on  purpose.  They  pierced  nose  and  ears, 
ornamenting  them  with  rings  set  with  pearls  and  bits 
of  amber,  and  wore  collars  and  bracelets  of  gold.  Some 
among  them  filed  their  teeth.  They  painted  the  face 
and  all  exposed  parts  of  the  body  in  many  colors,  using 
white  or  yellow  with  black  and  red,  covering  themselves 
from  the  waist  upward  with  a  variety  of  designs  and 
figures.  When  going  to  battle  paint  was  much  used,  in 
order  to  render  their  appearance  more  formidable ;  men 
tattooed  on  the  chest,  and  the  women  mixed  liquid  amber 
with  their  pigments,  which,  when  rubbed  over  the  body, 
emitted  a  perfume.40 

The  better  class  of  Zapotecs  of  the  present  day  build 
their  houses  in  a  substantial  manner  of  adobes ;  the  com 
mon  people  construct  a  more  simple  dwelling  with 
branches  arranged  in  a  double  row,  and  the  space  be 
tween  filled  in  with  earth;  they  also  make  them  of 
wattled  cane-work  plastered  with  clay.  Such  dwellings 
are  cool  and  proof  against  the  frequent  earthquakes  that 
occur  in  their  territory.  Roofs  are  thatched  with  pal 
metto-leaves  without  opening,  nor  are  there  any  windows 
in  the  walls.  The  interior  is  divided  into  several  com 
partments,  according  to  size  and  necessity.41  The  Mijes 
thatch  their  houses  with  bundles  of  coarse  straw.  The 
Chinantecs,  Chochos,  and  Chontales  originally  built  no 
houses,  but  sought  out  the  most  shady  forests,  where 
they  dwelt,  or  they  located  themselves  in  ravines  and 

40  '  Tons  portaient  les  cheveux  longs,  et  les  Espagnols  ont  eu  beaucoup  de 
peine  a  les  leur  faire  couper;  la  chevelure  longue  est  encore  aujourd'hui  le 
signe  distinctif  des  Indiens  insoumis.'   Waldeck,  Voy.   Pitt.,  p.  40.     'Las 
caras  de  bianco,  negro,  y  Colorado  pintadas,  que  llaman  embijarse,  y  cierto 
parecen  demonios  pintados.'  Cogolludo,  Hist,   de  Yucathan,  p.  6.     Compare 
above  with  Ternaux-Compans,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  desVoy.,  1843,  torn,  xcvii., 
p.  50;  Helps'  Span.  Cong.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  262. 

41  '  The  buildings  of  the  lower  class  are  thatched  with  palm-leaves,  and 
form  but  one  piece,  without  window  or  chimney.'  Hermesdorf,  in  Lond. 
Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxii.,  p.  544.     '  Cubrense  las  casas  de  vna  cuchilla 
que  los  Indies  hazen  de  pajas  muy  espessas  y  bien  assentad'as,  que  llaman  en 
esta  tierra  jacales.'  Ddvila  Padilla,  Hist.  Fvnd.  Mex.,    p.   549.     See  also: 
Museo  Mex.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  554;  Barnard's  Tehuantepec,  pp.  221,  225,  with  cut; 
Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  p.  252:  Burgoa,  Geog.  D( scrip.,  torn,  i.,  pt  ii.,  fol.  197. 


652  WILD  TRIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

rocky  parts,  living  in  caverns  or  holes  under  the  rocks ; 
the  Tzendales  of  Chiapas  had  many  towns  and  painted 
their  houses;  the  Ahualulcos  lived  together  in  commu 
nities,  and  had  commodious,  well-built  houses  of  inter 
woven  cane,  plastered  on  the  inside  with  mud,  the  roof 
thatched  with  palmetto.42 

From  the  earliest  times  of  which  we  have  any  record, 
the  natives  of  Oajaca  and  the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec 
cultivated  corn  and  vegetables,  and  likewise  followed 
the  chase ;  those  who  dwelt  on  the  borders  of  the  sea  or 
lakes  applied  themselves  to  fishing.  The  Zapotecs  now 
raise  wheat,  and  build  mills.  It  is  asserted  by  an  old 
Spanish  chronicler  that  this  nation  exceeded  all  others 
in  eating  and  drinking.  As  early  as  1690,  they  gath 
ered  crops  of  maguey,  maize,  Spanish  peas,  chile, 
potatoes,  and  pumpkins,  and  bred  swine  and  poultry. 
Of  late  they  cultivate  rice,  sugar-cane,  and  other  trop 
ical  productions,  as  also  do  the  inhabitants  of  Tehuante 
pec.  Primitive  agriculture  has  undergone  but  little 
alteration ;  deer  are  caught  by  means  of  traps  and  nets. 
The  Miztecs,  Mijes,  and  Cuicatecs  have  from  the  earliest 
times  been  cultivators  of  the  soil.  The  Mijes  make  a 
coarse  or  impure  sugar  from  sugar-cane ;  their  corn-fields 
are  often  many  miles  distant  from  their  dwellings.  The 
Huaves,  the  greater  portion  of  whom  are  on  the  borders 
of  the  lagoons  on  the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  live  mostly 
on  the  proceeds  of  their  fisheries,  although  they  raise  a 
small  supply  of  grain  and  fruit.  Their  fishing  is  almost 
exclusively  done  with  sweep-nets  in  shallow  waters,  and 
during  one  month  of  the  year  they  catch  large  schools  of 
shrimps  in  traps.  The  Zoques  produce  the  small  quan 
tity  of  corn  that  they  need,  some  achote,  many  very 
fine  oranges,  and  tobacco.  They  are  fond  of  iguanas  and 
their  eggs,  and  of  parrots,  killing  the  latter  with  stones. 
The  Chontales  of  Tabasco  and  Tehuantepec  use  maize 

42  The  Chochos  and  Chontales  '  no  tenian  Pueblo  fundado,  si  no  cobachu- 
elas  estrechas  en  lo  rnas  escondido  de  los  monies.'  Burgoa,  Geog.  Descry?., 
torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  fol.  336.  The  Chinantecs  lived  'en  rancherias  entre  bar 
rancas,  y  espessuras  de  arboles.'  Burgoa,  Palestra,  Hist.,  pti.,  fol.  102;  Char- 
nay,  Ruines  Americaines,  p.  438. 


PREPARATION  OF  FOOD.  653 

and  cocoa  as  food.  They  eat  flesh  only  upon  great  relig 
ious  festivals,  marriages,  or  other  celebrations,  but  are  fond 
of  fish.  In  olden  times  they  were  cannibals,  and  An 
tonio  de  Herrera,  the  chief  chronicler  of  the  Indies,  ac 
cused  also  the  natives  of  Chiapas  of  being  eaters  of  human 
flesh.  Since  the  conquest  the  natives  have  lived  mostly 
on  corn  and  other  vegetable  productions,  cultivated  by 
themselves.  A  large  portion  of  the  Mayas  and  of  the 
other  aborigines  of  Yucatan  are  to-day  engaged  in  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil,  they  also  breed  such  domestic  ani 
mals  as  they  need  for  themselves.  They  are  very  simple 
and  frugal  in  their  eating/3  All  the  natives  of  this  sec 
tion  of  the  Mexican  republic  grind  their  maize  in  the 
same  manner ;  after  first  soaking  it  in  lye  or  in  lime  and 
water,  it  is  bruised  on  the  metate,  or  rubbing-stone, 
being  wet  occasionally,  until  it  becomes  a  soft  paste. 
\Yith  this  they  make  their  tortillas  and  other  compounds, 
both  to  eat  and  drink.  To  make  tortillas  the  maize  paste 
is  shaped  into  thin  cakes  with  the  palms  of  the  hands  and 
cooked  upon  a  flat  clay  pan.  The  totoposte  is  a  smaller 
cake  used  for  journeys  in  lieu  of  the  tortillas.  The  dif 
ference  between  them  is  in  the  manner  of  preparation ; 
the  totopostes  are  cooked  one  side  only  and  laid  near  the 
fire  which  makes  them  crisp,  and  require  to  be  moistened 
in  order  to  render  them  eatable.  Tamales  are  a  favorite 
dish  and  are  made  of  pork,  game,  or  poultry.  The  meat 
is  cut  up  in  small  pieces  and  washed ;  a  small  quantity  of 
the  maize  paste  seasoned  with  cinnamon,  saffron,  cloves, 
pimento,  tomatoes,  coarse  pepper,  salt,  red  coloring  mat 
ter,  and  some  lard  added  to  it,  is  placed  on  the  fire  in  a 
pan  and  as  soon  as  it  has  acquired  the  consistency  of  a 
thick  gruel,  it  is  removed,  mixed  with  the  meat,  some 


Jour.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  59. 


654  WILD  TRIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

more  lard  and  salt  added,  and  the  mass  kneaded  for  a  few 
moments.  It  is  then  divided  into  small  portions,  which 
are  enveloped  in  a  thin  paste  of  maize.  The  tamales 
thus  prepared  are  covered  with  a  banana-leaf  or  corn- 
husk  and  placed  in  a  pot  or  pan  over  which  large  leaves 
are  laid.  They  are  allowed  to  boil  from  one  hour  and  a 
half  to  two  hours.  The  posole  is  a  nourishing  drink 
made  of  sour  maize  paste  mixed  with  water ;  sometimes 
they  add  a  little  honey  to  it.  They  also  prepare  a  drink 
by  parching  corn  and  grinding  it  to  powder  on  the  nic 
tate,  and  mixing  it  with  water  and  a  little  achote.  This 
last  drink  they  prefer  to  the  posole,  for  long  journeys.44 

The  natives  of  Tehuantepec  and  especially  those  who 
reside  in  the  Goazacoalco  district  are  neat  and  clean  in 
regard  to  their  personal  habits.  They  observe  the  custom 
of  bathing  daily.  In  their  ablutions  they  make  use  of  a 
plant  called  chintuk  the  root  of  which  they  mix  with 
water,  thereby  imparting  to  their  bodies  a  strong  aroma 
tic  odor.  The  same  plant  is  used  when  they  wash  their 
clothes,  the  scent  from  which  remains  on  them  for  some 
time.  A  pleasing  feature  in  the  appearance  of  these 
people  is  the  spotless  whiteness  of  their  cotton  dresses 
and  the  care  they  bestow  on  their  luxuriant  hair. 

The  other  tribes  who  inhabit  this  isthmus  as  well  as 
those  of  Chiapas  are  not  so  clean  in  their  persons,  and 
as  a  consequence  are  much  infested  with  vermin  which 
the  women  have  a  disgusting  habit  of  eating  when  picked 
from  the  heads  of  their  children.  The  Mayas  make  fre 
quent  use  of  cold  water,  but  this  practice  appears  to  be 
more  for  pleasure  than  for  cleansing  purposes,  as  neither 
in  their  persons  nor  in  their  dwellings  do  they  present 
an  appearance  of  cleanliness.45 

44  Tabasco:  '  Comen  a  sus  horas  concertadas,  carnes  de  vaca,  puerco,  y 
aues,  y  beue  vna  beuida  nmy  sana,  hecha  de  cacao,  mayz,  y  especia  de  la 
tierra,  la  qual  Daman  Zocolate.'  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iii.,  lib.  vii.,  cap. 
iii.  Tortillas,  '  When  they  are  baked  brown,  they  are  called  "  totoposti, ' '  and 
taste  like  parched  corn.'  Shufeldt's  Explor.  Tehuantepec,  p.  125.  The  Chon- 
tales,  '  su  alimento  frecuente  es  el  posole  . .  .rara  vez  comen  la  carne  deres.' 
Orozco  y  Berra,  Geoyrafia,  p.  161-2;  Dampier's  Voyages,  vol.  ii.,  pt  ii.,  pp. 
112-14;  Hermesdorf,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxii.,  pp.  543-4. 

4:>  Sr  Moro,  speaking  of  the  chintule,  says:  '  Una  infusion  de  estas  raices 
comunica  su  fragancia  al  agua  que  los  tehuantepecanos  emplean  como  un 


WEAPONS  AND  WAR.  655 

The  weapons  of  the  Southern  Mexicans  were  in  most 
respects  similar  to  those  used  by  the  Central  Mexicans, 
namely,  Sows  and  arrows,  macanas,  and  lances,  the  latter 
of  great  length  and  very  strong.  In  Tabasco  they  carried 
turtle-shell  shields  highly  polished  so  as  to  reflect  the 
sun;  they  also  had  flint  stones  for  lances  and  arrow- 
points,  but  sometimes  wreapon-points  were  made  from 
strong  thorns  and  fish-bones.  The  hard  wooden  sword 
of  the  Maya  was  a  heavy  and  formidable  wreapon,  and 
required  the  use  of  both  hands  to  wield  it  ;  the  edge  was 
grooved  for  the  purpose  of  inserting  the  sharp  flint  with 
which  it  was  armed.  Slings  were  commonly  used  by 
all  these  nations.  In  addition  to  shields  the  Mayas  had 
for  defensive  armor  garments  of  thickly  quilted  cotton 
called  escaupiles,  which  covered  the  body  down  to  the 
lower  part  of  the  thigh,  and  were  considered  impervious 
to  arrows.  The  flint  knife  of  former  days  has  now  been 
replaced  by  the  machete  which  serves  the  purpose  of 
both  cutlass  and  chopping-  knife,  and  without  it  no  native 
ever  goes  into  the  woods.*6 

When  the  Spaniards  first  arrived  at  Tabasco,  they 
encountered  a  people  well-skilled  in  the  art  of  war,  with 
a  fair  knowledge  of  military  tactics,  who  defended  their 
country  with  much  bravery;  their  towns  and  villages 
were  well  fortified  with  intrenchments  or  palisades,  and 
strong  towers  and  forts  were  built  on  such  places  as  pre 
sented  the  most  favorable  position  for  resisting  attacks. 

objeto  de  lujo  sumamente  apreciado,  tanto  para  labar  la  ropa  de  uso,  como 
para  las  abluciones  personales.'  Moro,  in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geoqrafia,  p.  180. 
'  Toutes  les  parties  de  leur  vetemeut  sont  toujours  iiouvellement  blanchies. 
Les  femmes  se  baignent  au  moins  une  fois  par  jour.'  Fossey,  Mexique,  p.  24. 
At  Chiapas,  '  Tons  ces  Indiens,  mis  on  eu  chemise,  repandaientdans  1'atmos- 
phere  une  odeur  sui  generis  qui  soulevait  le  coeur.'  Charnay,  Ruines  Ameri- 
caines,  p.  457.  The  women  are  '  not  very  clean  in  their  habits,  eating  the 
insects  from  the  bushy  heads  of  their  children.'  Hermesdorf,  in  Lond.  Geog. 
Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxii.,  p.  543.  '  No  son  nmy  limpias  en  sus  personas,  ni  en 
sus  casas,  conquanto  se  laban.'  Herr  era,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  x.,  cap. 
iv.  ;  Morelet,  Voyage,  torn,  i.,  p.  148. 

46  <  Peleauan  con  lan^as,  armadas  las  puntas  con  espinas  y  huessos  muy 
agudos  de  pescados.'  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  ii.,  lib.  iv.,  cap.  xi.  '  Usaban 
de  lanzas  de 


desmesurado  tamaiio  para  combatir.'  Orozco  y  Berra, 
p.  187.  See  also:  Oimdo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn.  iii.,p.  461;  Bunion,  Geog.  Descrip., 
torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  fol.  336;  Cpcjolhido,  Hist,  de  Yucathan,  pp.  5-6,  11,  77;  Navar- 
rete,  Col.  -de  Viages,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  58-59;  Morelet,  Voyage,  torn,  i.,  p,  179. 


656  WILD  TRIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

To  their  forts  they  retired  when  invaded  by  a  superior 
force,  and  from  the  walls  they  hurled  large  rocks  with 
damaging  effect  against  their  foes.  Cortes  found  erected 
on  the  bank  of  the  Tabasco  River,  in  front  of  one  of 
their  towns,  a  strong  wooden  stockade,  with  loopholes 
through  which  to  discharge  arrows;  and  subsequently, 
during  his  march  through  their  country,  they  frequently 
set  fire  to  their  villages,  with  the  object  of  harassing  his 
troops.  When  advancing  to  battle  they  maintained  a 
regular  formation,  and  they  are  described  as  having  met 
Francisco  Montejo  in  good  order,  drawn  up  in  three  col 
umns,  the  centre  under  the  command  of  their  chief, 
accompanied  by  their  chief  priest.  The  combatants 
rushed  forward  to  the  attack  with  loud  shouts,  cheered 
on  by  the  blowing  of  horns  and  beating  of  small  drums 
called  tunJcules.  Prisoners  taken  in  battle  were  sacrificed 
to  their  gods.47 

The  furniture  of  their  houses  is  of  the  plainest  de 
scription,  and  limited  to  their  absolute  wants.  Their 
tables  or  benches  are  made  of  a  few  rough  boards,  and  a 
mat  called  petate,  spread  on  the  floor,  serves  for  a  bed, 
while  a  coarse  woolen  blanket  is  used  for  covering; 
some  few  have  small  cane  bedsteads.  The  natives  of 
Tabasco  and  Yucatan  more  commonly  have  a  network 
hamaca  or  hammock,  suspended  from  two  posts  or  trees. 
Their  cooking-utensils  consist  of  the  metate,  pots  made 
of  earthenware,  and  gourds.  The  universal  machete 
carried  by  man  and  boy  serves  many  purposes,  such  as 
chopping  firewood,  killing  animals,  eating,  and  building- 
houses.  Burgoa  describes  nets  of  a  peculiar  make  used 
by  the  Zapotecs  for  catching  game ;  in  the  knots  of  the 
net  were  fixed  the  claws  of  lions,  tigers,  bears,  and  other 

47  '  Tienen  enfrente  deste  Pueblo  vn  cerro  altissimo,  con  vna  punta  que 
descuella  soberviamente,  casi  eutre  la  Kegion  de  las  nubes,  y  coronase  con 
vna  muy  dilatada  muralla  de  lossas  de  mas  de  vii  estado  de  alto,  y  quentaii 
de  las  pinturas  de  sus  characteres  historiales,  que  se  retiraban  alii,  para  de- 
f endorse  de  sus  enemigos.'  Burgoa,  Geog.  Descrip.,  torn,  i.,  pt  ii.,  fol.  167. 
'  Comenqaron  luego  a  tocar  las  bozinas,  pitos,  trompetillas,  y  atabalejos  de 
gente  de  guerra.'  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  ii.,  lib.  ii.,  cap.  xvii.,  and  lib.  iv., 
cap.  xi.  Also  see  Cogolludo,  Hist,  de  Yucathan,  pp.  5,  77-8;  Navarrete.  Col. 
de  Viages,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  60-3;  Helps'  Span.  Conq.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  263.  • 


OAJACAN  MANUFACTURES.  657 

wild  beasts  of  prey,  and  at  intervals  were  fastened  a  cer 
tain  number  of  small  stones;  the  object  of  such  con 
struction  being  probably  to  wound  or  disable  the  animal 
when  caught.48 

The  Zapotecs,  Miztecs,  Mayas,  and  others,  since  the 
conquest,  have  long  been  justly  celebrated  for  the  manu 
facture  of  cotton  stuffs,  a  fact  that  is  all  the  more 
surprising  when  we  consider  the  very  imperfect  imple 
ments  they  possessed  with  which  to  perform  the  work. 
Burgoa  speaks  of  the  excellence  and  rich  quality  of  their 
manufactures  in  cotton,  silk,  and  gold  thread,  in  1670, 
and  Thomas  Gage,  writing  about  the  same  time,  says 
"it  is  rare  to  see  what  works  those  Indian  women  will 
make  in  silk,  such  as  might  serve  for  patterns  and  sam 
plers  to  many  Schoolmistresses  in  England."  All  the 
spinning  and  weaving  is  done  by  the  women  ;  the  cot 
ton  clothes  they  make  are  often  interwoven  with  beau 
tiful  patterns  or  figures  of  birds  and  animals,  sometimes 
with  gold  and  silk  thread.  A  species  of  the  agave 
americana  is  extensively  cultivated  through  the  country, 
from  the  fibres  of  which  the  natives  spin  a  very  strong 
thread  that  is  used  chiefly  for  making  hammocks;  the 
fibre  is  bleached  and  then  dyed  in  different  rich  tints. 
The  materials  they  have  for  dyeing  are  so  good  that 
the  colors  never  fade.  The  Zapotecs  have  also  an  in 
timate  knowledge  of  the  process  of  tanning  skins, 
which  they  use  for  several  domestic  purposes.49 

48  Dampier's  Voyages,  vol.  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p.  115;  Burgoa,  Palestra  Hist.,  pt  i., 
fol.  110;  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Voy.  Tehuantepec,  p.  196;  Charnay,  Ruines 
Americaines,  p.  454.     '  Sobre  vna  estera  si  la  tiene,   que  son  muy  pocos  los 
que  duermen  en  alto,  en  tapescos  de  caiia.  .  .  .ollas,  o  hornillos  de  tierra.  .  .  . 
casolones,  6  xicaras.'  Burgoa,  Geog.  Dsscrip.,  torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  fol.  294,  393. 

49  '  Los  zoques  cultivan.  .  .  .dos  plantas  pertenecientes  a  la  familia  de  las 
bromelias,  de  las  curies  sacan  el  ixtle  y  la  pita  cuyas  hebras  saben  blanquear, 
hilar  y  te.iir  de  varies  colores.     Sus  hilados  y  las  hamacas  que  tejen  con 
estas  m.iterias,  constituyen  la  parte  principal  de  su  industria  y  de  su  comer- 
cio  '  .  .  .  .The  Zapotecs,   '  los  tejidos  de  seda  silvestre  y  de  algodou  que  labran 
las  mugeres,  soiiverdaderamente  admirables.'  Moro,  in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geo- 
grafta,  pp.  170,  180.    Of  the  Miztecs  it  is  said  that   '  las  mugeres  se  han  dado 
a  texer  con  primor  panos,  y  huepiles,  assi  de  algodon  como  de  seda,  y  hilo 
de  oro,  muy  costosos.'  Burgoa,  Geog.  Descrip.,  torn,  i.,  pt  ii.j  fol.  143,  and 

' 


torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  fol.  400.     Further  reference  in  Barnard's  Tehuantepec,  pp. 

.,  p.  459;  Hutching.?'  Col.  Mag.,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  394;  Wappaus,  Geog.  u.  Stat.,  p.  163;  Waldeck,  Voy.  Pitt.,  p.  40;  Gage's 


226-7;  ChUton,  in  Hakluyt's  Voy.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  459;  Hutching.?'  Col.  Mag. 


New  Survey,  p.  236;  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  i.,  pp.  198,  209. 
VOL.  I.    42 


658  WILD  TKIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

Notwithstanding  their  proximity  to  the  sea-coast, 
and  although  their  country  is  in  many  parts  intersected 
by  rivers  and  lagoons,  they  have  a  surprisingly  slight 
knowledge  of  navigation,  few  having  any  vessels  with 
which  to  venture  into  deep  water.  The  inhabitants 
of  Tabasco,  the  Yucatan  coast,  and  Cozumel  island 
possess  some  canoes  made  from  the  single  trunk  of  a 
mahogany-tree,  which  they  navigate  with  small  lateen 
sails  and  paddles.  The  H naves  and  others  are  in 
complete  ignorance  of  the  management  of  any  descrip 
tion  of  boats.50 

The  Zoques  make  from  the  ixtle  and  pita  thread 
and  superior  hammocks,  in  which  they  have  quite  a 
trade.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Santa  Maria  they  grow 
excellent  oranges,  and  sell  them  throughout  all  the 
neighboring  towns.  The  Zapotecs  have,  many  of  them, 
a  considerable  commerce  in  fruits,  vegetables,  and  seeds. 
In  the  city  of  Tehuantepec  the  business  of  buying  and 
selling  is  conducted  exclusively  by  women  in  the  mar 
ket-place.  The  Ahualulcos  are  chiefly  employed  in 
cutting  planks  and  beams,  with  which  they  supply 
many  places  on  this  isthmus;  they  also  trade  to  some 
extent  in  seeds  and  cotton  cloths.  Different  kinds  of 
earthenware  vessels  for  domestic  purposes  are  made  by 
the  natives  of  Chiapas,  and  by  them  exchanged  for 
salt,  hatchets,  and  glass  ornaments.  The  Mayas  have 
an  extensive  business  in  logwood,  which,  besides  maize 
and  poultry,  they  transport  to  several  places  along  the 
coast.  Mr  Stephens  describes  a  small  community  of 
the  Maya  nation,  numbering  about  a  hundred  men 
with  their  families,  living  at  a  place  called  Schawill, 
who  hold  and  work  their  lands  in  common.  The 

50  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  ii.,  lib.  iii.,  cap.  ii.,  lib.  iv.,  eap.xi.,  Cor/olludo, 
Hist,  de  Yucathan,  p.  2;  Morelet,  Voyage,  torn,  i.,  pp.  179,  214;  Shufddt's 
Explor.  Tehuantepec,  p.  123.  '  Their  canoes  are  formed  out  of  the  trunk  of 
a  single  mahogany  or  cedar  tree.'  .Dale's  Notes,  p.  24.  When  Grijalva  was 
at  Cozumel  'vino  una  canoa.'  Navarrde,  Col.  de  Viages,  torn,  iii.,  p.  56. 
The  Huaves  '  no  poseyendo  embarcaciones  propias  para  arriesgarse  en  aguas 
de  algun  fondo,  y  desconociendo  hasta  el  uso  de  los  remos,  no  frecuentan 
mas  quo  los  puntos  que  por  su  poca  profundidad  no  ofrecen  mayor  peligro.' 
Moro,  in  Uaray,  Reconocimiento,  p.  90. 


ZAPOTEC  GOVERNMENT.  659 

products  of  the  soil  are  shared  equally  by  all,  and  the 
food  for  the  whole  settlement  is  prepared  at  one  hut. 
Each  family  contributes  its  quota  of  provisions,  which, 
when  cooked,  are  carried  off  smoking  hot  to  their  several 
dwellings.  Many  of  the  natives  of  Tabasco  earn  a 
livelihood  by  keeping  bee-hives;  the  bees  are  captured 
wild  in  the  woods,  and  domesticated.  The  Huaves  breed 
cattle  and  tan  hides;  cheese  and  tasajo,  or  jerked  meat, 
are  prepared  and  exported  by  them  and  other  tribes  on 
the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec.  At  the  present  day  cochi 
neal  is  cultivated  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  forms 
an  important  article  of  commerce  among  the  inhabi 
tants.  A  rather  remarkable  propensity  to  the  possession 
of  large  numbers  of  mules  is  peculiar  to  the  Mijes;  such 
property  in  no  way  benefits  them,  as  they  make  no  use 
of  them  as  beasts  of  burden;  indeed,  their  owners  seem 
to  prefer  carrying  the  loads  on  their  own  backs.51 

Formerly  the  Zapotecs  were  governed  by  a  king, 
under  whom  were  caciques  or  governors  who  ruled  over 
certain  districts.  Their  rank  and  power  descended  by 
inheritance,  but  they  were  obliged  to  pay  tribute  to  the 
king,  from  whom  they  held  their  authority  in  fief.  At 
the  time  of  the  conquest  the  most  powerful  among  them 
was  the  Lord  of  Cuicatlan ;  for  the  service  of  his  house 
hold,  ten  servants  \vere  furnished  daily,  and  he  was 
treated  with  the  greatest  respect  and  homage.  In  later 
years  a  cacique  was  elected  annually  by  the  people,  and 
under  him  officers  were  appointed  for  the  different  vil 
lages.  Once  a  week  these  sub-officers  assembled  to  con 
sult  with  and  receive  instructions  from  the  cacique  on 
matters  relating  to  the  laws  and  regulations  of  their  dis 
tricts.  In  the  towns  of  the  Miztecs  a  municipal  form  of 
government  was  established.  Certain  officials,  elected 
annually,  appointed  the  work  which  was  to  be  done  by 
the  people,  and  every  morning  at  sunrise  the  town-criers 

51  Jl/IB's  Hist.  Mex.,  p.  158;  Palacios,  in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Qeograft'a,  p.  166; 
Herme.sdorf,  in  Land.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxii.,  p.  547;  JBrasseur  de 
Bourbourg,'  Voy.  Tehuantepec,  p.  108;  Hutchlngs'  Cal.  Mag.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  394; 
Macgregor's  Progress  of  America,  vol.  i.,  p.  849;  Moro,  in  Garay,  Reconoci- 
miento,  p.  93;  Stephens'  Yucatan,  vol.  ii.,  p.  14. 


660  WILD  TRIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

from  the  tops  of  the  highest  houses  called  the  inhabi 
tants  to  their  allotted  tasks.  It  was  also  the  duty  of 
the  town-criers  to  inflict  the  punishment  imposed  on  all 
who  from  laziness  or  other  neglect  failed  to  perform 
their  share  of  work.  A  somewhat  similar  system  ap 
pears  to  have  prevailed  in  Chiapas,  where  the  people 
lived  under  a  species  of  republican  government.52  The 
Mayas  were  at  one  time  governed  by  a  king  who  reigned 
supreme  over  the  whole  of  Yucatan.  Internal  dissen 
sions  and  wars,  however,  caused  their  country  to  be 
divided  up  into  several  provinces,  which  were  ruled  over 
by  lords  or  petty  kings,  who  held  complete  sway,  each 
in  his  own  territory,  owing  allegiance  to  none,  and 
recognizing  no  authority  outside  of  their  own  juris 
diction.  These  lords  appointed  captains  of  towns,  who 
had  to  perform  their  duties  subject  to  their  lord's  ap 
proval.  Disputes  arising,  the  captains  named  umpires 
to  determine  differences,  whose  decisions  were  final. 
These  people  had  also  a  code  of  criminal  laws,  and 
when  capital  punishment  was  ordered,  public  execution 
ers  carried  the  sentence  into  effect.  The  crime  of  adul 
tery  in  the  man  was  punishable  by  death,  but  the  injured 
party  could  claim  the  right  to  have  the  adulterer  de 
livered  to  him,  and  he  could  kill  or  pardon  him  at 
pleasure;  disgrace  was  the  punishment  of  the  woman. 
The  rape  of  a  virgin  was  punished  by  stoning  the  man 
to  death.53 

52  'Les  seigneurs  de  Cuicatlan  etaient,  au  temps  de  la  conquete  tres-riches 
et  tres-puissants,  et  leurs  descendants  en  ligne  directe,  decores  encore  du  titre 
de  caciques.'  Fossey,  Mexique,   pp.  338-9.    At  Etla  '  Herren  des  Ortes  waren 
Caziken,  welche  ilin  als  eine  Art  von  Mannlehen  besassen,  und  dem  Konige 
einen  gewissen  Tribut  bezahlen  mussten. '  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt 
i.,  p.  188.     The  Miztecs  'tenian  senalados  como  pregoneros,  officiates  que 
elegian  por  ano,  para  que  todas  las  maiianas  al  despuntar  el  Sol,  subidos  en  lo 
mas  alto  de  la  casa  de  su  Kepublica,  con  grandes  vozes,  llamasen,  y  exitasen 
a  todos,   diziendo  salid,   salid  a  trabajar,  a  trabajar,  y  con  rigor  executive 
castigaban  al  que  faltaba  de  su  tarea.'  Burgoa,  Geog.  Descrip.,  torn,  i.,  pt  ii., 
fol.  151,  also  llerrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  x.,  cap.  xi. 

53  <  Estava  sujeta  a  diuersos  Senores,_  que  como  Reyezuelos  dominaban 
diuersos  territories. . .  .pero  antes  auia  sido  toda  sujeta  a  vn  Senior,  y  Key 
Supremo,  y  asi  gouernada  con  gouierno  Monarquico.'  Cogolludo,  Hist,  de  Yu- 
cathan,  p.  60.     '  En  cada  pueblo  tenian  senalados  Capitanes  a  quienes  obede- 
cian.'  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  x.,  cap.  ii-iv.     For  old  customs  and 
new,  compare  above  with  Morelet,  Voyage,  torn,  i.,  p.  168,  and  Hassel,  Hex. 
Guat.,  p.  267. 


SLAVERY  AND  MARRIAGE.  661 

Slavery  existed  among  the  tribes  of  Goazacoalco  and 
Tabasco.  Dona  Marina  was  one  of  twenty  female  slaves 
who  were  presented  to  Cortes  by  the  cacique  of  the  lat 
ter  place;  and  when  her  mother,  who  lived  in  the 
province  of  Goazacoalco,  gave  her  away  to  some  travel 
ing  merchants,  she,  to  conceal  the  act,  pretended  that 
the  corpse  of  one  of  her  slaves  who  died  at  that  time 
was  that  of  her  own  daughter.54 

Among  the  Zapotecs  and  other  nations  who  inhabit 
the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  marriages  are  contracted 
at  a  very  early  age;  it  happens  not  unfrequently  that 
a  youth  of  fourteen  marries  a  girl  of  eleven  or  twelve. 
Polygamy  is  not  permissible,  and  gentleness,  affection, 
and  frugality  characterize  the  marital  relations.  Cer 
tain  superstitious  ceremonies  formerly  attended  the  birth 
of  children  which,  to  a  modified  extent,  exist  at  the 
present  day.  When  a  woman  was  about  to  be  con 
fined,  the  relatives  assembled  in  the  hut,  and  com 
menced  to  draw  on  the  floor  figures  of  different  animals, 
rubbing  each  one  out  as  soon  as  it  was  completed. 
This  operation  continued  till  the  moment  of  birth,  and 
the  figure  that  then  remained  sketched  upon  the  ground 
was  called  the  child's  tona  or  second  self.  When  the 
child  grew  old  enough,  he  procured  the  animal  that 
represented  him  and  took  care  of  it,  as  it  was  believed 
that  health  and  existence  were  bound  up  with  that  of 
the  animals,  in  fact,  that  the  death  of  both  would  occur 
simultaneously.  Soon  after  the  child  was  born,  the 
parents,  accompanied  by  friends  and  relatives,  carried 
it  to  the  nearest  water,  where  it  was  immersed,  while 
at  the  same  time  they  invoked  the  inhabitants  of  the 
water  to  extend  their  protection  to  the  child ;  in  like 
manner  they  afterwards  prayed  for  the  favor  of  the 
animals  of  the  land.  It  is  a  noticeable  trait,  much  to 
the  credit  of  the  parents,  that  their  children  render  to 
them  as  well  as  to  all  aged  people  the  greatest  respect 
and  obedience.  That  the  women  are  strictly  moral  can- 


female 


5*  '  With  other  presents  which  they  brought  to  the  conqueror  were  twenty 
lale  slaves.'  Helps'  Span.  Conq.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  264. 


662  WILD  TRIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

not  be  asserted.  Yoluptuous,  with  minds  untrained,  and 
their  number  being  greatly  in  excess  of  the  men,  it  is 
not  surprising  that  travelers  have  noted  an  absence  of 
chastity  among  these  women;  yet  few  cases  of  conjugal 
infidelity  occur,  and  chastity  is  highly  esteemed.  Ille 
gitimate  children  are  not  common,  partly  the  result,  per 
haps,  of  early  marriages.55  Among  the  Quelenes,  when 
a  contract  of  marriage  was  made,  the  friends  and  rela 
tives  collected  at  the  assembly-house  common  to  every 
village.  The  bride  and  bridegroom  were  then  introduced 
by  the  parents,  and  in  the  presence  of  the  cacique  and 
priest  confessed  all  the  sins  of  which  they  were  guilty. 
The  bridegroom  was  obliged  to  state  whether  he  had  had 
connection  with  the  bride  or  with  other  women,  and 
she,  on  her  part,  made  a  full  confession  of  all  her  short 
comings;  this  ended,  the  parents  produced  the  presents, 
which  consisted  of  wearing-apparel  and  jewelry,  in  which 
they  proceeded  to  array  them ;  they  were  then  lifted  up 
and  placed  upon  the  shoulders  of  two  old  men  and 
women,  who  carried  them  to  their  future  home,  where 
they  laid  them  on  a  bed,  locked  them  in,  and  there  left 
them  securely  married.56  Among  the  Mayas  early  mar 
riage  was  a  duty  imposed  by  the  Spanish  Fathers,  and 
if  a  boy  or  girl  at  the  age  of  twelve  or  fourteen  had  not 
chosen  a  mate,  the  priest  selected  one  of  equal  rank  or 

55  'Vbo  en  esta  juridicion  grandes  errores,  y  ritos  con  las  paridas,  y 
ninos  recien  nacidos,  lleuandolos  a  los  rios,  y  sumergiendolos  en  el  agua,  ha- 
zian  deprecacion  a  todos  los  animales  aquatiles,  y  luego  a  los  de  tierra  le 
fueran  fauorables,  y  no  le  ofendieran.'  Burgoa,  Geog.  Descrip.,  torn,  ii.,  pt 
ii.,  fol.  329.  '  Conservase  entre  ellos  la  creencia  de  que  su  vida  esta 
unida  a  la  de  un  animal,  y  que  es  forzoso  que  mueran  ellos  cuando  este  mu- 
ere.'  Musco  Mex.,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  554-5.  'Between  husband  and  wife  cases  of 

infidelity  are  rare To  the  credit  of  the  Indians  be  it  also  said,  that  their 

progeny  is  legitimate,  and  that  the  vows  of  marriage  are  as  faithfully  cher 
ished  as  in  the  most  enlightened  and  favored  lands.  Youthful  marriages  are 
nevertheless  of  frequent  occurrence.'  Barnard's  Tehuantepec,  p.  222.  Women 
of  the  Japateco  race :  '  their  manners  in  regard  to  morals  are  most  blame- 
able.'  Hermesdorf,  in  Land.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxii.,  p.  543.  Moro, 
referring  to  the  women  of  Jaltipan,  says:  'Son  de  costumbres  sumamente 
libres:  suele  decirse  ademas  que  los  jaltipanos  no  soL>  no  las  celan,  sino  que 


Capul,  que 

para  hazer  casamientos,  el  Cazique,  el  Papa,  los  desposados,  los  parientes: 
estando  sentados  el  senor,  y  el  Papa,  llegauan  los  contrayentes,  y  el  Papa  les 
amonestaua  qne  dixessen  las  cosas  que  auian  hecho  hasta  aquella  hora.' 
Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  x.,  cap.  xi. 


WEDDINGS  AND  FATHERS-IN-LAW.  663 

fortune  and  obliged  them  to  marry.  The  usual  presents 
were  dresses;  and  a  banquet  was  prepared,  of  which  all 
present  partook.  During  the  feast  the  parents  of  the 
parties  addressed  them  in  speeches  applicable  to  the 
occasion,  and  afterwards  the  house  was  perfumed  by  the 
priest,  who  then  blessed  the  company  and  the  ceremony 
ended.  Previous  to  the  wedding-day  the  parents  fasted 
during  three  days.  The  young  man  built  a  house  in 
front  of  that  of  his  father-in-law,  in  which  he  lived 
with  his  wife  during  the  first  years  of  his  servitude,  for 
he  was  obliged  to  work  for  his  father-in-law  four  or  five 
years.  If  he  failed  to  perform  faithful  service,  his 
father-in-law  dismissed  him,  and  gave  his  daughter  to 
another.  Widowers  were  exempt  from  this  servitude, 
and  could  choose  whom  they  pleased  for  a  wife  without 
the  interference  of  relatives.  It  was  forbidden  a  man 
to  marry  a  woman  of  the  same  name  as  his  father. 
They  married  but  one  wife,  though  the  lords  were  per 
mitted  to  make  concubines  of  their  slaves.  Mr  Stephens, 
in  his  description  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  village  of 
Schawill,  says:  "Every  member  must  marry  within  the 
rancho,  and  no  such  thing  as  a  marriage  out  of  it  had 
ever  occurred.  They  said  it  was  impossible;  it  could 
not  happen.  They  were  in  the  habit  of  going  to  the 
villages  to  attend  the  festivals;  and  when  we  suggested 
a  supposable  case  of  a  young  man  or  woman  falling  in 
love  with  some  village  Indian,  they  said  it  might  hap 
pen  ;  there  was  no  law  against  it ;  but  none  could  marry 
out  of  the  rancho.  This  was  a  thing  so  little  appre 
hended,  that  the  punishment  for  it  was  not  defined  in 
their  penal  code;  but  being  questioned,  after  some  con 
sultations,  they  said  that  the  offender,  whether  man  or 
womnn  would  be  expelled.  We  remarked  that  in  their 
small  community  constant  intermarriages  must  make 
them  all  relatives,  which  they  said  was  the  case  since 
the  reduction  of  their  numbers  by  the  cholera.  They 
were  in  fact  all  kinsfolk,  but  it  was  allowable  for  kins 
folk  to  marry,  except  in  the  relationship  of  brothers  and 
sisters." 


664  WILD  TRIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

In  divisions  of  property  women  could  not  inherit; 
in  default  of  direct  male  heirs  the  estate  went  to  the 
brothers  or  nearest  male  relatives.  When  the  heir 
was  a  minor,  one  of  his  male  relatives  was  appointed 
guardian,  until  the  days  of  his  minority  should  have 
passed,  when  the  property  was  delivered  up  to  him. 
The  Southern  Mexicans  were  particular  to  keep  a  strict 
chronology  of  their  lineage.  Young  children  underwent 
a  kind  of  baptismal  ceremony.  The  Mayas  believed 
that  ablution  washed  away  all  evil ;  and  previous  to  the 
ceremony  the  parents  fasted  three  days,  and  they  were 
particular  to  select  for  it  what  they  considered  a  lucky 
day.  The  age  at  which  the  rite  was  performed  was  be 
tween  three  and  twelve  years,  and  no  one  could  marry 
until  he  had  been  baptized.  Habits  of  industry  as  well 
as  respect  for  parents  and  aged  people  was  strongly  im 
pressed  upon  the  minds  of  the  children.57 

The  Southern  Mexicans  are  fond  of  singing  and 
dancing,  though  there  is  not  much  variety  either  in 
their  melancholy  music  or  monotonous  dances.  Their 
favorite  instrument  is  the  marimba,  composed  of  pieces 
of  hard  wood  of  different  lengths  stretched  across  a  hol- 
lowed-out  canoe-shaped  case.  The  pieces  of  wood  or 
keys  are  played  upon  with  two  short  sticks,  one  held  in 
each  hand.  The  sound  produced  is  soft  and  pleasing, 
and  not  unlike  that  of  a  piano.  Another  instrument  is 
the  tunhul  or  drum,  made  of  a  hollow  log  with  sheep 
skin  stretched  over  the  end ;  it  is  struck  with  the  fingers 
of  the  right  hand,  the  performer  holding  it  under  his 
left  arm.  Their  movements  during  their  dances  are 
slow  and  graceful.  The  men  are  addicted  to  intoxica 
tion  at  their  feasts,  the  liquor  in  common  use  among 
them  being  mescal  and  aguardiente,  a  colorless  spirit 
made  from  the  sugar-cane.  Many  of  the  natives  have 
a  small  still  in  their  houses.58 

w  Dampier's  Voyages,  vol.  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p.  114;  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iv., 
lib.  x.,  cap.  iv. ;  Ternaux-Compans,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1843,  torn, 
xcvii.,  p.  50;  Stephens'  Yucatan,  vol.,  ii.,  pp.  15-16;  Lad,  Novus  Orbis,  p. 
272;  Dice.  Univ.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  256;  Baeza,  in  Registro  Yucateco,  torn,  i.,  p. 
166. 

58  '  Their  amusements  are  scarcely  worthy  of  note. . .  .their  liveliest  songs 


CUSTOMS  IN  OAJACA.  665 

The  Zapotecs  are  exceedingly  polite  to  one  another  in 
their  common  salutations,  calling  each  other  brother,  and 
to  the  descendants  of  their  ancient  caciques  or  lords  the 
utmost  reverence  is  paid.  It  is  related  by  a  Mexican 
writer  that  in  a  village  not  distant  from  the  city  of 
Oajaca,  whenever  an  aged  man,  the  son  of  one  of  their 
ancient  lords  was  seen  by  the  natives  out  walking,  with 
a  majesty  that  well  became  his  fine  form,  position,  and 
age,  they  uncovered  their  heads,  kissed  his  hands,  which 
he  held  out  to  them,  with  much  tenderness,  calling  him 
daade  (father),  and  remained  uncovered  until  he  was 
lost  to  sight.  They  are  a  theocratic  people,  much  ad 
dicted  to  their  ancient  religious  belief  and  customs. 
Those  who  live  in  the  vicinity  of  Mitla  entertain  a 
peculiar  superstition ;  they  will  run  to  the  farthest  vil 
lages  and  pick  up  even  the  smallest  stones  that  formed  a 
part  of  the  mosaic  work  of  that  famous  ruin,  believing 
that  such  stones  will  in  their  hands  turn  into  gold. 
Some  of  them  hold  the  belief  that  anyone  who  discovers 
a  buried  or  hidden  treasure  has  no  right  to  appropriate 
to  his  own  use  any  portion  of  it,  and  that  if  he  does, 
death  will  strike  him  down  within  the  year,  in  punish 
ment  of  the  sacrilege  committed  against  the  spirit  of  the 
person  who  hid  or  buried  the  treasure.  One  of  the  first 
priests  that  lived  among  the  Zapotecs  says  that  after 
they  had  entered  the  pale  of  the  church,  they  still  clung 
to  their  old  religious  practices,  and  made  offerings  of 
aromatic  gums,  and  living  animals ;  and  that  when  the 
occasion  demanded  a  greater  solemnity,  the  officiating 
priest  drew  blood  from  the  under  part  of  his  tongue, 
and  from  the  back  part  of  his  ears,  with  which  he 
sprinkled  some  thick  coarse  straw,  held  as  sacred  and 
used  at  the  sacrifices.  To  warm  themselves,  the  Cho- 
chos,  or  Chuchones,  of  Oajaca  used,  in  cold  weather, 

are  sad.  and  their  merriest  music  melancholy.'  Barnard's  Tehuantepec,  p. 
222.  '  Afectos  a  las  bebidas  embriagantes,  couocen  dos  particulares,  el  cho- 
rote,  y  el  balche  6  guarapo,  compuesto  de  agua,  cana  de  azucar,  palo-guarapo 
y  maiz  quemado.'  Orozco  y  tierra,  Geogmfia,  p.  162.  See  also:  Fossey, 
Mexique,  pp.  343,  364;  Dampier's  Voyages,  vol.  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p.  115;  Stephens1 
Yucatan,  vol.  i.,  pp.  144-5;  Charnay,  Ruines  Americaines,  pp.  496-7. 


6GG  WILD  TEIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

towards  the  evening,  to  burn  logs  and  dry  leaves  close  to 
the  entrance  of  their  caves,  and  blow  the  smoke  into 
their  dwellings,  which  being  quite  full,  all  the  family,  old 
and  young,  males  and  females,  rushed  in  naked  and 
closed  the  entrance.  The  natives  of  Goazacoalco  and 
other  -places  practiced  some  of  the  Jewish  rites,  includ 
ing  a  kind  of  circumcision,  which  custom  they  claimed 
to  have  derived  from  their  forefathers;  hence  have 
arisen  innumerable  analogies  to  prove  the  Jewish  origin 
of  these  peoples.  The  Huaves  still  preserve  ancient 
customs  at  their  feasts.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that 
although  nearly  all  these  people  are  fishermen,  very  few 
of  them  can  swim.  The  Mijes  have  a  habit  of  speaking 
in  very  loud  tones ;  this  is  attributed  by  some  to  their 
haughty  spirit,  and  by  others  to  their  manner  of  life  in 
the  most  rugged  portion  of  the  mountains.  When  bound 
upon  a  journey,  if  they  have  no  other  load  to  carry, 
they  fill  their  tonates,  or  nets,  with  stones.  This  is  gen 
erally  done  by  them  on  the  return  home  from  the  mar 
ket-place  of  Tehuantepec.  These  loads  rest  upon  their 
backs,  and  hang  by  a  band  from  their  foreheads.  In 
ancient  times,  when  they  were  in  search  of  a  new  coun 
try  to  settle  in,  they  subjected  the  places  they  had 
devastated  to  the  fire  proof.  This  was  done  by  putting 
a  firebrand  over  night  into  a  hole,  and  if  it  was  found 
extinguished  in  the  morning,  they  considered  that  the 
Sun  desired  his  children  (that  is  themselves)  to  continue 
their  journey.  They  are  much  given,  even  at  the  pres 
ent  time,  to  idolatrous  practices,  and  will  make  sacrifices, 
on  the  Roman  Catholic  altar,  of  birds  as  offerings  to  the 
false  gods  they  worshiped  before  their  partial  conver 
sion  to  Christianity.  The  natives  attribute  eclipses  of 
the  moon  to  an  attempt  by  the  sun  to  destroy  their  sat 
ellite,  and  to  prevent  the  catastrophe  make  a  frightful 
uproar,  employing  therefor  everything  they  can  get  hold 
of.59 

59  '  Provinciae  Guazacualco  atque  Ylutse  nee  non  et  Cueztxatlae  indiginse, 
multas  ceremonias  ludoeorum  usurpabant,  iiam  et  circurncidebantur,  more  a 
majoribus  (ut  ferebant)  accepto,  quod  alibi  in  hi^ce  regionibus  ab  Hispanis 


DISEASES  AND  MEDICAL  TBEATMENT.  667 

The  diseases  most  prevalent  among  the  Southern 
Mexicans  are  fevers,  measles,  and  severe  colds.  All 
these  people  possess  an  excellent  knowledge  of  medicinal 
herbs,  and  make  use  of  them  in  cases  of  pains  and  sick 
ness.  They  still  practice  some  of  their  mysterious  cere 
monies,  and  are  inclined  to  attribute  all  complaints  to 
the  evil  influence  of  bewitchments.  Father  Baeza,  in 
the  Registro  Yucateco,  says  they  consulted  a  crystal  or 
transparent  stone  called  zalzun,  by  which  they  pretended 
to  divine  the  origin  and  cause  of  any  sickness.  When 
suffering  with  fever  or  other  disorders,  the  disease  is 
often  much  aggravated  and  death  caused  by  injudicious 
bathing  in  the  rivers.  In  ancient  times  tobacco  was 
much  used  as  a  specific  against  pains  arising  from  colds, 
rheumatism,  and  asthma;  the  natives  found  that  it 
soothed  the  nerves  and  acted  as  a  narcotic.  They  also 
practiced  bleeding  with  a  sharp  flint  or  fish-bone.  The 
Zapotecs  attempted  cures  by  means  of  a  blow-pipe,  at 
the  same  time  invoking  the  assistance  of  the  gods.60 

When  a  death  occurs  the  body  is  wrapped  in  a  cotton 
cloth,  leaving  the  head  and  face  uncovered,  and  in  this 
condition  is  placed  in  a  grave.  Very  few  of  the  ancient 
funeral  usages  remain  at  the  present  day,  though  some 
traces  of  superstitious  ceremonies  may  still  be  observed 
among  them;  such  as  placing  food  in  the  grave,  or  at 
different  spots  in  its  immediate  vicinity.  Sometimes  a 
funeral  is  conducted  with  a  certain  degree  of  pomp,  and 
the  corpse  carried  to  its  last  resting-place  followed  by 

hactenus  non  fuit  observatum.'    Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  261.    'They appear 
to  regard  with   horror  and  avoid  with  superstitious  fear  all  those  places 
reputed  to  contain  remains  or  evidences  of  their  former  religion.'  Shufddt's 
Explor.  Tehuantepec,  p.  125.     See  further:  Museo  Mex.,  torn,  ii.,   pp.  551-5 
Charnay,  Ruines  Americaines,  pp.  265,  286;  Burgoa,  Geog.  Descrip.,   torn.  ii. 
pt  ii.,  fol.  281-2,  290,  313,    332,  335-6,  397;  Id.,   Palestra  Hist.,   fol.   110 
Moro,  in  Garay,  Reconocimiento,  pp.  90,  93;  Dice.  Univ.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  257. 

60  Burgoa,  Geog.  Descrip.,  torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  fol.  329;  Baeza,  in  Registro  Yuca- 
teco,  torn,  i.,  p.  168;  Morelet,  Voyage,  torn,  i.,  p.  313;  Hermesdorf,  in  Lond. 
Geog.  Soc.t  Jour.,  vol.  xxxii.,  p.  543.  '  Ay  en  esta  tierra  mucha  diuersidad 
de  yeruas  medicinales,  con  que  se  curan  los  naturales.'  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen., 
dec.  iii.,  lib.  vii.,  cap.  iii.  The  Maya  '  sabe  las  virtudes  de  todas  las 
plantas  como  si  hubiese  estudiado  botanica,  conoce  los  venenos,  los  antido- 
tos,  y  no  se  lo  ocultan  los  calmantes.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  pp.  158, 
162,  178. 


668  WILD  TRIBES  OF  MEXICO. 

horn-blowers,  and  tunkul-drummers.  As  in  the  case  of 
the  central  Mexicans,  a  memorial  day  is  observed,  when 
much  respect  is  shown  for  the  memory  of  the  dead,  at 
which  times  fruits,  bread,  and  cakes  are  placed  upon  the 
graves.61 

The  character  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Tehuantepec 
isthmus  and  Yucatan  is  at  the  present  day  one  of 
docility  and  mildness.  With  a  few  exceptions  they  are 
kind-hearted,  confiding,  and  generous,  and  some  few  of 
them  evince  a  high  degree  of  intelligence,  although  the 
majority  are  ignorant,  superstitious,  of  loose  morality  as 
we  esteem  it,  yet  apparently  unconscious  of  wrong. 
Cayetano  Moro  says  they  are  far  superior  to  the  average 
American  Indian.  The  Zapotecs  are  a  bold  and  inde 
pendent  people,  exhibit  many  intellectual  qualities,  and 
are  of  an  impatient  disposition,  though  cheerful,  gentle, 
and  inoffensive;  they  make  good  soldiers;  they  are 
fanatical  and  superstitious  like  their  neighbors.  The 
women  are  full  of  vivacity,  of  temperate  and  industri 
ous  habits,  their  manners  are  characterized  by  shyness 
rather  than  modesty,  and  they  are  full  of  intrigue.  To 
this  nation  the  Mijes  present  a  complete  contrast;  of  all 
the  tribes  who  inhabit  the  isthmus,  they  are  the  most 
brutal,  degraded,  and  idolatrous;  they  are  grossly  stu 
pid,  yet  stubborn  and  ferocious.  The  Chontales  and 
Choles  are  barbarous,  fierce,  and  quarrelsome,  and  greatly 
addicted  to  witchcraft.  The  Cajonos  and  Nexitzas,  of 
Oajaca,  are  of  a  covetous  and  malicious  nature,  dishon 
est  in  their  dealings,  and  much  inclined  to  thieving.  The 
Zoques  are  more  rational  in  their  behavior;  although 
they  are  ignorant  and  intemperate  in  their  habits, 
they  are  naturally  kind  and  obliging,  as  well  as  patient 
and  enduring.  The  Huaves  are  deficient  in  intelli 
gence,  arrogant  and  inhospitable  to  strangers,  and  of  a 
reticent  and  perverse  disposition.  The  Miztecs  are 

61  Ternaux-Compans,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1843,  torn,  xcvii.,  p. 
51;  Museo  Mex.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  554.  'En  Tamiltepec,  los  indios  usan  de  cere- 
monias  snpersticiosas  en  sus  sepulturas.  Se  lesve  hacer  en  los  cementerios 
pequefios  montones  de  tierra,  en  los  que  mezclan  viveres  cada  vez  que  en- 
tierran  alguno  de  ellos.'  Berlandier  y  Thovel,  Diario,  p.  231. 


CHARACTER  OF  SOUTHERN  MEXICANS.  669 

grave  and  steady;  they  exhibit  many  traits  of  inge 
nuity,  are  industrious,  hospitable,  and  affable  in  their 
manners,  and  retain  an  ardent  love  for  liberty.62  The 
Mayas  exhibit  many  distinguished  characteristics.  Al 
though  of  limited  intelligence,  and  more  governed  by 
their  senses  than  their  reason,  their  good  qualities 
predominate.  Formerly  they  were  fierce  and  warlike, 
but  these  characteristics  have  given  place  to  timidity, 
and  they  now  appear  patient,  generous,  and  humane; 
they  are  frugal  and  satisfied  with  little,  being  remark 
ably  free  from  avarice.  Herrera  describes  them  as 
fierce  and  warlike,  much  given  to  drunkenness  and  other 
sins,  but  generous  and  hospitable.  Doctor  Young,  in 
his  History  of  Mexico,  says:  "They  are  not  so  intel 
ligent  or  energetic,  though  far  more  virtuous  and  hu 
mane  than  their  brethren  of  the  north."  The  women 
are  industrious,  have  pleasing  manners,  and  are  inclined 
to  shyness.  To  sum  it  all  up,  I  may  say  that  the 
besetting  vice  of  these  nations  is  intemperance,  but  the 
habit  of  drinking  to  excess  is  found  to  be  much  more 
common  among  the  mountain  tribes  than  among  the 
inhabitants  of  the  lowlands.  Quarrels  among  them 
selves  seldom  occur,  and  there  is  abundant  evidence 
to  show  that  many  of  them  possess  excellent  natural 
qualifications  both  for  common  labor,  and  artistic  indus 
try  ;  and  that  there  is  no  cause  to  prevent  their  becoming, 
under  favorable  circumstances,  useful  citizens.63 

62  The  Miztecs  c  siempre  de  mayor  reputacion,  y  mas  polfticos.'    Zapo- 
tecs  '  naturalmente  apazibles,  limpios,  lucidos,  y  liberates.'  Nexitzas  'astutos, 
maliciosos,  inclinados  a  robos,  y  desacatos,  con  otros  Cerranos  supersticiosos, 
acostumbrados  a  aleuosias,  y  hechizeros.'  Burgoa,  Geog.  Descrip.,  torn,  i., 
pt  ii.,  fol.  151,  torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  fol.  202,  312,  also  fol.  204,  211,  228,  271,  282, 
294.  335,  400.     Choles,   'nacion. . .  .feroz,  guerrera  e  independiente.'  Balbi, 
in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografla,  p.  167.     '  Siendo  los  Indies  Mixes  de  natural 
feroz,  barbaro,  yduro,  quequieren  sertratados  con  aspereza,  y  rigor.'  Ddvila, 
Teatro  Edes.,  torn,  i.,  p.  224.    See  further:  Burgoa,  Palestra  Hist.,  pt  i.,  fol. 
101;  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  pp.  161-2,  186-7;  Torres,  in  Id.,  p.  179;  Mu- 
seo  Mex.,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  554-5;  Ternpsky's  Mitla,  p.  269;  Hermesdorf,  in  Lond. 
Geog.   Soc.,   Jour.,   vol.   xxxii.,    p.    543;  Barnard's  Tehuantepec,  pp.  220-7; 
Charnay,  Ruines  Americaines,  pp.  258-9,  287;  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii., 
p.  439;  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn.  ii. ,  pt  i.,  p.  200;  Dampier's  Voyages,  vol. 
ii.,  pt  ii.,  pp.  li5-16;  Ldvila  Padilla,  Hist.  Fvnd.  Mex.,  p.  294;  Laet,  Novus 
Orbis,  p.  325. 

63  '  Es  el  indio  yucateco  un  monstruoso  conjunto  de  religion  e  impiedad, 
de  virtudes  y  vicios,  de  sagacidad  y  estupidez. . .  .tiene  ideas  exactas  precisas 


670  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

de  lo  bneno  y  de  lo  malo.  .  .  .Es  incapaz  de  robar  nn  peso,  y  roba  cuatro 
veces  dos  reales  ...  Siendo  honrado  en  casi  todas  sus  acciones  .  .  .  se  puede 
decir  que  el  unico  vicio  que  le  domina  es  el  de  la  embriaguez.'  Registro 


Yuc.ateco,  torn,  i.,  pp.  291-3;  Baeza,  in  Id.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  166-8,  174;  Morelet, 

,  i.,  p.  14 
Hist.  Mex.,  p.  158;  Moro,  in  Garay,  Reconocimiento,  pp.  89-94;  Mutter,  Reisen, 


Voyage,  torn,  i.,  p.  148;  Herrera,  Hist.,  Gen.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  x.,  cap.iv.;  Mill's 
Hist.  Mex.,  p.  15 
torn,  ii.,  p.  371. 


TRIBAL    BOUNDARIES. 

Under  the  name  WILD  TRIBES  OF  MEXICO,  I  include  all  thp  people 
inhabiting  the  Mexican  Territory  from  ocean  to  ocean,  between  latitude  23° 
north  and  the  Central  American  boundary  line  south,  including  Yucatan  and 
Tehuantepec.  The  southernmost  point  of  this  division  touches  the  fifteenth 
degree  of  north  latitude.  A  subdivision  of  this  group  is  made  and  the  parts 
are  called  the  Central  Mexicans,  and  the  Southern  Mexicans,  respectively.  In 
the  former  I  include  the  nations  north  of  an  imaginary  line,  drawn  from  the 
port  of  Acapulco,  on  the  Pacific  coast,  to  Vera  Cruz,  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
and  in  the  latter  all  those  south  of  this  line. 

Going  to  the  fountain-head  of  Mexican  history,  I  find  mentioned  certain 
names,  of  which  it  is  now  impossible  to  determine  whether  they  are  differ 
ent  names  applied  to  the  same  people  or  different  peoples,  or  whether  they 
are  mythical  and  apply  to  no  really  existing  nations.  Still  less  is  it  possible 
to  give  these  strange  names  any  definite  location;  instance  the  Toltecs  and 
the  Chichimecs,  and  indeed  almost  all  early  designations,  very  common 
names  used  to  denote  very  uncommon  people.  Sahagun  is  the  only  one  of 
the  oldest  writers  who  mentions  the  name  of  Toltecs,  which  in  later  years 
was  used  by  Ixtlilxochitl  and  Boturini,  and  after  them  bandied  about  more 
freely  by  modern  writers.  After  the  conquest,  the  name  Chichimecs  was 
applied  to  all  uncivilized  and  unsettled  people  north  of  the  valley  of  Mexico, 
extending  to  the  farthest  discovered  region.  Of  still  other  nations  nothing 
further  can  be  said  than  that  they  occupied  the  cities  to  which  their  name 
was  applied;  such  were  the  Mexicans,  or  Aztecs,  the  Tlascaltecs,  the  Cholul- 
tecs,  and  many  others.  Some  general  remarks  respecting  the  location  of  the 
principal  civilized  nations,  will  be  found  in  vol.  ii.,  chap,  ii.,  of  this  work; 
and  all  obtainable  details  concerning  the  many  tribes  that  cannot  be  defi 
nitely  located  here  are  given  in  volume  v. 

The  Quinames  or  Giants  are  mentioned  as  the  first  inhabitants  of  Mexico. 
'Los  Quinametin,  gigantes  que  vivian  en  esta  rinconada,  que  se  dice  ahora 
Nueva  Espana.'  Ixtiilxochitl,  Relaciones,  in  Kingsborough's  Mex.  Antiq.,  vol. 
ix.,  p.  322;  Id.,  Hist.  Chichimeca,  in  Id.,  p.  205.  'Los  que  hasta  agora  se 
sabe,  aver  morado  estas  Estendidas,  y  Ampliadisimas  Tierras.  y  Regiones, 
de  la  Nueva  Espana,  fueron  vnas  Gentes  mui  crecidas  de  Cuerpo,  que  llama- 
ron  despues  otros,  Quinametin.'  Torquemada,  Monarq.  Ind.,  torn,  i.,  p.  34. 
'Les  Quinames,  la  plus  ancienne  des  races  connues  de  ces  contrees,  etaient 
encore  en  possession  de  quelques  localites  de  peu  d  'importance  pres  des 
villes  de  Huitzilapan,  de  Cuetlaxcohuapan  et  deTotomihuacan.'  Brasseur  de 
Bourbourg,  Hist.  Nat.  Civ.,  torn,  i.,  p.  196.  '  Sa  domination  s'etendait 
sur  les  provinces  interieures  du  Mexique  et  du  Guatemala,  et,  a  1'epoque  du 


OLMECS  AND  XICALANCAS.  671 

debarquement  des  Olmeques  et  des  Xicalancas,  les  histoires  nous  la  mon- 
trent  encore  en  possession  du  plateau  azteque  et  des  contrees  voisines  du 
fleuve  Tabasco.'  Id.,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1858,  torn,  clviii.,  p.  258. 
'Vivian  hacia  las  riberas  del  rio  Atoyac,  entre  la  ciudad  de  Tlaxcala  y  la  de 
la  Puebla  de  los  Angeles.'  Veytia,  Hist.  Ant.  M?j.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  28,  143-4. 

The  Olmecs  and  Xicalancas  were  '  los  que  poseian  este  Nuevo  Mundo,  en 
esta  tercera  edad.'  Ixtlilxochitt,  Hist.  Chichimeca,  in  Kingsborough's  Mex. 
Antiq.,  vol.  ix.,  p.  205.  '  Olmecas,  Vixtoti,  y  Mixtecas.  Estos  tales  asf  llama- 
dos,  estan  acia  el  nacimiento  del  sol,  y  llamanles  tainbien  tenime,  porque 
hablan  1'engua  barbara,  y  dicen  que  son  Taltecas.'  Sahagun,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn, 
iii.,  lib.  x.,  p.  136.  '  Estos  poblaron,  donde  aora  esta  Edificada,  yPobladala 
Ciudad  de  los  Angeles,  y  en  Totomihuacan ....  Los  Xicalancas,  f  ueron  tarn- 
bien  Poblando,  acia  Cuathazualco  (que  es  acia  la  Costa  del  Norte)  y  adelante 
en-  la  misma  Costa,  esta  oi  dia  vn  Pueblo,  que  se  dice  Xicalanco ....  Otro 
Pueblo  ai  del  mismo  Nombre,  en  la  Proviucia  de  Maxcaltzinco,  cerca  del 
Puerto  de  la  Vera-Cruz,  que  parece  averlo  tambien  Poblado  los  Xicalancas.' 
Torquemada,  Monarq.  Ind.,  torn,  i.,  p.  32.  'Atravesando  los  Puertos  del  Bol- 
can,  y  Sierra-Nevada,  y  otros  rodeandolos  por  la  parte  de  el  Mediodia,  hasta 
que  venieroii  a  salir  a  vu  Lugar,  que  de  presente  se  llama  Tochmilco.  De 
alii,  pasaron  a  Atlixco,  Calpan,  y  Huexotziiico,  hasta  llegar  al  parage,  y  Tier- 
ras  de  la  Provincia  de  Tlaxcallan;  y  haciendo  asiento  en  el  principio,  y  en- 
trada  de  la  dicha  Tierra,  hicieron  su  Fundacion  en  el  Pueblo,  que  aora  se 
llama  Nuestra  Seuora  de  la  Natividad  (y  en  Lengua  Mexicana  Yancuictlal- 
pan.)  De  alii,  pasaron  a  otro  Poblado,  el  referido,  llamado  Huapalcalco, 
junto  a  vna  Hermita,  que  llaman  de  Santa  Cruz,  al  qual  llamau  los  Naturales, 
Texoloc,  Mizco,  y  Xiloxuchitla,  donde  aora  es  la  Hermita  de  San  Vicente,  y 
el  Cerro  de  la  Xochitecatl,  y  Tenayacac,  donde  estan  otras  dos  Hermitas, 
a  poco  trecho  vna  de  otra,  que  las  llaman  de  San  Miguel,  y  de  San  Fran 
cisco,  enmedio  de  las  quales,  pasa  el  Rio,  que  viene  de  la  Sierra  Nevada  de 
Huexotzinco.  Y  aqui  en  este  Sitio,  hicieron  los  Hulmecas,  su  Principal 
asiento,  y  Poblaqon.'  Id.,  p,  257;  Mendieta,  Hist.  Ecles.,  pp.  145-6;  Motolinia, 
Hist.  Indios,  in  Icazbalceta,  Col.  de  Doc.,  torn,  i.,  p.  7.  '  Vlinecatlh  poblo 
tambien  muchos  lugares  en  aquella  parte,  a  do  agora  esta  la  ciudad  de  los 
Angeles.  Y  nombro  los  Totomiuacan,  Vicilapan,  Cuetlaxcoapan,  y  otros 
assi.  Xicalancatlh  anduuo  mas  tierra,  llego  a  la  mar  del  norte,  y  en  la  costa 
hizo  muchos  pueblos.  Pero  a  los  dos  mas  priucipales  llamo  de  su  mesmo 
nombre.  El  vn  Xicalanco  esta  en  la  prouiiicia  de  Maxcalcinco,  que  es  cerca 
de  la  Vera  Cruz,  y  el  otro  Xicalanco  esta  cerca  de  Tauasco.'  Gomara, 
Conq.  Mex.,  fol.  299.  '  Hacia  Atlisco  y  Itzucan  los  xicalancas:  y  en  el  ter- 
ritorio  de  la  Puebla,  Chollolan  y  Tlaxcallan  los  ulmecas,  cuya  primitiva  y 
principal  poblaciou  dicen  haber  sido  la  ciudad  de  Chollolau.'  Veytia,  Hist. 
Ant.  Mej.,  torn,  i.,  p.  153;  Brasseur  de  JBourbourg,  Hist.  Nat.  Civ.,  torn, 
i.,  pp.  110-11,  196;  Id.,  PopolVuh,  introd.,  p.  xxx;  Orozco y  Berra,  Geografta, 
p.  119;  Alcedo,  Diccionario,  torn,  iii.,  p.  374. 

The  Coras  constitute  the  north-westernmost  nation  of  the  CENTRAL  MEXI 
CANS,  inhabiting  the  district  of  '  Nayarit  6  reino  de  Nuevo  Toledo . . . .  Al  Oeste 
tieue  los  pueblos  de  la  antigua  provincia  de  Acaponeta ;  al  Este  los  de  Colotlan, 


672  TKIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

y  al  Sur  quieren  algunos  que  se  extienda  hasta  las  orillas  del  rio  Grande  6 
Tololotlan  . .  .el  Nayarit  se  extiende  entre  los  21°  20'  y  23°  de  lat.,  y  entrelos 
5J  y  6°  de  long,  occidental  de  Mexico.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  279. 
'En  la  Sierra  del  Nayarit.'  Pimentel,  Cuadro,  torn,  ii.,  p.  71.  *  Los  indios 
que  viven  en  el  centre  de  la  sierra,  llamados  muutzizti  . . .  Los  llamados  tea- 
kuaeitzizti  viven  en  las  f  aldas  de  la  sierra  que  mira  al  Poniente ....  los  coras 
que  viven  a  la  orilla  del  rio  Nayarit  6  de  Jesus  Maria,  conocidos  por  Ateakari.' 
Id.,  p.  83. 

The  Tecoxines  '  tenian  su  principal  asiento  en  el  valle  de  Cactlan y  se 

extendian  a  la  Magdalena,  Analco,  Hoxtotipaquillo  y  barrancas  de  'Mochi- 
tiltic.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  279. 

The  Cocotlanes  were  at  the  missions  of  '  Apozolco  y  en  Comatlan.'  Id., 
p.  280. 

The  Maraveres  reside  in  Tlajomulco.  Alcedo,  Diccionario,  torn,  ii.,  p.  242. 

The  Thorames  and  Tzayaquecas  dwell  near  the  town  of  Zentipac.  '  Dos 
leguas  apartado  del  mar,  la  nacion  Thorama ....  diez  leguas  de  Zentipac  habia 
otros  Indios  de  Nacion  Tzayaqueca.'  Padilla,  Conq.  N.  Galida,  MS.,  p.  62. 
'  La  gran  poblacion  y  Valle  de  Tzenticpac,  cuyo  pueblo  principal  esta  situado 
punto  a  la  mar  del  Sur,  dos  leguas  antes  a  orillas  del  rio  grande,  y  que  la 
gente  de  esta  provincia  era  de  la  nacion  Totorame.'  Beaumont,  Cron.  de  Me- 
choacon,  MS,  p.  197. 

The  Corarus  '  habitaban hacia  la  parte  del  Norte,  diez  leguas  del  dicho 

pueblo  de  Tzenticpac.'  76. 

The  Guicholas  '  are  settled  in  the  village  of  San  Sebastian,  which  lies 
eighteen  leagues  to  the  westward  of  Bolanos.'  Lyon's  Journal,  vol.  i.,  p. 
322;  Nouvelks  Annales  des  Voy.,  1828,  torn,  xl.,  p.  239.  '  En  Santa  Catarina, 
S.  Sebastian,  S.  Andres  Coamiat,  Soledad  y  Tezompan,  pertenecientes  a 
Colotlan.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  282. 

The  Coronados  '  son  los  del  pueblo  de  Tuito  al  Sur  del  valle  de  Banderas. ' 
Id.,  p.  278. 

The  Tlaxomultecs  'habitaban  en  Tlajomulco.'  'Estos  tecuexes. . .  .llaman 
a  los  indios  cocas  de  toda  la  provincia  de  Tonalan,  que  no  eran  de  su  len- 
gua,  tlaxomultecas.'  Id.,  p.  278. 

The  Cocas  and  Tecuexes  '  eran  los  de  la  provincia  de  Tonalan  . . .  Los 
tecuexes  pasaban  del  otro  lado  de  Tololotlan  hasta  ocupar  parte  de  Zacatecas, 
derramandose  por  los  pueblos  de  Tecpatitlan,  Teocaltiche,  Mitic,  Jalostotit- 
lan,  Mesticatan,  Yagualica,  Tlacotlan,  Teocaltitlan,  Ixtlahuacan,  Cuautla, 
Ocotic  y  Acatic.  Id.,  pp.  278-9. 

The  Mazapiles  are  '  al  N.  E.  de  la  zacateca.'  Ilervas,  in  Id.,  p.  11. 

The  Cazcanes  'habitan  hasta  la  comarca  de  Zacatecas.'  Herrera,  Hist. 
Gen.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  ix.,  cap.  xiii.;  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  281.  '  Ocupaba  el 
terreno  desde  el  rio  Grande,  confinando  con  los  tecuexes  y  los  tepecanos.' 
Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  pp.  284,  49. 

The  Mecos  live  in  the  pueblo  Soledad  de  las  Canoas,  in  the  State  of  Que* 
retaro.  Alcedo,  Dice.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  567. 

The  Fames  inhabit  the  state  of  Queretaro,  '  treinta  leguas  distante  de  la 
expresada  Ciudad  de  Queretaro,  y  se  estiende  a  cien  leguas  de  largo,  y  treintu 
de  ancho,  en  cuyas  brefias  vivian  los  Indios  de  la  Nacion  Fame.'  Fatoy-, 


THE  OTOMfS.  673 

Vida  de  Junipero  Serra,  p.  23.  'En  la  mision  de  Cerro  Prieto  del  Estado 
de  Mexico,  se  extiende  principalmente  por  los  pueblos  de  San  Luis  Potosi, 
y  tambien  se  le  encuentra  en  Queretaro  y  en  Guanajuato.'  Orozco  y  Berra, 
Geografia,  pp.  48,  256,  262,  264.  '  En  San  Luis  de  la  Paz,  territorio  de  la 
Sierra  Gorda ....  en  la  ciudad  del  Maiz,  Departamento  de  San  Luis  Potosi 

en  la  Purisima  Concepcion  de  Arnedo,  en  la  Sierra  Gorda.'  Pimentel, 

Cuadro,  torn,  ii.,  p.  265. 

The  Otomis  are  one  of  the  most  widely  dispersed  nations  of  Mexico. 
'  Todo  lo  alto  de  las  montanas,  6  la  mayor  parte,  a  la  redonda  de  Mexico, 
estan  llenas  de  ellos.  La  cabeza  de  su  senorio  creo  que  es  Xilotepec,  que  es 
una  gran  provincia,  y  las  provincias  de  Tollan  y  Otompa  casi  todas  son  de 
ellos,  sin  contar  que  en  lo  bueno  de  la  Nueva  Espana  hay  muchas  pobla- 
ciones  de  estos  Otomies,  de  los  quales  proceden  losOhichimecas.'  Motolinia, 
Hist.  Indios,  in  Icazbalceta,  Col.  de  Doc.,  torn,  i.,  p.  9.  The  above  is  copied 
by  Torquemada,  in  his  Monarq.  Ind.,  torn,  i.,  p.  32.  'Estos  Teochichimecas 
son  los  que  aora  se  llaman  Otomies. . .  .Tlaixpan,  es  de  los  que  hablan  esta 
Lengua  Otomi.'  Id.,  p.  261.  '  La  grandisima  Provincia,  6  Reino  de  los  Oto 
mies,  que  coge  a  Tepexic,  Tula,  Xilotepec,  Cabeqa  de  este  Heyno,  Chiapa, 
Xiquipilco,  Atocpan,  y  Queretaro,  en  cuio  medio  de  estos  Pueblos  referidos, 
ai  otro  inumerables,  porque  lo  eran  sus  Gentes.'  Id.,  p.  287.  'Xilotepeque 
provincia  Otomiis  habitata.'  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  234.  'La  Provincia 
degli  Otomiti  cominciava  nella  parte  settentrionale  della  Valle  Messicana,  e 
si  continuava  per  quelle  montagne  verso  tramontana  sino  a  novanta  migliar 
dalla  Capitale.  Sopra  tutti  i  luoghi  abitati,  che  v'  erano  ben  molti,  s'  innal- 
zava  1'antica  e  celebre  Citta  di  Tollan  [oggidi  Tula,]  e  quella  di  Xilotepec.' 
Clavigero,  Storia  Ant.  del  Messico,  torn,  i.,  p.  31.  In  ancient  times  they 
1  occuparono  un  tratto  di  terra  di  piii  di  trecento  miglia  dalle  montagne 
d'Izmiquilpan  verso  Maestro,  confinando  verso  Levante,  e  verso  Ponente  con- 
altre  Nazioni  parimente  selvaggie.'  Later:  'fondarono  nel  paese  d'Ana- 
huac,  ed  anche  nella  stessa  Valle  di  Messico  infiniti  luoghi:  la  maggior  parte 
d'essi,  e  spezialmente  i  piu  grandi,  come  quelli  di  Xilotopec  e  di  Huitzapan 
nelle  vicinanze  del  paese,  che  innanzi  occupavano :  altri  sparsi  fra  i  Matlat- 
zinchi,  ed  i  Tlascallesi,  ed  in  altre  Provincie  del  Regno.'  Id.,  p.  148.  'Loa- 
indios  de  este  pais  (Queretaro)  eran  por  la  mayor  parte  otomites.'  Akgre, 
Hist.  Comp.  de  Jesus,  torn,  ii.,  p.  163;  Humboldt,  Essai  Pol.,  torn,  i.,  p. 
77.  '  Sous  le  nom  d'  Othomis,  on  comprenait  generalement  les  restes  des 
nations  primitives,  repandus  dans  les  hautes  vallees  qui  bornent  1'Ana- 
huac  a  1'occident.'  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Hist.  Nat.  Civ.,  torn,  iii.,  p. 
56.  'Les  traditions  les  plus  anciennes  du  Mexique  nous  montrent  les 
Othomis  en  possession  des  montagnes  et  de  la  vallee  d'Anahuac,  ainsii 
que  des  vastes  contrees  qui  s'etendent  au  dela,  dans  le  Michoacan,  jus- 
qu'aux  frontieres  de  Xalizco  etde  Tonalan;  ils  etaient  egalement  les  maitres- 
du  plateau  de  Tlaxcallan.'  Id.,  torn,  i.,  p.  160.  'Us  occupaient  la  plus 
grande  partie  de  la  vallee  d'Anahuac,  avec  ses  contours  jusqu'aux  environs 
de  Cholullan,  ainsi  que  les  provinces  que  s'etendent  au  nord  entre  le  Mi 
choacan  et  Tullantzinco.'  Id,,  p.  196.  'Otompan,  aujourd'hui  Otumba,  tut 
leur  capitale.'  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Popol  Vuh,  introd.,  pp.  xxx..  ex. 
Queretaro  '  f ue  siempre  domicilio  de  los  esf orzados  Othomites ....  Tlerten 
Vol.  I.  43 


674  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

poblado  todo  lo  alto  de  las  Montafias,  que  circundan  a  Mexico,  siendo  cat>e- 
cera  de  toda  la  Provincia  Othomi  Xilotepec,  que  la  hacen  numerosa  los 
Pueblos  de  Tepexic,  Tula,  Huichiapan,  Xiquilpo,  Atocpan,  el  Mexquital,  S. 
Juan  del  Rio,  y  Queretaro.'  Espinosa,  Chron.  Apostolica,  pp.  1-2.  The  Otomt 
language  '  se  le  encuentra  derramado  por  el  Estado  de  Mexico,  entra  en  San 
Luis  Potosi,  abraza  todo  Queretaro  y  la  mayor  parte  de  Guanajuato,  limi- 
tandose  al  O.  por  los  pueblos  de  los  tarascos;  reaparece  confundido  con  el 
tepehua  cerca  del  totonaco,  y  salpicado  aqui  y  alia  se  tropieza  con  el  en 
Puebla  y  en  Veracruz.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  pp.  17,  216-7,  240,  255-6, 
261-4,  272.  '  En  todo  el  Estado  de  Queretaro  y  en  una  parte  de  los  de  San 
Luis,  Guanajuato,  Michoacan,  Mexico,  Puebla,  Veracruz  y  Tlaxcala.'  Pi 
mentel,  Cuadro,  torn,  i.,  p.  117.  Concurrent  authorities:  Hassel,  Mex.,  Gnat., 
p.  138;  Delaporte,  Eeisen,  torn,  x.,  p.  323;  Ward's  Mexico,  vol.  ii.,  p.  345; 
Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  ii.,  p.  477;  Wappdus,  Geog.  u.  Stat.,  pp. 
.36,  188,  196-7;  Klemm,  Cultur-Geschichte,  torn,  v.,  p.  193;  Gallatin,  in  Amer. 
Ethno.  Soc.,  Transact.,  vol.  i.,  p.  2;  Gemelli  Careri,  in  Churchill's  Col.  Voy 
ages,  torn,  iv.,  p.  513.  'Habitait  les  bords  du  golfe  du  Mexique,  depuis  la 
province  de  Panuco  jusqu'au  Nueces.'  Domenech,  Jour.,  p.  16. 

The  Mazahuas  '  f urouo  tempo  fa  parte  della  Nazione  Otomita I  prin- 

cipali  luoghi  da  .loro  abitati  erano  sulle  montagne  occidentali  della  Valle 
Messicana,  e  componevano  la  Provincia  di  Mazahuacan,  appartenente  alia 
•Corona  di  Tacuba.'  Clavigero,  Storia  Ant.  del  Messico,  torn,  i.,  pp.  149-50? 
•copied  in  Heredia  y  Sarmiento,  Sermon  de  Guadalupe,  p.  83.  '  Mazahuar 
Mazahui,  Matzahua,  Matlazahua,  Mozahui,  en  Mexico  y  en  Michoacan.  En 
tiempos  del  imperio  azteca  esta  tribu  pertenecia  al  reino  de  Tlacopan;  sus 
pueblos  marcaban  los  limites  entre  su  senorio  y  Michoacan.'  Orozco  y  Berra, 
Geografia,  p.  256.  '  Parece  que  solo  quedan  algunos  restos  de  la  nacion 
mazahua  en  eldistrito  Ixtlahuaca,  perteneciente  al  Departamento  de  Mexico.' 
Pimentel,  Cuadro,  torn,  ii.,  p.  193.  '  Au  nord  ils  etendaient  leurs  villages 
jusqu'a  peu  de  distance  de  1'ancien  Tollan.'  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Hist. 
J¥at.  Civ.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  56. 

The  Huastecs,  Huaxtecs,  Guastecs,  or  Cuextecas  inhabit  portions  of  the 
states  of  Vera  Cruz  and  Tamaulipas.  'A  los  misnios  llamaban  Panteca  6 
Panoteca,  que  quiere  decir  hombres  del  lugar  pasadero,  los  cuales  fueron 
.asi  llamados,  y  son  los  que  viven  en  la  provincia  de  Panuco,  que  propia- 
mente  se  llaman  Pantlan,  6  Panotlan.'  Sahayun,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  lib.  x., 
p.  132.  '  El  Huaxtecapan  se  extendid  de  Veracruz  a,  San  Luis  Potosi,  y 
coma  a  lo  largo  de  la  costa  del  Golfo,  hacia  el  Norte,  prolongandose 
probablemente  muy  adentro  de  Tamaulipas,  por  lugares  en  donde  ahora  no 
;se  encuentra  ni  vestigio  suyo.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  pp.  206,  19. 
'  Cuando  llegaron  los  espanoles,  el  lugar  que  ocupaban  era  la  frontera  Norte 
•  del  reino  de  Texcoco,  y  parte  de  la  del  mexicano . . .  .Hoy  se  conoce  su  pais  con 
el  nombre  de  la  Huaxteca:  comprende  la  parte  Norte  del  Estado  de  Veracruz 
y  una  fraccion  lindante  del  de  San  Luis,  confmando,  al  Oriente,  con  el  Golfo 
de  Mexico,  desde  la  barra  de  Tuxpan  hasta  Tampico.'  Pimentel,  Cuadro, 
torn,  i.,  p.  5.  Further  mention  in  Chaves,  Rapport,  in  Ternaux-Compans,  Voy., 
Berie  ii.,  torn,  v.,  p.  298;  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  i.,  p.  46;  Hassel, 
Mex.  Goat.,  p.  226;  Wappdus,  Geog.  u.  Stat.,  pp.  35-6;  Squier'sCent.  Amer. 
p.  316;  Villa-Senor,  Theatro,  torn,  i.,  p.  122. 


TOTONACS  AND  NAHUATLACS.  675 

The  Totonacs  occupy  the  country  east  of  the  valley  of  Mexico  down  to 
the  sea-coast,  and  particularly  the  state  of  Veracruz  and  a  portion  of  Puebla. 
'  Estos  Totonaques  estan  poblados  a  la  parte  del  norte,  y  se  dice  ser 
guastemas.'  Sahagun,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  lib.  x.,  pp.  131-4.  'Totonachi. 
Questa  grande  Provincia,  ch'era  per  quella  parte  I'ultima  dell'  imperio, 
si  stendeva  per  ben  centocinqunnta  miglia,  cominciando  dalla  frontiers 
di  Zacatlan. . .  .e  terminando  nel  Golfo  Messicano.  Oltre  alia  capitale  Miz- 
quihuacan,  quindici  miglia  a  Levante  da  Zacatlan,  v'  era  la  bella  Citta  di 
Cempoallan  sulla  costa  del  Golfo.'  Clavigero,  Storia  Ant.  del  Messico,  torn,  i., 
p.  34.  '  Raccontavano  dunque,  que  essendosi  eglino  da  principio  per  qual- 
che  tempo  stabiliti  su  le  rive  del  lago  tezcucano,  quindi  si  portarono  a  popo- 
lare  quelle  montague,  che  da  loro  presero  il  nome  di  Totonacapan.'  Id., 
torn,  iv.,  p.  51.  « En  Puebla  y  en  Veracruz.  Los  totonacos  ocupan  la  parte 
Norte  del  Departamento,  formando  un  solo  grupo  con  sus  vecinos-de  Vera 
cruz;  terminan  sobre  la  costa  del  golfo,  en  toda  la  zona  que  se  extiende  entre 
los  rios  de  Chachalacasy  de  Cazones  6  S.  Marcos.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia, 
pp.  214,  216.  '  Estan  estendidos,  y  derramados  por  las  Sierras,  que  le  caen,  al 
Norte,  a  esta  Ciudad  de  Mexico.'  Torquemada,  Monarq.  Ind.,  torn,  i.,  p.  278; 
Pimentel,  Cuadro,  torn,  i.,  p.  223.  'In  the  districts  of  Zacatlan,  State  of 
Puebla,  and  in  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz.'  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  190;  Villa- 
Senor,  Theatro,  torn,  i.,  p.  312;  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejlco,  torn,  i.,  p.  208;  Galla- 
tin,  in  Amer.  Ethno.  Soc.,  Transact.,  vol.  i.,  p.  4. 

The  Meztitlanecs  inhabited  the  region  north  of  Tezcuco,  between  the  Sierra 
Madre  and  the  territory  occupied  by  the  Huastecs.  '  Al  Norte  de  Tetzcoco 
existia  el  senorio  independiente  de  Meztitlan,  que  hoy  corresponde  al  Estado 
de  Mexico ....  Obedecian  a  Meztitlan,  cabecera  principal,  las  provincias  de 
Molango,  Malila,  Tlanchinolticpac,  Ilamatlan,  Atlihuetzian,  Suchicoatlan, 
Tiauguiztengo,  Guazalingo,  Yagualica.  El  senorio,  pues,  se  extendia  por 
toda  la  sierra,  hasta  el  li'mite  con  los  huaxtecos:  en  Yahualica  estaba  la 
guaruicion  contra  ellos,  por  ser  la  frontera,  comenzando  desde  alii  las  llanuras 
de  Huaxtecapan.  Xelitla  era  el  punto  mas  avanzado  al  Oeste  y  confmaba  con 
los  barbaros  chichimecas :  el  termino  al  Sur  era  Zacualtipan  y  al  Norte  tenia 
a  los  chichimecas.'  Cliavez,  Relation  de  Meztitlan,  quoted  in  Orozco  y  Berra, 
Geografia,  p.  246. 

The  Nahuatlacs  '  se  diuiden  en  siete  linajes ....  Los  primeros  f  ueron  los 
Suchimilcos,  que  quiere  dezir,  gente  de  sementeras  de  flores.  Estos  pobla- 
ron  a  la  orilla  de  la  gran  laguna  de  Mexico  hazia  el  Mediodia,  y  fundaron 
vna  ciudad  de  su  nombre,  y  otros  muchos  lugares.  Mucho  despues  llegaron 
los  del  segundo  linage  llamados  Chalcas,  que  significa  gente  de  las  bocas,  y 
tambien  fundaron  otra  ciudad  de  su  nombre,  partiendo  terminos  con  los 
Suchimilcos.  Los  terceros  f  ueron  los  Tepanecas,  que  quiere  dezir,  gente 

de  la  Puente.  Y  tambien  poblaron  en  la  orilla  de  la  laguna  al  Occidente 

La  cabe^a  de  su  provincia  la  llamaron  Azcapuzalco. . .  .Tras  estos  vinieron, 
los  que  poblaron  a  Tezcuco,  que  son  los  de  Culhua,  que  quiere  dezir,  gente 

corua Y  assi  quedo  la  laguna  cercada  de  estas  quatro  naciones,  poblando 

estos  al  Oriente,  y  los  Tepanecas  al  Norte. . .  .Despues  llegaron  los  Tlatlui- 
cas,  que  significa  gente  de  la  sierra. . .  .Y  como  hallaron  ocupados  todos  los 
llanos  en  contorno  de  la  laguna  hasta  las  sierras,  passaron  de  la  otra  parte  de 


676  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

la  sierra. . . . Y  a  la cabe^a de  suprouincia  llamaron  Quahunahuac que  eor- 

rompidamente  nuestro  vulgo  llama  Quernauaca,  y  aquella  prouincia  es,  la  que 
oy  se  dize  el  Marquesado.  Los  de  la  sexta  generacion,  que  son  los  Tlas- 
caltecas,  que  quiere  dezir  gente  de  pan,  passaron  la  serrania  hazia  el  Oriente 
atrauessando  la  sierra  neuada,  donde  esta  el  famoso  bolcan  entre  Mexico  y 

la  ciudad  de  los  Arigeles la  cabeqa  de  suprouincia  llamaron  de  su  noinbre 

Tlascala. . .  .La  septima  cueua,  o  linage,  que  es  la  nacion  Mexicana,  la  qual 
como  las  otras,  salio  de  las  prouincias  de  Aztlan,  y  Teuculhuacan. '  Acosta, 
Hist,  de  las  Ynd.,  pp.  454-8.  Repeated  in  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iii., 
lib.  ii.,  cap.  x.  Also  in  Clavigero,  Storia  Ant.  del  Messico,  torn,  i.,  pp.  151-2, 
and  in  Heredia  y  Sarmiento,  Sermon  de  Guadalupe,  p.  85;  Orozco  y  Berra, 
Geografia,  pp.  91-2. 

The  Acolhuas  inhabited  the  kingdom  of  Acolhuacan.  '  Su  capital  era 

Tetzcoco,  a  la  orilla  del  lago  de  su  nombre La  extension  del  reino  era: 

desde  el  mar  del  N.  a  la  del  Sur,  con  todo  lo  que  se  comprende  a  la  banda  del 
Poniente  hasta  el  puerto  de  la  Veracruz,  salvo  la  cuidad  de  Tlachcala  y  Hue- 
xotzinco.'  Pomar,  Relation  de  Texcoco,  quoted  in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia, 
pp.  240-2.  '  Juan  B.  Pomar  fija  los  limites  del  reino  con  toda la  exageracion 
que  puede  infundir  el  orgullo  de  raza.  Por  nuestra  parte,  hemos  leido  con 
cuidado  las  relaciones  que  a  la  monarqufa  corresponden,  y  hemos  estudiado 
en  el  piano  los  lugares  a  que  se  refieren,  y  ni  de  las  unas  ni  de  los  otros 
llegamos  a  sacar  jamas  que  los  reyes  de  Aculhuacan  mandaraii  sobre  las  tri- 
bus  avecindadas  en  la  costa  del  Pacffico,  no  ya  a  la  misma  altura  de  Mexico, 
sino  aun  a  menores  latitudes.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  pp.  242-4.  See 
further:  Motolinia,  Hist.  Indios,  in  Icazbalceta,  Col.  de  Doc.,  torn,  i.,  p.  11; 
Ixtlilxochitl,  Relaciones,  in  Kingsborough's  Mex.  Antiq.,  vol.  ix.,  p.  341. 

The  Ocuiltecs  '  viven  en  el  distrito  deToluca,  en  tierrasy  terminos  suyos.' 
Sahagun,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  lib.  x.,  p.  130. 

The  Macaoaquez  '  viven  en  una  comarca  de  Toluca,  y  estan  poblados  en  el 
pueblo  de  Xocotitlan.  Ib. 

The  Tarascos  dwell  chiefly  in  the  state  of  Michoacan.  '  La  provincia  de 
estos,  es  la  madre  de  los  pescados,  que  es  Michoacan:  llamase  tambien 
Quaochpanme.'  Sahagun,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  lib.  x.,  p.  137.  Repeated 
in  Clavigero,  Storia  Ant.  del  Messico,  torn,  i.,  p.  148.  Their  territory  is 
bounded :  '  Au  nord-est,  le  royaume  de  Tonalan  et  le  territoire  maritime  de 
Colima  en  sont  separes  par  le  rio  Pantla  et  le  fleuve  Coahuayana,  auquel 
s'unit  cette  riviere,  dix  lieues  avant  d'aller  tomber  dans  la  mer  Pacifique,  dont 
le  rivage  continue  ensuite  a  borner  le  Michoacan,  au  sud-ouest,  jusqu'a  Za- 
catollan.  La  les  courbes  capricieuses  du  Mexcala  lui  constituent  d'autres 
limites,  a  Test  et  au  sud,  puis,  a  Test  encore,  les  riches  provinces  de  Cohu- 

ixco  et  de  Matlatzinco Plus  au  nord,  c'etaient  les  Mazahuas,  dont  les 

fertiles  vallees,  ainsi  que  celles  des  Matlatzincas,  s'etendent  dans  les  regions 
les  plus  froides  de  la  Cordillere;  enfin  le  cour  majestueux  du  Tololotlan  et 
les  rives  pittoresques  du  lac  Chapala  formaient  une  barriere  naturelle  entre 
les  Tarasques  et  les  nombreuses  populations  othomies  et  chichimeques  des 
etatsde  Guanaxuato  et  de  Queretaro.'  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Hist.  Nat.  Civ., 
torn,  iii.,  pp.  53,  56.  '  El  tarasco  se  habla  en  el  Estado  de  Michoacan,  excep- 
tuando  la  parte  Sur-Oeste  que  linda  con  el  Pacffico  donde  se  habla  el  mexi- 


MATLALTZINCAS  AND  TLAPANECS.         677 

cano,  mm  pequena  parte  al  Nor-Este,  donde  se  acostumbra  el  othomi  6  el 
mazahua,  y  otra  parte  donde  se  usa  el  rnatlatzinca.  Tambien  se  habla  en  el 
Estado  de  Guanajuato,  en  la  parte  qtie  linda  con  Michoacan  y  Guadalajara, 
limitada  al  Oriente  por  una  linea  que  puede  comenzar  en  Acambaro,  seguir 
a  Irapuato  y  terminar  en  San  Felipe,  es  decir,  en  los  limites  con  San  Luis 
PotosiV  Pimentel,  Cuadro,  torn,  i.,  p.  271.  'En  Michoacan,  Guerrero,  Gua 
najuato  y  Jalisco.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  pp.  58,  238,  264,  271-2,  281. 
Concurrent  authorities:  Gallatin,  in  Amer.  Ethno.  Soc.,  Transact.,  vol.  i.,  p. 
4;  Ludeicig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  182;  Figuier's  Hum.  Race,  p.  460;  Ward's  Mex 
ico,  vol.  ii.,  p.  675. 

The  Matlaltzincas,  Pirindas,  or  Tolucas  inhabited  the  valley  of  Toluca, 
situated  between  the  valley  of  Mexico  and  Michoacan.  '  La  Provincia  del 
Matlatzinchi  comprendeva,  oltre  la  valle  di  Tolocan,  tutto  quello  spazio, 
che  v'e  infino  a  Tlaximaloyan  (oggi  Taximaroa)  frontiera  del  regno  di 
Michuacan. . .  .Nelle  montagne  circoiivicine  v'  erano  gli  stati  di  Xalatlauhco, 
di  Tzompahuacan,  e  di  Malinalco;  in  non  molta  lontananza  verso  Levante 
dalla  valle  quello  d'Ocuillan,  e  verso  Ponente  quelli  di  Tozantla,  e  di  Zol- 
tepec.'  Clavigero,  Storia  Ant.  del  Messico,  torn,  i.,  pp.  31-2,  150.  'Antigua- 
mente  en  el  valle  de  Toluca;  pero  hoy  solo  se  usa  en  Charo,  lugar  pertene- 
ciente  al  Estado  de  Michoacan.'  Pimentel,  Cuadro,  torn,  i.,  p.  499.  'In  the 
district  of  that  name,  sixty  miles  south-west  of  Mexico.'  Gallatin,  in  Amer. 
Ethno.  Soc.,  Transact.,  torn,  i.,  p.  4.  Also  in  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Hist. 
Nat.  Civ.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  56. 

The  Chumbias  inhabit  the  pueblos  Ciutla,  Axalo,  Ihuitlan,  Vitalata,  Gua- 
guayutla  and  Coyuquilla  in  the  State  of  Guerrero.  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geogra- 
fia,  p.  227. 

The  Tlapanecs,  Coviscas,  Yopes,  Yopis,  Jopes,  Yopimes,  Tenimes,  Pino- 
mes,  Chinquimes,  Chochontes,  Pinotl-Chochons,  Chochos,  Chuchones,  Po- 
polocas,  Tecos,  Tecoxines,  or  Popolucas  are  one  and  the  same  people,  who 
by  different  writers  are  described  under  one  or  the  other  of  these  names. 

'  Estos  Coviscas  y  Tlapanecas,  son  unos y  estan  poblados  en  Tepecuacuilco 

y  Tlachmalacac,  y  en  la  provincia  de  Chilapan.'  '  Estos  Yopimes  y  Tlapa 
necas,  son  de  los  de  la  comarca  de  Yopitzinco,  llamanles  Yopes son  los 

que  llaman  propiamente  tenimes,  pinome,  chinquime,  chochonti.'  Sahagun, 
Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  lib.  x.,  p.  135;  quoted  also  in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geo- 
grafia,  pp.  235-6,  217,  196.  '  La  provincia  de  los  Yopes  lindaba  al  Oeste 
con  los  Cuitlateques,  al  Sur  con  el  Pacifico,  al  Este  con  los  Mixtecos 
y  al  Norte  con  los  Cohuixcas:  la  division  por  esta  parte  la  representaria  una 
linea  de  Este  a  Oeste,  al  Sur  de  Xocolmani  y  de  Amatlan,  y  comprendiera  a 
los  actuales  tlapanecos.'  Montufar,  in  Id.,  pp.  235-6  '  Confinava  colla  costa 
dei  Cohuixchi  quella  dei  Jopi,  e  con  questa  quella  dei  Mixtechi,  conosciuta 
ai  nostri  tempi  col  nome  di  Xicayan.'  Clavigero,  Storia  Ant.  del  Messico,  torn, 
i.,  p.  34;  Gallatin,  in  Amer.  Ethno.  Soc.,  Transact.,  vol.  i.,  p.  4.  'Tecama- 
chalco  era  su  poblacion  principal,  y  se  derramaban  al  Sur  hasta  tocar  con  los 
mixtecos.  Durante  el  siglo  XVI  se  encontraban  aun  popolocos  en  Tlacote- 
pec  y  en  San  Salvador  (unidos  con  los  otomies),  pueblo  sujeto  a  Quecholac. 

Por  la  parte  de  Tehuacan,  el  li'mite  de  esta  tribu  se  hallaba  en  Coxcat- 

lan.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  pp.  217-18.  The  Chochos  dwell  in  sixteen 
pueblos  in  the  department  of  Huajuapan  in  the  state  of  Oajaca.  I-\,  p.  196. 


678  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

The  Cohuixcas  dwelt  in  the  province  of  the  same  name,  which  '  confinava 
a  Settentrione  coi  Matlatzinchi,  e  coi  Tlahuichi,  a  Ponente  coi  Cuitlatechi,  a 
Levante  coi  Jopi  e  coi  Mixtechi,  ed  a  Mezzogiornio  si  stendeva  infino  al 
Mar  Pacifico  per  quella  parte,  dove  presentemente  vi  sono  il  porto  e  la  Citta 
d'Acapulco.'  Clavigero,  Storia  Ant.  del  Messico,  torn,  i.,  p.  32.  'La  provincia 
comenzaba  en  Zacualpa,  li'mite  con  los  matlaltzincas,  y  que,  por  ultimo,  los 
confines  de  esa  porcion  antigua  del  imperio  Mexicano,  eran  al  Norte  los 
matlaltzinques  y  los  tlahuiques,  al  Este  los  mixtecos  y  los  tlapanecos,  al  Sur 
los  yopes,  y  al  Oeste  los  cuitlateques.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Gcografia,  pp.  227-32. 
Their  country  lies  'between  Tesitzlan  and  Chilapan.'  Ker's  Travels,  p.  233. 

The  Cuitlatecs  inhabit  the  country  between  the  Cohuixcas  and  the  Pacific 
Coast.  '  I  Cuitlatechi  abitavano  un  paese,  che  si  stendeva  piu  di  dugento 
miglia  da  Maestro  a  Scirocco  dal  regno  di  Michuacan  infino  al  mar  Pacifico. 
La  loro  capitale  era  la  grande  e  popolosa  citta  di  Mexcaltepec  sulla  costa, 
della  quale  appena  sussistono  le  rovine.'  Clavigero,  Storia  Ant.  del  Messico, 
torn,  i.,  p.  32.  '  En  Ajuchitlan,  San  Cristobal  y  Poliutla  en  la  municipalidad 
de  Ajuchitlan,  distrito  del  mismo  nombre,  y  en  Atoyac,  distrito  y  munici 
palidad  de  Tecpan.  La  provincia  de  los  cuitlateques  6  cuitlatecos,  sujeta  en 
lo  antiguo  a  los  emperadores  de  Mexico,  quedaba  comprendida  entre  las  de 
Zacatula  y  de  los  cohuixques.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  pp.  233-4. 

Proceeding  southward,  among  the  SOUTHEEN  MEXICANS,  we  first  encoun 
ter  the  Miztecs,  whose  province,  Miztecapan,  was  in  the  present  states  of  Oa- 
jaca  and  Guerrero.  '  La  Mixtecapan,  o  sia  Provincia  dei  Mixtechi  si  stendeva 
da  Acatlan,  luogo  lontano  cento  venti  miglia  dalla  corte  verso  Scirocco,  infino 
al  Mar  Pacifico,  e  conteneva  piu  Citta  e  villaggj  ben  popolati,  e  di  considera- 
bile  commercio.'  Clavigero,  Storia  Ant.  del  Messico,  torn,  i.,  p.-  32,  'Le 
Mixtecapan  comprenait  les  regions  occidentales  de  1'etat  d'Oaxaca,  depuis  la 
frontiere  septentrionale  d'Acatlan,  qui  le  separait  des  principautes  des  Tlahui- 
cas  et  de  Mazatlan,  jusque  sur  le  rivage  de  1'ocean  Pacifique.  Elles  se 
divisaient  en  haute  et  basse  Mixteque,  1'une  et  1'autre  egalement  fertiles,  la 
premiere  resserree  entre  les  montagnes  qui  lui  donnaient  son  nom ;  la  seconde, 
occupant  les  riches  territoires  des  bords  de  la  mer,  ayant  pour  capitale  la 
ville  de  Tututepec  (a  1'embouchure  du  rio  Verde).'  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg, 
Hist.  Nat.  Civ.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  4.  *  Les  Mixteques  donnaient  eux-memesaleur 
pays  le  nom  de  Gnudzavui-Gnuhu,  Terre  de  pluie,  pour  le  haute  Mixteque, 
et  Gnuundaa,  Cote  de  la  mer,  a  la  basse.'  Id.,  pp.  5-6.  '  En  la  antigua  pro 
vincia  de  este  nombre,  situada  sobre  la  costa  del  mar  Pacifico,  que  com- 
prende  actualmente,  hacia  el  Norte,  una  fraccion  del  Estado  de  Puebla; 
hacia  el  Este,  una  del  de  Oajaca,  y  al  Oeste,  parte  del  Estado  de  Guerrero. 
Dividese  la  Mixteca  en  alta  y  baja,  estando  la  primera  en  la  serrania,  y  la 
segunda  en  las  llanuras  contiguas  a  la  costa.'  Pimentel,  Cuadro,  torn,  i.,  p. 
37.  '  Westlich  der  Zapotecos,  bei  San  Francisco  Huizo  im  Norden  und  bei 
Santa  Cruz  Miztepec  im  Siiden  des  grossen  Thales  von  Oajaca  beginnen  die 
Misteken,  welche  den  ganzen  westlichen  Theil  des  Staats  einnehmen,  und 
siidlich  bis  an  die  Kuste  des  Austral-Oceans  bei  Jamiltepec  und  Tututepec 
hinabreichen.'  Milhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pti.,  pp.142,  187,  192-6, 198- 
9,  201-2.  Also  in  Wappdus,  Geog.  u.  Stat.,  p.  163. 


ZAPOTECS  AND  MIJES.  679 

(The  Zapotecs  occupy  the  large  valley  of  Oajaca.  'Fue  la  Zapotecapan 
Senora,  y  tan  apoderada  de  las  demas  de  su  Orizonte,  que  ambiciosos  sus 
Reyes,  rompieron  los  terminos  de  su  mando,  y  se  entraron  ferozes,  y  valientes, 
por  Chontales,  Mijes,  y  tierras  maritimas  de  ambos  mares  del  Sur,  y  del  Norte 

y  venciendo,  hasta  Senorear  los  fertiles  llanos  de  Teguantepeque,  y  cor- 

riendo  hasta  Xoconusco.'  Burgoa,  Geog.  Descrip.,  tom.i.,  ptii.,  fol.  196,  torn, 
ii.,  fol.  362.  '  Hasta  Tepeiac,  Techamachalco,  Quecholac  y  Teohuacan,  que 
por  aqui  dicen  que  hicieron  sus  poblaciones  los  zapotecas.'  Veytia,  Hist. 
Ant.  Mej.,  torn,  i.,  p.  153.  'A  Levante  de'  Mixtechi  erauo  i  Zapotechi,  cosi 
chiamati  dalla  loro  capitale  Teotzapotlan.  Nel  loro  distretto  era  la  Valle  di 
Huaxyacac,  dagli  Spagnuoli  detta  Oaxaca  o  Guaxaca.'  Clavigero,  Storia  Ant. 
del  Messico,  torn.  i.  p.  32.  '  En  una  parte  del  Estado  de  Oajaca,  liinitada  al 
Sur  por  el  Pacifico,  exceptuando  una  pequena  fraccion  de  terreno  ocupada 
por  los  chontales.'  Pimentel,  Cuadro,  torn,  i.,  p.  319.  See  also:  Orozco  y 
Berra,  Geografia,  pp.  177-87:  Murguia  y  Galardi,  in  Soc.  Mex.  Geog.,  Boletin, 
torn,  vii.,  pp.  245-6.  '  The  Zapotecs  constitute  the  greater  part  of  the  popu 
lation  of  the  southern  division  of  the  Isthmus  (of  Tehuantepec).'  Barnard's 
Tehuantepec,  p.  226.  '  Inhabit  the  Pacific  plains  and  the  elevated  table-lands 
fromTarifatoPetapa.'  Shufeldt's  Explor.  Tehuantepec,  pp.  125, 133-4;  Garay's 
Tehuantepec,  p.  59;  Fossey,  Mexique,  pp.  338,  470.  'Zapotecos,  welche  die 
Mitte  des  Staates,  das  grosse  Thai  von  Oajaca  bewohnen,  sich  im  Osten  iiber 
die  Gebirge  von  Huixazo,  Iztlan  und  Tanetze  und  die  Thaler  Los  Cajdnos 
ausbreiten,  und  im  Siiden,  im  Partido  Quiechapa  (Depart.  Tehuantepec) 
mit  den  Mijes,  im  Partido  von  Pochutla  (Depart.  Ejutla)  aber  niit  den  Chon 
tales,  Nachbaren  jener,  granzen.'  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  i.,  pp. 
141,  170,  173-6,  183-6,  189,  191,  199,  212-13;  Wappfius,  Geog.  u.  Stat.,  p.  162. 
'  Les  Zapoteques  appelaient  leur  pays  Lachea.'  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Hist. 
Nat.  Civ.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  38;  Macgregor's  Progress  of  America,  p.  848. 

The  Mijes  dwell  in  the  mountains  of  southern  Oajaca  and  in  a  small  por 
tion  of  Tehuantepec.    '  Anterieurement  a  la  ruine  de  1 'empire  tolteque les 

Mijes  occupaient  tout  le  territoire  de  1'isthme  de  Tehuantepec,  d'une  mer  a 
1'autre.'  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Voy.  Tehuantepec,  pp.  138-9.  '  Toute  cette  re 
gion,  comprenant,  a  1'est,  les  cimes  de  la  Sierra  de  Macuilapa  que  domine  le 
village  actuel  de  Zanatepec  et  les  montagnes  qui  s'etendent,  du  cote  oppose, 
vers  Lachixila,  baignees  par  la  riviere  de  Tehuantepec,  au  sud,  et,  au 
nord,  par  celle  de  la  Villa-Alta,  jusqu'aux  savanes,  ou  roulent  les  affluents 
de  1'Alvarado  et  du  G-uazacoalco,  appartenait  a  la  meme  nation  des  Mixi  ou 
Mijes. .  .  les  Mijes  vaincus  demeurerent  soumis  des  lors  aux  rois  de  la  Mixteque 
et  du  Zapotecapan,  a  1'exception  d'un  petit  nombre  qui,  jusqu'a  1'epoque 
espagrole,  continuerent  dans  leur  resistance  dans  les  cantons  austeres  qui 
environnent  le  Cempoaltepec.  Ce  qui  reste  de  cette  nation  snr  1'isthme  Je 
Tehuantepec  est  dissemine  actuellement  en  divers  villages  de  la  montagne. 
Entre  les  plus  importants  est  celui  de  Guichicovi  que  j'avais  laisse  a  ma 
droite  en  venant  de  la  plaine  de  Xochiapa  au  Barrio.'  Id.,  pp.  105-7. 
'  Les  Mixi  avaient  possede  anciennement  la  plus  grande  partie  des  royaumes 
de  Tehuantepec,  de  Soconusco  et  du  Zapotecapan;  peut-etre  meme  lesrivages 
de  Tututepec  leur  devaient-ils  leur  premiere  civilisation.'  Id.,  Hist.  Nat. 
Civ.,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  34-5.  'En  algunos  lugares  del  Departamento  de  Oajaca. 


680  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

como  Juquila,  Quezaltepec  y  Atilan.'  Pimentel,  Cuadro,  tom.ii.,  p.  173.  'Lea 
Indians  mijes  habitent  une  contree  montagneuse,  au  sud-ouest  du  Goatza- 

coalco  et  au  nord-ouest  de  Tehuantepec De  la  chaine  des  monts  Mijes 

descend  la  riviere  de  Sarrabia,  qui  traverse  la  belle  plaine  de  Boca-del- 
Monte.'  Fossey,  Mexique,  p.  49.  'The  Mijes,  once  a  powerful  tribe,  inhab 
it  the  mountains  to  the  west,  in  the  central  division  of  the  Isthmus,  and 
are  now  confined  to  the  town  of  San  Juan  Guichicovi.'  Barnard's  Tehuan 
tepec,  p.  224;  Montanus,  Nieuwe  Weereld,  p.  225;  Hermesdorf,  in  Lond.  Geog. 
Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxii,  p.  547.  '  The  Mijes  constituted  formerly  a  powerful 
nation,  and  they  still  occupy  the  land  from  the  Sierra,  north  of  Tehuante 
pec,  to  the  district  of  Chiapas.  In  the  Isthmus  they  only  inhabit  the  village 
of  Guichicovi,  and  a  small  portion  of  the  Sierra,  which  is  never  visited.' 
Garay's  Tehuantepec,  p.  60.  Also  Macgregor's  Progress  of  America,  p.  849; 
Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  pp.  176-7. 

IheHuaves,  Huavi,  Huabi,  Huabes,  Guavi,Wabi,  etc.,  live  on  the  Isthmus 
of  Tehuantepec.  '  Les  Wabi  avaient  ete,  dans  les  siecles  passes,  possesseurs 
de  la  province  de  Tehuantepec ....  Us  avaient  ete  les  maitres  du  riche  terri- 
toire  de  Soconusco  (autrefois  Xoconochco . . . . espece  de  nopal),  et  avaient 
etendu  leurs  conquetes  jusqu'au  sein  meme  des  montagnes,  ou  ils  avaient 
fonde  ou  accru  la  ville  de  Xalapala  Grande  (Xalapa-del-Marques).'  Brasseur 
de  Bourbourg,  Hist.  Nat.  Civ.,  torn,  in.,  p.  3.  'The  Huaves  are  in  all  little 
more  than  three  thousand,  and  occupy  the  four  villages  of  the  coast  called 
SanMateo,  Santa  Maria,  San  Dionisio,  and  San  Francisco.'  Garay's  Tehuaw 
tepee,  p.  59.  '  Scattered  over  the  sandy  peninsulas  formed  by  the  lakes  and 
the  Pacific.  At  present  they  occupy  the  four  villages  of  San  Mateo,  Santa  Ma 
ria,  San  Dionisio,  and  San  Francisco.'  Barnard's  Tehuantepec,  p.  227.  'San 
Francisco  Istaltepec  is  the  last  village,  inhabited  by  the  descendants  of  a 
tribe  called  Huaves.'  Hermesdorf,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxii.,  p. 
546.  '  Habitent  les  villages  du  bord  de  la  mer  au  sud  de  Guichicovi.'  Fos 
sey,  Mexique,  p.  467.  Shufddt's  Explor.  Tehuantepec,  p.  126;  Muhlenpfordi, 
Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  i.,  p.  141.  '  Se  extienden  en  Tehuantepec,  desde  las 
playas  del  Paci'fico  hasta  la  cordillera  interior.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia, 
pp.  173-6. 

The  Beni-Xonos  '  cornposaient  une  province  nombreuse,  occupant  en  par- 

tie  les  routes  qui  conduisaient  au  Mexique  et  aux  montagnes  des  Mixi 

Leur  ville  principale,  depuis  la  conquete,  s'appelait  San-Francisco,  a  15  1. 
N.  O.  de  la  cite  d'Oaxaca.'  'Habitant  sur  les  confins  des  Mixi  et  des  Zapo- 
teques.'  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Hist.  Nat.  Civ.,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  42-3  'Les 
Beni-Xono  sont  appeles  aussi  Nexicha  et  Cajones.'  Ib. 

The  Mazatecs  live  in  the  state  of  Oajaca,  near  the  Puebla  boundary.  '  A 
Tramontana  dei  Mixtechi  v'era  la  Provincia  di  Mazatlan,  e  a  Tramontana,  e 
a  Levante  dei  Zapotechi  quella  di  Chinantla  colle  loro  capitali  dello  stesso 
nome,  onde  furono  i  loro  abitanti  Mazatechi  e  Chinantechi  appellati.'  Clavi- 
gero,  Storia  Ant.  del  Messico,  torn,  i.,  p.  33.  '  In  den  Partidos  Teutitlan  und 
Teutfla,  Departement  Teutitlan  del  Camino.'  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii., 
pti.,  pp.  141,  206,  210.  'En  el  Departamento  de  Teotitlan,  formando  una 
pequefia  fraccion  en  el  li'mite  con  el  Estado  de  Veracruz.'  Orozco  y  Berra, 
Geografia,  p.  188. 


TRIBES  OF  OAJACA  AND  CHIAPAS.  681 

The  Cuicalecs  dwell  '  en  una  pequena  fraccion  del  Departamento  de 
Oajaca.'  Pitnentel,  Cuadro,  torn,  ii.,  p.  259.  'In  den  Partidos  Teutitlan  und 
Teutila,  Departement  Teutitlan  del  Camfno.'  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii., 
pti.,  p.  141;  repeated  in  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  pp.  188-9;  Wappdus, 
Geog.  u.  Stat.,  p.  163. 

The  Pabucos  live  in  the  'pueblo  de  Elotepec,  Departamento  del  Centro.' 
Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  197;  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  i.,  p. 
187. 

The  Soltecs  are  in  the  pueblo  de  Sola.  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  197. 

The  Pintos  are  a  people  inhabiting  small  portions  of  Guerrero  and  Te- 
huantepec.  '  A  1'ouest,  sur  le  versant  des  Cordilleres,  une  grande  partie  de  la 
cote  baignee  par  le  Pacifique,  habitee  par  les  Indiens  Pintos.'  Keratry,  in 
Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  Sept.  15,  1866,  p.  453.  '  On  trouve  deja  dans  la 
plaine  de  Tehuantepec  quelques  echantillons  de  cette  race  toute  particuliere 
auMexique,  appelee  pinto,  qui  appartient  principalement a  1'etat  de  Guerrero.' 
Charnay,  Ruines  Americaines,  p.  502. 

The  Chiapanecs  inhabit  the  interior  of  the  state  of  Chiapas.  '  Dans  1'in- 
terieur  des  provinces  bordant  les  rives  du  Chiapan,  a  sa  sortie  des  gouffres 
d'oii  il  s'elance,  en  descendant  du  plateau  de  Zacatlan.'  (Guatemalan  name 
for  Chiapas,)  and  they  extended  over  the  whole  province,  later  on.  Brasseur 
de  Bourbourg,  Hist.  Nat.  Civ.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  87.  '  A  1'ouest  de  ce  plateau,  entre 
les  Zotziles  ou  Quelenes  du  sud  et  les  Zoqui  du  nord,  habitaient  les  Chiapa- 
neques.'  Id.,  Popol  Vuh,  introd.,  pp.  157,  199.  Also  inLaet,  Novus  Orbis,  p. 
325;  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  39.  'En  Acala,  distrito  del  Centro,  y  en  la 
villa  de  Chiapa  y  en  Suchiapa,  distrito  del  Oeste,'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geogra 
fia,  p.  172.  '  Le  principali  Citta  dei  Chiapanechi  erano  Teochiapan,  (chia- 
mata  dagli  Spagnuoli  Chiapa  de  Indios),  Tochtla,  Chamolla,  e  Tzinacantla. ' 
Clavigero,  Sloria  Ant.  del  Messico,  torn,  i.,  p.  33. 

The  Tzendalesare  in  Chiapas.  'De  1'Etat  de  Chiapas.'  Brasseur  de  Bour 
bourg,  Popol  Vuh,  p.  364.  '  The  province  called  Zeldales  lyeth  behind  this 
of  the  Zoques,  from  the  North  Sea  within  the  continent,  running  up  towards 
Chiapa  and  reaches  in  some  parts  near  to  the  borders  of  Comitlan,  north 
westward.'  Gage's  New  Survey,  p.  236.  Also  in  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  193; 
Pimentel,  Cuadro,  torn,  ii.,  p.  235;  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  169;  Herrera, 
Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  x.,  cap.  xi.;  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  325. 

The  Zotziles  inhabit  a  small  district  in  Chiapas.  '  La  ciudad  de  Tzina- 
cantlan,  que  en  mexicano  significa  "lugar  de  murcielagos, "  fue  la  capital 
de  los  quelenes,  y  despues  de  los  tzotziles  quienes  la  llamaban  Zotzilha,  que 
significa  lo  mismo;  de  zotzil,  murcielago.'  Pimentel,  Cuadro,  torn,  ii.,  p.  245. 
Tzinac^ntan  (Quiche  Zotzilha)  '  doit  avoir  ete  le  berceau  de  la  nation  zotzil, 
I'line  des  nombreuses  populations  du  Chiapas.'  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Hist. 
Nat.  Civ.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  88. 

The  Chatinos  live  in  the  '  Departamentos  del  Centro  y  de  Jamiltepec.' 
Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  189;  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  i.,  pp. 
196-9. 

The  Chinantecs,  or  Tenez,  are  in  the  '  Departamento  de  Teotitlan.'  Orozco 
y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  187;  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  i.,  p.  214.  'In 
the  partidos  of  Quiechapa,  Jalalog,  and  Chuapan.'  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  40. 


682  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

The  Ahualulcos  inhabit  San  Francisco  de  Ocuapa  which  '  es  la  Cabeza  de 
Partido  de  los  Indies  Ahualulcos.'  Alcedo,  Diccionario,  torn,  iii.,  p.  366. 

The  Quelenes  occupied  a  district  in  Chiapas  near  the  Guatemala  boundary 
line.  '  La  nation  des  Quelenes,  dont  la  capitale  etait  Comitan,  occupait  la 
frontiere  guatemalienne.'  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Hist.  Nat.  Civ.,  torn,  iii., 
p.  4.  *  Au  temps  de  la  conquete,  la  ville  principale  des  Quelenes  etait  Co- 
panahuaztlan. '  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Popol  Vuh,  introd.,  p.  157.  'Eta- 
blies  entre  le  haut  plateau  de  Ghovel  ou  de  Ciudad-Real  et  les  montagnes 
de  Soconusco  au  midi.'  Ib.;  and  Montanus,  Nieuwe  Weereld,  p.  271. 

The  Zoques  are  scattered  over  portions  of  Tabasco,  Chiapas,  Oajaca,  and 
Tehuantepec.  'Se  encuentran  derramados  en  Chiapas,  Tabasco  y  Oaxaca; 
tienen  al  Norte  el  mexicano  y  el  chontal,  al  Este  el  tzendal,  el  tzotzil  y  el 
chiapaneco,  al  Sur  el  mexicano,  y  al  Oeste  el  huave,  el  zapoteco  y  el  mixe.' 
Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  170.  '  Occupy  the  mountain  towns  of  Santa 
Maria  and  San  Miguel,  and  number  altogether  about  two  thousand  souls.' 
Shufeldt's  Explor.  Tehuantepec,  p.  126.  '  Les  Zotziles  et  les  Zoqui,  confinant, 
au  sud-est,  avec  les  Mixi  rnontagnards,  au  nord  avec  les  Nonohualcas, 
et  les  Xicalancas,  qui  habitaient  les  territoires  fertiles  de  Tabasco.'  Brasseur 
de  Bourbourg,  Hist.  Nat.  Civ.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  5.  '  Quorum  prsecipuum  Tecpat- 
lan.'  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  325.  'The  Soques,  who  came  originally  from 
Chiapas,  inhabit  in  the  Isthmus  only  the  villages  of  San  Miguel  and 
Santa  Maria  Chimalapa, '  Garay's  Tehuantepec,  p.  60.  '  La  mayor  de  ellas 
esta  situada  a  tres  leguas  de  Tacotalpa,  aguas  arriba  del  rio  de  la  Sierra. 
Ocupa  un  pequeno  valle  causado  por  el  descenso  de  varies  cerros  y 
colinas  que  lacircuyen.'  Pimentel,  Cuadro,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  236-8;  Muhlenpfordt, 
Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  i.,  pp.  181-2;  Macgregor's  Progress  of  America,  pp.  849- 
50.  '  The  Zoques  inhabit  the  mountainous  region  to  the  east,  from  the  valley 
of  the  Chiapa  on  the  south,  to  the  Rio  del  Corte  on  the  north.  Originally 
occupying  a  small  province  lying  on  the  confines  of  Tabasco,  they  were  sub 
jugated  by  the  expedition  to  Chiapas  under  Luis  Marin.  At  present  they 
are  confined  to  the  villages  of  San  Miguel  and  Santa  Maria  Chimalapa.' 
Barnard's  Tehuantepec,  p.  225.  '  Near  the  Arroyo  de  Otates,  on  the  road 
from  Tarifa  to  Santa  Maria,  stands  a  new  settlement,  composed  of  a  few 
shanties,  inhabited  by  Zoques,  which  is  called  Tierra  Blanca.'  Hermesdorf, 
in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxii.,  p.  546. 

The  Choles,  Blanches,  and  Mopanes  are  scattered  through  small  portions  of 
Chiapas  and  Vera  Paz  in  Guatemala.  '  23  leagues  from  Cahboii,  in  the  midst 
of  inaccessible  mountains  and  morasses,  dwell  the  Chdls  and  Manches.' 
Escobar,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  pp.  94-5.  Residen  en  la  '  Pro- 
vincia  del  Manche.'  Alcedo,  Dice.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  452.  Also  in  Boyle's  Ride, 
vol.  i.,  preface,  p.  14;  Dunlop's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  196;  Gavarrete,  in  Pa 
nama  Star  and  Herald,  Dec.  19,  1867.  '  Los  Choles  forman  una  tribu  esta- 
blecida  desde  tiempos  remotos  en  Guatemala;  dividos  en  dos  fracciones 
...  .la  una  se  encuentra  al  Este  de  Chiapas,  y  la  otra  rnuy  retirada  en  la 
Verapaz.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  167.  '  Tenia  por  el  Sur  la  Provincia 
del  Choi:  Por  la  Parte  del  Oriente,  y  de  el  Norte,  de  igual  modo,  las 
Naciones  de  los  Itzaex  Petenes:  Y  por  el  Poniente,  las  de  los  Lacandones, 
y  Xoquinoes.'  Villagutierre,  Hist.  Conq.  Itza,  pp.  278-9.  'The  nation  of 


MAYAS  AND  ITZAS.  683 

the  Choi  Indians  is  settled  in  a  country  about  25  or  30  leagues  distant 
from  Cahabon,  the  last  village  in  Verapaz,  and  far  removed  from  the  Man- 
ches.'  Juarros1  Hist.  Guat.,  p.  275. 

The  Mayas  inhabit  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan.  '  Avant  la  conquete  des 
Espagnols,  les  Mayas  occupaient  toute  la  presque'ile  d' Yucatan,  y  compris 
les  districts  de  Peten,  le  Honduras  anglais,  et  la  partie  orientale  de  Tabasco 

La  seule  portion  de  pure  race  restant  de  cette  grande  nation,  se  reduit  a 

quelques  tribus  eparses,  habitant  principalement  les  bords  des  rivieres  Usu- 
masinta,  San  Pedro  et  Pacaitun;  la  totalite  de  leur  territoire  fait,  politique- 
ment  parlant,  partie  du  Peten.'  Galindo,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  desVoy.,  1834, 
torn.  Ixiii.,  pp.  148-9,  and  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  59.  '  En 
todo  el  Estado  de  Yucatan,  Isla  del  Carmen,  pueblo  de  Montecristo  en  Ta 
basco,  y  del  Palenque  en  Chiapas.'  Pimentel,  Cuadro,  torn,  ii.,  p.  3;  Crowe's 
Cent.  America,  pp.  46-7;  Mutter,  Amerikanische  Urreligionen,  p.  453;  Miihlen- 
pfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  i.,  p.  208;  Wappdus,  Geog.  u.  Stat.,  pp.  142-3. 

The  Itzas  occupy  a  like-named  district  in  the  centre  of  Yucatan.  '  Los  que 
poblaron  a  Chicheniza,  se  Hainan  los  Yzaes.'  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iv., 
lib.  x.,  cap.  ii.  « Tienen  por  la  parte  del  Mediodia,  la  Provincia  de  la  Vera- 
Paz,  y  Reyno  de  Guatimala;  por  el  Norte,  las  Provincias  de  Yucatan;  por  la 
parte  del  Oriente,  el  Mar;  por  la  de  el  Occidente,  la  Provincia  de  Chiapa; 
y  al  Sueste,  la  Tierra,  y  Provincia  de  Honduras.'  Villagutierre,  Hist.  Conq. 
Itza,  p.  489. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

WILD   TRIBES   OF   CENTRAL   AMERICA. 

PHYSICAL  GEOGBAPHY  AND  CLIMATE — THREE  GKOUPAL  DIVISIONS;  FIRST,  THE 
NATIONS  OF  YUCATAN,  GUATEMALA,  SALVADOR,  WESTERN  HONDURAS,  AND 
NICARAGUA;  SECOND,  THE  MOSQUITOS  OP  HONDURAS;  THIRD,  THE  NA 
TIONS  or  COSTA  RIGA  AND  THE  ISTHMUS  OF  PANAMA — THE  POPOLI/CAS, 
PIPILES,  AND  CHONTALES — THE  DESCENDANTS  OF  THE  MAYA-QUICHE  RACES 
— THE  NATIVES  OF  NICARAGUA — THE  MOSQUITOS,  POYAS,  RAMAS,  LEN- 
CAS,  TOWKAS,  WOOLWAS,  AND  XlCAQUES,  OF  HONDURAS — THE  GUATUSOS 
OF  THE  Rio  FRIO — THE  CAIMANES,  BAYAMOS,  DORACHOS,  GOAJIROS,  MAN- 
DINGOS,  SAVANERICS,  SAYRONES,  VISCITAS,  AND  OTHERS  LIVING  IN  COSTA  RICA 
AND  ON  THE  ISTHMUS. 

Of  the  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA,  which  ter 
ritorial  group  completes  the  line  of  our  Pacific  States 
seaboard,  I  make  three  divisions  following  modern  geo 
graphical  boundaries,  namely,  the  aborigines  of  Guate 
mala,  Salvador,  and  Nicaragua,  which  I  call  Guatemalans  • 
the  people  of  the  Mosquito  Coast  and  Honduras,  Mos- 
quitos ;  and  the  nations  of  Costa  Rica  and  the  isthmus  of 
Darien,  or  Panama,  Isthmians. 

The  territory  occupied  by  this  group  of  nations  lies 
between  the  eighteenth  and  the  seventh  parallels  of  north 
latitude,  that  is  to  say,  between  the  northern  boundary 
of  the  Central  American  states,  and  the  river  Atrato, 
which  stream  nearly  severs  the  Isthmus  from  the  South 
American  continent.  This  continental  tract  is  a  narrow, 
irregular,  indented  coast-country  of  volcanic  character, 
in  which  Guatemala  and  Honduras  alone  present  any 

(684) 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA.          685 

considerable    breadth.     The   two   Cordilleras,    running 
through  Mexico  and  meeting  on  the  isthmus  of  Tehuan- 
tepec,  continue  their  course  through  Guatemala,  where 
they  form  a  broken  table-land  studded  with  elevations,  of 
less  height  than  the  plateaux  of  Mexico.     After  sinking 
considerably  at  the  isthmus  formed  by  the  gulf  of  Hon 
duras,  this  mountain  range  takes  a  fresh  start  and  offers 
a  formidable  barrier  along  the  Pacific  coast,  which  sends 
a  number  of  transverse  ranges  into  the  interior  of  Hon 
duras,  and  gives  rise  to  countless  rivers,  chiefly  emptying 
into  the  Atlantic.     The  chain  passes  at  a  diminished  alti 
tude  through  Nicaragua,  where  it  forms  a  large  basin,  which 
holds  the  lakes  of  Nicaragua  and  Managua ;  but  on  reaching 
Costa  Rica  it  again  becomes  a  bold,  rugged  range,  capped 
by  the  volcano  of  Cartago.     Seemingly  exhausted  by  its 
wild  contortions,  it  dwindles  into  a  series  of  low  ridges 
on  entering  Veragua,  and  passes  in  this  form  through  the 
isthmus  of  Panama,  until  it  unites  with  the  South  Ameri 
can  Andes.     The  scenery  of  this  region  is  extremely 
varied,  uniting  that  of  most  countries  of  the  globe ;  lakes, 
rivers,  plains,  valleys,  and  bays  abound  in   all  forms 
and  sizes.     The  north-east  trade  winds  blow  the  greater 
part  of  the  year,  and,  meeting  the  high  ranges,  deposit 
their   superabundant   moisture   upon  the  eastern  side, 
which  is  damp,  overgrown  with  rank  vegetation,  filled 
with  marshes,   and  unhealthful.     The  summer  here,  is 
hot  and  fever-breeding.     Relieved  of  their  moisture,  and 
cooled  by  the  mountains,  the  trade  winds  continue  their 
course  through  the  gaps  left  here  and  there,  and  tend 
materially  to  refresh  the  atmosphere  of  the  Pacific  slope 
for  a  part  of  the  year ;  while  the  south-west  winds,  blow 
ing  from  May  to  October,  for  a  few  hours  at  a  time,  bring 
short  rains  to  temper  what  would  otherwise  be  the  hot 
season  on  this  coast.     Dew  falls  everywhere,  except  in 
the  more  elevated  regions,  and  keeps  vegetation  fresh. 
Palms,  plantains,  mahogany,  and  dye-woods  abound  in 
the  hot  district ;  maize  flourishes  best  in  the  temperate 
parts,  while  cedars,  pines,  and  hardier  growths  find  a 
home  in  the  tierra  fria.     The  animal  kingdom  is  best 


686  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

represented  on  the  Atlantic  side,  for  here  the  puma,  the 
tiger-cat,  and  the  deer,  startled  only  by  the  climbing 
opossum  or  the  chattering  monkey,  find  a  more  secure 
retreat.  Birds  of  brilliant  plumage  fill  the  forests 
with  their  songs,  while  the  buzz  of  insects  everywhere 
is  heard  as  they  swarm  over  sweltering  alligators, 
lizards,  and  snakes.  The  manifold  productions,  and  varied 
features  of  the  country  have  had,  no  doubt,  a  great  in 
fluence  in  shaping  the  destiny  of  the  inhabitants.  The 
fine  climate,  good  soil,  and  scarcity  of  game  on  the  Pacific 
side  must  have  contributed  to  the  allurements  of  a  settled 
life  and  assisted  in  the  progress  of  nations  who  had  for 
centuries  before  the  conquest  lived  in  the  enjoyment  of  a 
high  culture.  It  is  hard  to  say  what  might  have  been  the 
present  condition  of  a  people  so  happily  situated,  but  the 
advent  of  the  white  race,  bent  only  upon  the  acquirement 
of  present  riches  by  means  of  oppression,  checked  the 
advancement  of  a  civilization  which  struck  even  the  in 
vaders  with  admiration.  Crossing  to  the  Atlantic  side  we 
find  an  over-abundant  vegetation,  whose  dark  recesses 
serve  as  a  fitting  shelter  for  the  wild  beast.  Here  man, 
imbibing  the  wildness  of  his  surroundings,  and  oppressed 
by  a  feverish  climate,  seems  content  to  remain  in  a  savage 
state  depending  upon  natural  fruits,  the  chase,  and  fish 
ing  for  his  subsistence.  Of  a  roaming  disposition,  he 
objects  to  the  restraint  imposed  by  government  and  forms. 
The  natives  of  Costa  Rica  and  the  isthmus  of  Darien 
escaped  the  civilizing  influence  of  foreign  intercourse, 
— thanks  to  their  geographical  isolation, — and  remain  on 
about  the  same  level  of  culture  as  in  their  primitive 
days. 

Under  the  name  of  GUATEMALANS,  I  include  the  na 
tives  of  Guatemala,  Salvador,  and  Nicaragua.  I  have 
already  pointed  out  the  favorable  features  of  the  region 
inhabited  by  them.  The  only  sultry  portion  of  Guate 
mala  is  a  narrow  strip  along  the  Pacific ;  it  is  occupied  by 
a  few  planters  and  fishermen,  who  find  most  of  their  re 
quirements  supplied  by  the  palms  that  grow  here  in  the 
greatest  luxuriance.  The  chief  part  of  the  population  is 


CENTRAL  AMERICAN  NATIONS.  687 

concentrated  round  the  various  lakes  and  rivers  of  the 
table-land  above,  where  maize,  indigo,  cochineal,  and 
sugar-cane  are  staple  products.  In  the  altos,  the  banana 
is  displaced  by  hardier  fruits  sheltered  under  the  lofty 
cedar,  and  here  we  find  a  thrifty  and  less  humble  people 
who  pay  some  attention  to  manufactures.  Salvador 
presents  less  abrupt  variation  in  its  features.  Although 
outside  of  the  higher  range  of  mountains,  it  still  possesses 
a  considerable  elevation  running  through  its  entire  length, 
which  breaks  out  at  frequent  intervals  into  volcanic  peaks, 
and  gives  rise  to  an  abundant  and  well-spread  water 
system.  Such  favorable  conditions  have  not  failed  to 
gather  a  population  which  is  not  only  the  most  numerous 
comparatively,  but  also  the  most  industrious  in  Central 
America.  Northern  Nicaragua  is  a  continuation  of  Sal 
vador  in  its  features  and  inhabitants;  but  the  central 
and  southern  parts  are  low  and  have  more  the  character 
of  the  Guatemalan  coast,  the  climate  being  hot,  yet  not 
unhealthful.  Its  Atlantic  coast  region,  however,  par 
takes  of  the  generally  unfavorable  condition  described 
above. 

The  Spanish  rulers  naturally  exercised  a  great  influ 
ence  upon  the  natives,  and  their  ancient  civilization  was 
lost  in  the  stream  of  Caucasian  progress,  a  stream  which, 
in  this  region,  itself  flowed  but  slowly  in  later  times. 
Oppressed  and  despised,  a  sullen  indifference  has  set 
tled  upon  the  race,  and  caused  it  to  neglect  even  its 
traditions.  The  greater  portion  still  endeavor  to  keep 
up  tribal  distinctions  and  certain  customs;  certain 
tribes  of  lesser  culture,  as  the  cognate  Manches  and  La- 
candoneSj  retired  before  the  Spaniards  to  the  north  and 
north-east,  where  they  still  live  in  a  certain  isolation 
and  independence.  The  name  Lacandones  has  been 
applied  to  a  number  of  tribes,  of  which  the  eastern  are 
described  to  be  quite  harmless  as  compared  with  the 
western.  The  Quiches,  a  people  living  in  the  altos, 
have  also  surrounded  themselves  with  a  certain  reserve, 
and  are  truer  to  their  ancient  customs  than  the  Zsutu- 
gils,  CakchiquelSj  and  many  others  related  by  language 


688  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTEAL  AMERICA. 

to  the  Quiches  surrounding  them.  The  Pipiles,  mean 
ing  children,  according  to  Molina,  are  the  chief  people 
in  Salvador,  where  their  villages  are  scattered  over  a 
large  extent  of  territory.  In  Nicaragua  we  find  several 
distinct  peoples.  The  aboriginal  inhabitants  seem  to 
have  been  the  different  peoples  known  as  Chorotegans, 
who  occupy  the  country  lying  between  the  bay  of  Fon- 
seca  and  lake  Nicaragua.  The  Chontaks  (strangers,  or 
barbarians)  live  to  the  north-east  of  the  lakes,  and 
assimilate  more  to  the  barbarous  tribes  of  the  Mosquito 
country  adjoining  them.  The  Cholutecs  inhabit  the 
north  from  the  gulf  of  Fonseca  towards  Honduras.  The 
Orotinans  occupy  the  country  south  of  the  lake  of  Nica 
ragua  and  around  the  gulf  of  Nicoya.  Further  informa 
tion  about  the  location  of  the  different  nations  and  tribes 
of  this  family  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  this  chapter.1 

The  GUATEMALANS,  that  is  to  say  the  aborigines  of 
Guatemala,  Salvador,  and  Nicaragua,  are  rather  below 
the  middle  size,  square  and  tough,  with  a  finely  devel 
oped  physique.  Their  hue  is  yellow-brown,  in  some 
parts  coppery,  varying  in  shade  according  to  locality, 
but  lighter  than  that  of  the  standard  American  type. 
The  full  round  face  has  a  mild  expression ;  the  forehead 
is  low  and  retiring,  the  cheek-bones  protruding,  chin  and 
nose  short,  the  latter  thick  and  flat,  lips  full,  eyes  black 
and  small,  turned  upwards  at  the  temples,  with  a  stoical, 

i  The  Lacandones  are  of  one  stock  with  the  Manches,  and  very  numer 
ous.  They  were  highly  civilized  only  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago. 
Boyle's  Ride,  vol.  i.,  preface,  pp.  14-17.  '  The  old  Chontals  were  certainly  in 
a  condition  more  civilised.'  Id.,  pp.  286-95,  265-70.  'Die  Chontales  werden 
auch  Caraiben  genaunt.'  Wappdus,  Geog.  u.  Stat.,  pp.  243-8,  265,  283-90, 
311,  321,  326,  330,  335.  It  seems  there  existed  in  Nicaragua:  Chorotegans, 


_  p. 

Amerika,  torn,  i.,  pp.  285-92;  Puydt,  Rapport,  in  Amerique  Centrals,  p.  69; 
Benzoni,  Hist,  del  Mondo  Nuovo,  fol.  104;  MaUe-Brun,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des 
Voy.,  1858,  torn,  clviii.,  p.  200;  Berendt,  in  Smithsonian  Rept.,  1867,  p.  425; 
Crowe's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  40;  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  pp.  357-8,  370:  Dollfus  and 
Mont-Serrat,  Voy.  Geologique,  pp.  18-19;  Morelet,  Voyage,  torn  i.,  pp.  202, 
208,  272,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  49,  125,  313;  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Hist.  Nat.  Civ., 
torn,  ii.,  pp.  79,  110-11;  Valois,  Mexique,  pp.  288,  299-300;  Escobar,  inLond. 
'  i.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  pp.  89-97. 


PHYSIQUE  AND  DBESS.  689 

distrustful  look.  The  cranium  is  slightly  conical ;  hair 
long,  smooth,  and  black,  fine  but  strong,  retaining  its 
color  well  as  old  age  approaches,  though  sometimes  turn 
ing  white.  Although  the  beard  is  scanty,  natives  may 
be  seen  who  have  quite  a  respectable  moustache.  The 
limbs  are  muscular,  the  calf  of  the  leg  being  especially 
large;  hands  and  feet  small;  a  high  instep,  which,  no 
doubt,  partly  accounts  for  their  great  endurance  in 
walking.  The  women  are  not  devoid  of  good  looks, 
especially  in  Nicaragua,  where,  in  some  districts,  they 
are  said  to  be  stronger  and  better  formed  than  the  men. 
The  custom  of  carrying  pitchers  of  water  upon  the  head, 
gives  to  the  women  an  erect  carriage  and  a  firm  step. 
The  constitution  of  the  males  is  good,  and,  as  a  rule, 
they  reach  a  ripe  old  age;  the  females  are  less  long-lived. 
Deformed  persons  are  extremely  rare.  Guatemala,  with 
its  varied  geographical  aspects,  presents  striking  differ 
ences  in  physique ;  the  highlanders  being  lighter  in  com 
plexion,  and  finer  in  form  and  features  than  the 
inhabitants  of  the  lowlands.2 

Intercourse  with  Spaniards  seems  to  have  produced 
little  change  in  the  dress  of  the  Guatemalans,  which  is 
pretty  much  the  same  as  that  of  the  Mexicans.  The 
poorer  class  wear  a  waist-cloth  of  white  cotton,  or  of  pita, 
which  is  a  kind  of  white  hemp,  or  a  long  shirt  of  the 
same  material,  with  short  sleeves,  partly  open  at  the 
sides,  the  ends  of  which  are  passed  between  the  legs, 
and  fastened  at  the  waist;  a  strip  of  cotton  round  the 

2  Crowe's  Cent.  Amer.,  pp.  40-1;  Squier's  Nicaragua,  pp.  268,  278-9;  Froe- 
bel's  Cent.  Amer.,  pp.  33-4;  Dunn's  Guatemala,  pp.  277-8;  Reichardt,  Nicara 
gua,  pp.  106-7;  3Iontanus,  Nieuwe  Weereld,  p.  272;  Lafond,  Voyages,  torn,  i., 
p.  338;  Morelet,  Voyage,  torn,  i.,  p.  260,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  126,  197;  Andagoya,  in 
Navarrete,  Col.  deViages,  torn,  iii.,  p. 414;  Belly,  Nicaragua,  tom.i.,  pp.  200-1; 
Scherzer,  Wanderungen,  pp.  52-3;  Foote's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  104.  Round  Leon 
'  hay  mas  indios  tuertos .  . . . y  es  la  causa  el  coiitfnuo  polvo.'  Oviedo,  Hist. 
Gen.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  64.  In  Guatemala,  'los  hombres  muy  gruessos.'  Herrera,. 
Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iii.,  lib.  v.,  caps,  xi.,  xii.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  x.,  cap.  xiv. 
'  Ceux  de  la  tierra  fria  sont  petits,  trapus,  bien  membres,  susceptibles  de 
grandes  fatigues . . .  ceux  de  la  tierra  caliente  sont  grands,  '  maigres,  pares- 
seux.'  I)  oil f us  and  Mont- S  err  at,  Voy.  Geologique,  pp.  47,  21.  'Kurze  Schen- 
kel,  laugen  Oberleib,  kurze  Stirne  und  langes  struppiges  Haar. '  Billow, 
Nicaragua,  p.  78.  'The  disproportionate  size  of  the  head,  the  coarse  harsh 
hair,  and  the  dwarfish  stature,'  of  the  Masayas.  Boyle's  Ride,  vol.  ii.,  pp. 
8-9. 

vol.  i:  u 


690  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

head,  surmounted  by  a  dark-colored   hat  of  straw  or 
palm-leaves,  with  a  very  wide  brim,  completes  the  attire. 
This  cotton  cap  or  turban  is  an  indispensable  article  of 
dress  to  the  highlander,  who  passes  suddenly  from  the 
cold  air  of  the  hilly  country,  to  the  burning  plains  below. 
Sumptuary  regulations  here  obtain,  as  aboriginally  the 
lower  classes  were  not  allowed  to  wear  anything  better 
than  pita  clothing,  cotton  being  reserved  for  the  nobles. 
The  primitive  dress  of  the  nobility  is  a  colored  waist- 
cloth,  and  a  mantle  ornamented  and  embroidered  with 
figures  of  birds,  tigers,  and  other  designs,  and,  although 
they  have  adopted  much  of  the  Spanish  dress,  the  rich 
and  fanciful  stitchings  on  the  shirt,  still  distinguish  them 
from  their  inferiors.     On  feast-days,  and  when  travel 
ing,  a  kind  of  blanket,  commonly  known  as  serape,  manga, 
.or  poncho,  is  added  to  the  ordinary  dress.     The  serape, 
which  differs  in  style  according  to  locality,  is  closer  in 
texture  than  the  ordinary  blanket  and  colored,  checked, 
.figured,  or  fringed,  to  suit  the  taste.     It  has  an  opening 
in  the  centre,  through  which  the  head  is  passed,  and 
hanging   in  loose  folds  over  the  body  it  forms  a  very 
picturesque  attire.     Some  fasten  it  with  a  knot  on  one 
shoulder,  leaving  it  to  fall  over  the  side  from  the  other. 
The  serape  also  serves  for  rain-coat  and  wrapper,  and, 
.at  night,  it  is  wound  round  the  head  and  body,  serving 
for  bed  as  well  as  covering,  the  other  portion  of  the  dress 
being  made  into  a  pillow.     The  carriers  of  Guatemala 
use  a  rain -proof  palm-leaf  called  suyacal.      Shepherds 
are  distinguished  by  a  black  and  white  checked  apron, 
somewhat  resembling  the  Scotch  kilt.     The  hair,  which, 
before  the  conquest  of  Guatemala,  was  worn  long,  and 
hung  in  braids  down  the  back,  is  now  cut  short,  except 
in  the  remote  mountain  districts,  where  long  loose  hair 
is  still  the  fashion.     In  Salvador  and  Nicaragua,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  front  part  of  the  hair  used  to  be  shaved 
off,  the   brave   often   appearing   perfectly   bald.     Most 
natives  go  bare-footed,  except  when  traveling;  they  then 
put  on  sandals,  which  consist  of  a  piece  of  hide  fastened 
by  thongs.     The  women,  when  at  home,  content  them- 


GUATEMALAN  DRESS  AND  ORNAMENTS.  691 

selves  with  a  waist-cloth,  generally  blue-checked,  secured 
by  a  twisted  knot;  but,  on  going  abroad,  they  put  on 
the  huipil,  which  is  a  piece  of  white  cotton,  having  an 
opening  in  the  middle  for  the  head,  and  covering  the 
breast  and  back,  as  far  as  the  waist.  Some  huipils  are 
sewed  together  at  the  sides  and  have  short  sleeves.  On 
this  part  of  their  dress  the  women — who,  for  that  matter, 
attend  to  the  manufacture  and  dyeing  of  all  the  clothing 
—expend  their  best  efforts.  They  embroider,  or  dye, 
the  neck  and  shoulders  with  various  designs,  whose  out 
lines  and  coloring  often  do  great  credit  to  their  taste. 
In  Guatemala,  the  colors  and  designs  are  distinct  for 
different  villages,  so  that  it  may  at  once  be  seen  to  which 
tribe  the  wearer  belongs.  The  hair  is  plaited  into  one 
or  two  braids,  interlaced  with  bright-colored  ribbons, 
and  usually  wreathed  turban- fashion  round  the  head. 
The  Quiches,  whose  red  turban-dress  is  more  pronounced 
than  others,  sometimes  vary  it  by  adding  yellow  bands 
and  tassels  to  the  braids,  which  are  permitted  to  hang 
down  to  the  heels.  Thomas  Gage,  who  lived  in  Guatemala 
from  about  1627  to  1638,  relates  that  on  gala-days  the 
fair  natives  were  arrayed  in  cotton  veils  reaching  to  the 
ground.  The  ancient  custom  of  painting,  and  of  pierc 
ing  the  ears  and  lip,  to  hold  pendants,  is  now  restricted 
to  the  remote  hill  country,  and  ornaments  are  limited  to 
to  a  few  strings  of  beads,  shells,  and  metal  for  the  arms 
and  neck,  with  an  occasional  pair  of  ear-rings;  the 
women  add  flowers  and  garlands  to  their  head-dress, 
especially  on  feast-days.  Some  mountain  tribes  of 
Guatemala  wear  red  feathers  in  their  cotton  turbans — 
the  nobles  and  chiefs  using  green  ones — and  paint  the 
body  black:  the  paint  being,  no  doubt,  intended  for  a 
protection  against  mosquitos.  The  apron  worn  by  the 
women  is  made  of  bark,  which,  after  being  soaked  and 
beaten,  assumes  the  appearance  of  chamois  leather.  The 
Lacandones  also  wore  cotton  sacks  adorned  with  tassels, 
and  the  women  had  bracelets  of  cords  with  tassels.  In 
Nicaragua,  tattooing  seems  to  have  been  practiced,  for 
Oviedo  says  that  the  natives  cut  their  faces  and  arms 


692  WILD  TEIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMEEICA. 

with  flint  knives,  and  rubbed  a  black  powder  obtained 
from  pine  gum  into  the  scars.  Children  wear  no  other 
dress  than  that  provided  by  nature :  here  and  there,  how 
ever,  the  girls  are  furnished  with  a  strip  of  cotton  for 
the  waist.3 

The  conquerors  have  left  numerous  records  of  large 
cities  with  splendid  palaces  and  temples  of  stone,  but 
these  exist  now  only  in  their  ruins.  The  masses  had, 
doubtless,  no  better  houses  than  those  we  see  at  present. 
Their  huts  are  made  of  wooden  posts  and  rafters  sup 
porting  a  thatched  roof  of  straw  or  palm-leaves,  the 
side  being  stockaded  with  cane,  bamboo,  or  rush,  so  as 
to  allow  a  free  passage  to  the  air.  Generally  they  have 
but  one  room ;  two  or  three  stones  in  the  centre  of  the 
hut  compose  the  fireplace,  and  the  only  egress  for  the 
smoke  is  through  the  door.  The  room  is  scantily  fur 
nished  with  a  few  mats,  a  hammock,  and  some  earthen 
ware.  Their  villages  are  generally  situated  upon  rising 
ground, <and,  owing  to  the  houses  being  so  scattered, 
they  often  extend  over  a  league,  which  gives  some 
foundation  to  the  statements  of  the  conquerors  reporting 
the  existence  of  towns  of  enormous  size.  The  better 
kind  of  villages  have  regular  streets,  a  thing  not  to  be 
seen  in  the  ordinary  hamlets;  and  the  houses,  which  are 
often  of  adobes  (sun-burnt  bricks),  or  of  cane  plastered 
over,  containing  two  or  three  rooms  and  a  loft,  are  sur 
rounded  by  neatly  kept  gardens,  enclosed  within  hedges. 

3  Andagoya,  in  Navarrete,  Col.  de  Viages,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  407,  414.  In 
Salvador,  the  women's  '  only  garment  being  a  long  straight  piece  of  cotton 
cloth  without  a  seam.'  Foote's  Cent.  Amer.,  pp.  103-4.  The  Nicaraguans 
'  se  rasent  la  barbe,  les  cheueux,  et  tout  le  poil  du  corps,  et  ne  laissent  que 
quelques  cheueux  sur  le  sommet  de  la  teste. . .  .Us  portent  des  gabans,  et 
des  chemises  sans  manches.'  D'Avity,  L'Amerique,  torn,  ii.,  p.  93.  'The 
custom  of  tattooing,  it  seems,  was  practiced  to  a  certain  extent,  at  least  so 
far  as  to  designate,  by  peculiarities  in  the  marks,  the  several  tribes  or  cazi- 
ques  ...they  flattened  their  heads.'  Squier's  Nicaragua,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  341, 
345;  Id.,  Nicaragua,  pp.  273-4;  Valenzuela,  in  Id.,  Cent.  Amer,  p.  566;  Tempsky's 
Mitla,  pp.  363-5,  368;  Doll/us  and  Mont-Serrat,  Voy.  Geologique,  pp.  19-20, 
46-9,  59-60;  Juarros'  Hist.  Guat.,  pp.  193-5;  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  pp.  302-5; 
Valois,  Mexique,  pp.  278-9;  Gage's  New  Survey,  pp.  316-8;  Montgomery's 
Guatemala,  pp.  98-9;  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iii.,  lib.  iv.,  cap.  vii.;  Morekt, 
Voyage,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  102,  126,  145,  171,  227,  245,  253;  Galindo,  in  Nouvelles 
Annales  des  Voy.,  1834,  torn.  Ixiii.,  p.  149;  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geografia,  p.  166; 
Gomara,  Hist.  Ind.,  fol.  263. 


GUATEMALAN  DWELLINGS.  693 

When  a  Guatemalan  wishes  to  build  a  hut,  or  repair 
one,  he  notifies  the  chief,  who  summons  the  tribe  to 
bring  straw  and  other  needful  materials,  and  the  work 
is  finished  in  a  few  hours;  after  which  the  owner  sup 
plies  the  company  with  chocolate.  Some  of  the  Yera 
Paz  tribes  are  of  a  roaming  disposition.  They  will  take 
great  trouble  in  clearing  and  preparing  a  piece  of  ground 
for  sowing,  and,  after  one  or  two  harvests,  will  leave  for 
another  locality.  Their  dwellings,  which  are  often 
grouped  in  hamlets,  are  therefore  of  a  more  temporary 
character,  the  walls  being  of  maize-stalks  and  sugar-cane, 
surmounted  by  a  slight  palm-leaf  roof.  During  an  ex 
pedition  into  the  country  of  the  Lacandones,  the  Spaniards 
found  a  town  of  over  one  hundred  houses,  better  con 
structed  than  the  villages  on  the  Guatemalan  plateau. 
In  the  centre  of  the  place  stood  three  large  buildings,  one 
a  temple,  and  the  other  two  assembly  houses,  for  men  and 
women  respectively.  All  were  enclosed  with  fences 
excellently  varnished.  The  ISTicaraguan  villages  seem 
to  be  the  neatest;  the  houses  are  chiefly  of  plaited  cane 
or  bamboo  frame-work,  raised  a  few  feet  from  the 
ground,  and  standing  in  the  midst  of  well-arranged  flow 
ers  and  shrubbery.  Dollfus  describes  a  simple  but  in 
genious  method  used  by  the  Guatemalans  to  cross  deep 
rivers.  A  stout  cable  of  aloe-fibres  is  passed  over  the 
stream,  and  fixed  to  the  banks  at  a  sufficient  height 
from  the  surface  of  the  water.  To  this  rope  bridge, 
called  garucha,  is  attached  a  running  strap,  which  the 
traveler  passes  round  his  body,  and  is  pulled  across  by 
men  stationed  on  the  opposite  side.4 

4  The  Lacandones  have  '  floating  gardens  which  can  navigate  the  lagoons 
like  bolsas,'  and  are  often  inhabited.  They  have  stone  sepulchres  highly 
sculptured.  Pontelli,  in  Cal.  Farmer,  Nov.  7,  1862.  '  In  these  ancient  Chon- 
tales  villages  the  houses  were  in  the  centre,  and  the  tombs,  placed  in  a  circle 
around ....  The  Indians  who  before  the  Spanish  conquest  inhabited  Nicaragua 
did  not  construct  any  large  temples  or  other  stone  buildings.'  Pirn  and  See- 
mami's  Dottings,  pp.  126-7.  They  live  like  their  forefathers 'in  buildings 
precisely  similar. . .  .some  huts  of  a  single  room  will  monopolise  an  acre  of 
land.'  Boyle's  Ride,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  6-8;  Game's  New  Survey,  pp.  318-19;  Scher- 
zer,  Wanderungen,  pp.  75,  430,  496;  Puydt,  Rapport,  in  Amerique  Centrale, 
pp.  69-70;  Valois,  Mexique,  p.  278;  Benzoni,  Hist.  Mondo  Nuovo,  fol.  86, 
1U2;  Froebel's  Cent.  Amer.,  pp.  89,  96;  Dollfus  and  Mont-Serrat,  Voy.  Geo- 


694=  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

These  natives  are  essentially  agricultural,  but,  like  all 
who  inhabit  the  warm  zone,  desire  to  live  with  the  least 
possible  labor.  Most  of  them  are  content  with  a  small 
patch  of  ground  round  their  huts,  on  which  they  culti 
vate,  in  the  same  manner  as  did  their  forefathers,  the  lit 
tle  maize,  beans,  and  the  banana  and  plantain  trees  neces 
sary  for  their  subsistence.  There  are,  however,  a  number 
of  small  farmers,  who  raise  cochineal,  cacao,  indigo,  and 
cotton,  thereby  adding  to  their  own  and  their  country's 
prosperity.  In  the  more  thinly  settled  districts,  hunting 
enables  them  to  increase  the  variety  of  their  food  with 
the  flesh  of  wild  hogs,  deer,  and  other  game,  which  are 
generally  brought  down  with  stone -headed  arrows. 
When  hunting  the  wild  hog,  they  stretch  a  strong  net, 
with  large  meshes,  in  some  part  of  the  woods,  and  drive 
the  animals  towards  it.  These  rush  headlong  into  the 
meshes,  and  are  entangled,  enabling  their  pursuers  to 
dispatch  them  with  ease. 

Beans,  and  tortillas  of  maize,  with  the  inevitable  chile 
for  seasoning,  and  plantains  or  bananas  are  their  chief 
food.  To  these  may  be  added  meat  in  small  quantities, 
fish,  eggs,  honey,  turtle,  fowl,  and  a  variety  of  fruit  and 
roots.  Salt  is  obtained  by  boiling  the  soil  gathered  on 
the  sea-shore.  Maize  is  prepared  in  several  ways.  When 
young  and  tender,  the  ears  are  boiled,  and  eaten  with 
salt  and  pepper;  or  a  portion  of  them  are  pressed,  and 
the  remainder  boiled  with  the  juice  thus  extracted. 
When  ripe,  the  fruit  is  soaked  and  then  dried  between 
the  hands,  previous  to  being  crushed  to  flour  between 
two  stones.  It  is  usually  made  into  tortillas,  which  are 
eaten  hot,  with  a  strong  sprinkling  of  pepper  and  occa 
sionally  a  slight  addition  of  fat.  Tamales  is  the  name 
for  balls  of  cooked  maize  mixed  with  beef  and  chile,  and 
rolled  in  leaves.  A  favorite  dish  is  a  dumpling  made  of 
maize  and  frijoles.  The  frijoles,  or  beans,  of  which  a  stock 
is  always  kept,  are  boiled  a  short  time  with  chile ;  they 

logique,  pp.  19,  55;  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iii.,  lib.  iv.,  cap.  vii.;  Berendt, 
in  Smithsonian  Kept.,  1867,  p.  425;  West  und  Ost  Indischer  Lustgart,  pt  ii.,  pp. 
380,  390;  Valenzuela,  in  Squier's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  566. 


FOOD  OF  THE  GUATEMALANS.  695 

are  then  mixed  with  maize,  and  again  put  into  the  pot 
until  thoroughly  cooked,  when  they  are  eaten  with  a 
sauce  made  of  salt,  chile,  and  water.  There  are  a  num 
ber  of  fluid  and  solid  preparations  made  chiefly  from 
maize,  and  known  as  atole,  to  which  name  various  pre 
fixes  are  added  to  denote  the  other  ingredients  used. 
Meat,  which  is  usually  kept  jerked,  is  a  feast-day  food. 
Grage  describes  the  jerking  process  as  follows:  Fresh 
meat  is  cut  into  long  strips,  salted,  and  hung  between 
posts  to  dry  in  the  sun  for  a  week.  The  strips  are  then 
smoked  for  another  week,  rolled  up  in  bundles,  which 
become  quite  hard,  and  are  called  tassajo  or  cesina. 
Another  mode  of  preparing  meat  is  described  by  the 
same  author:  When  a  deer  has  been  shot,  the  body  is 
left  until  decay  and  maggots  render  it  appetizing;  it  is 
then  brought  home  and  parboiled  with  a  certain  herb 
until  the  flesh  becomes  sweet  and  white.  The  joint  is 
afterwards  again  boiled,  and  eaten  with  chile.  The  La- 
candones  preserve  meat  as  follows :  A  large  hole  is  made 
in  the  ground,  and  lined  with  stones.  After  the  hole  has 
been  heated,  the  meat  is  thrown  in,  and  the  top  covered 
with  leaves  and  earth,  upon  which  a  fire  is  kept  burn 
ing.  The  meat  takes  four  hours  to  cook,  and  can  be 
preserved  for  eight  or  ten  days.  Cacao  forms  an  im 
portant  article  of  food,  both  as  a  drink  and  as  bread. 
The  kernel  is  picked  when  ripe,  dried  on  a  mat,  and 
roasted  in  an  earthen  pan,  previous  to  being  ground  to 
flour.  Formerly,  cacao  was  reserved  for  the  higher 
classes,  and  even  now  the  poor  endeavor  to  economize  it 
by  adding  sapuyal,  the  kernel  of  the  sapote.  They  ob 
serve  no  regularity  in  their  meals,  but  eat  and  drink  at 
pleasure.  When  traveling,  some  roasted  maize  .paste 
called  totoposte,  crumbled  in  boiling  water  with  an  addi 
tion  of  salt  and  pepper,  and  a  cup  of  warm  water,  suffice 
for  a  repast.  Fire  is  obtained  in  the  usual  primitive 
manner,  by  rubbing  two  sticks  together.5 

5  They  '  vivent  le  plus  souvent  de  fruits  et  deracines.'  Dollfusand  Mont- 
Serrat,  Voy.  Geologique,  pp.  47,  20-2,  69.  'Tout  en  faisant  niaigre  chere,  ils 
mangent  et  boivent  continuellement,  comme  les  animaux.'  Morelet,  Voyage, 


696  WILD  TBIBES  OF  CENTKAL  AMERICA. 

Most  authorities  agree  that  they  are  clean  in  their 
habits,  and  that  frequent  bathing  is  the  rule,  yet  it  is 
hinted  that  leprosy  is  caused  partially  by  uncleanliness.6 

Since  the  Spaniards  assumed  control  of  the  country, 
weapons,  as  applied  to  war,  have  fallen  into  disuse,  and 
it  is  only  in  the  mountain  districts  that  we  meet  the 
hunter  armed  with  bow  and  spear,  and  slung  over  his 
shoulder  a  quiver  full  of  reed  arrows,  pointed  with  stone. 
In  Salvador  and  Nicaragua,  the  natives  are  still  very  ex 
pert  in  the  use  of  the  sling,  game  often  being  brought 
down  by  it.7 

I  find  no  record  of  any  wars  among  the  aborigines 
since  the  conquest,  and  the  only  information  relating  to 
their  war  customs,  gathered  from  the  account  of  skir 
mishes  which  the  Spaniards  have  had  with  some  of  the 
tribes  in  eastern  Guatemala,  is,  that  the  natives  kept  in 
the  back-ground,  hidden  by  rocks  or  trees,  waiting  for 
the  enemy  to  approach.  As  soon  as  the  soldiers  came 
close  enough,  a  cloud  of  arrows  came  whizzing  among 
them,  and  the  warriors  appeared,  shouting  with  all  their 
might.  The  Lacandones  occasionally  retaliate  upon  the 
planters  on  their  borders  for  ill-treatment  received  at 
their  hands.  A  number  of  warriors  set  out  at  night 
with  faggots  of  dry  sticks  and  grass,  which  are  lighted  as 
they  approach  the  plantation,  and  thrown  into  the  enemy's 
camp;  during  the  confusion  that  ensues,  the  proposed 

torn,  ii.,  pp.  104,  92,  102,  132,  134,  145,  240,  torn,  i.,  pp.  205-6.  Nicaraguans 
'essen  auch  Menschenfleisch. . .  .alle  Tag  machet  nur  ein  Nachbar  em 
Fewer  an,  clabei  sie  alle  kochen,  vnd  dann  ein  anderer.'  West  und  Ost  Tn- 
discher  Lustgart,  pt  i.,  p.  390.  '  Perritos  pequenos  que  tambien  los  comian. 
y  muchos  venados  y  pesquerfas.'  Andagoya,  in  Navarrete,  Col.  de  Viages, 
torn,  iii.,  pp.  413-14,  407.  Hunting  alligators:  a  man  dives  under,  and 
fastens  a  noose  round  the  leg  of  the  sleeping  monster;  his  companions  then 
haul  it  on  shore  and  kill  it.  Sivers,  Mittdamerika,  pp.  139,  130.  Compare 
further:  Findlay's  Directory,  vol.  i.,  p.  253;  Gage's  New  Survey,  pp.  319-23; 
Scherzer,  Wanderungen,  pp.  412-13,  494;  Benzoni,  Hist.  Mondo  Nuovo,  fol. 
103-4;  Juarros'  Hist.  Guat.,  pp.  196-7;  Ilerrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  viii., 
cap.  vii-ix.,  lib.  x.,  cap.  xiv. ;  Escobar,  in  Land.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p. 
Ui;  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  320;  Waldeck,  Voy.  Pitt.,  pp.  42-3. 

6  Dunlop's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  337;  Scherzer,  Wanderungen,  p.  173. 

7  The  Lacandones  '  emploient  des  fleches  de  canne  ayant  des  tetes  de  cail- 
loux.'  Galindo,  in  Antiq.  Mex.,  torn,  i.,  div.  ii.,  p.  67.     See  also,  Billow,  Nica 
ragua,  pp.  79-80;  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  p.  305;  Juarros'  Hist.  Guat.,  pp.  195, 
278;  Sctierzer,  Wanderungen,  pp.  413,  430;  Froebel,  Aus  Amerika,  torn,  i.,  p. 
358. 


WAR,  WEAPONS,  AND  IMPLEMENTS.  697 

reprisal  is  made.  One  writer  gives  a  brief  description  of 
the  ceremonies  preceding  and  following  their  expedi 
tions.  In  front  of  the  temple  are  burning  braziers  filled 
with  odoriferous  resin ;  round  this  the  warriors  assemble 
in  full  dress,  their  arms  being  placed  behind  them.  A 
smaller  brazier  of  incense  blazes  in  front  of  each  warrior, 
before  which  he  prostrates  himself,  imploring  the  aid  of 
the  Great  Spirit  in  his  enterprise.  On  their  return, 
they  again  assemble,  disguised  in  the  heads  of  various 
animals,  and  go  through  a  war  dance  before  the  chief 
and  his  council.  Sentinels  are  always  pacing  the  sum 
mit  of  the  hills,  and  give  notice  to  one  another,  by  trum 
pet  blast,  of  the  approach  of  any  stranger.  If  it  is  an 
enemy,  they  speedily  form  ambuscades  to  entrap  him.8 

I  have  already  referred  to  the  bare  interior  of  their 
dwellings:  a  few  mats,  a  hammock,  and  some  earthen 
ware  being  the  only  apology  for  furniture.  The  mats 
are  plaited  .of  bark  or  other  fibres,  and  serve,  among 
other  purposes,  as  a  bed  for  the  children,  the  grown 
persons  generally  sleeping  in  hammocks  attached  to  the 
rafters.  Scattered  over  the  floor  may  be  seen  the 
earthen  jar  which  the  women  so  gracefully  balance  on 
their  head  when  bringing  it  full  of  water  from  the 
well;  the  earthen  pot  for  boiling  plantains,  with  its 
folded  banana-leaf  cover;  cups  made  from  clay,  cala 
bash,  cocoa-nut,  or  wacal  shells,  with  their  stands,  often 
polished  and  bearing  the  marks  of  native  sculpture ;  the 
metate  for  grinding  the  family  flour;  the  comal,  a  clay 
plate  upon  which  the  tortilla  is  baked.  A  banana-leaf 
serves  for  a  plate,  and  a  fir-stick  does  the  duty  of  a 
candle.  Their  hunting  or  bag  nets  are  made  of  pita  or 
bark-fibres.  The  steel  machete  and  the  knife  have  en 
tirely  displaced  their  ancient  silex  tools,  of  which  some 
relics  may  still  be  found  among  the  Lacandones.  Ya- 
lenzuela  mentions  that  in  the  meeting-house  of  this 
tribe,  the  conquerors  found  two  hundred  hariging  seats.9 


«  Morelet,  Voyage,  torn,  ii.,  p.  31;  Pontelli,  in  Cal.  Farmer,  Nov.  7,  14,  1862. 

9  Valois,  Mexique,  pp.  278,  287;  Sivers,   Mlttelamerika,   p.   130;  Scherzer, 

Wanderungen,  p.  430;  Mbntanus,  Nieuwe  Weereld,  p.  279;  Squier's  Nicaragua, 


698  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTEAL  AMEEICA. 

These  natives  still  excel  in  the  manufacture  of  pottery, 
and  produce,  without  the  aid  of  tools,  specimens  that 
are  as  remarkable  for  their  fanciful  forms,  as  for  their 
elegance  and  coloring.  Water-jars  are  made  sufficiently 
porous  to  allow  the  water  to  percolate  and  keep  the  con 
tents  cool;  other  earthenware  is  glazed  by  rubbing  the 
heated  vessel  with  a  resinous  gum.  Nor  are  they  behind 
hand  in  the  art  of  weaving,  for  most  of  the  fabrics  used 
in  the  country  are  of  native  make.  The  aboriginal 
spinning  machine  is  not  yet  wholly  displaced,  and  con 
sists,  according  to  Squier,  of  a  thin  spindle  of  wood, 
fifteen  or  sixteen  inches  in  length,  which  is  passed 
through  a  wheel  of  hard,  heavy  wood,  six  inches  in  di 
ameter,  and  resembles  a  gigantic  top.  When  used,  it  is 
placed  in  a  hollowed  piece  of  wood,  to  prevent  it  from 
toppling  over.  A  thread  is  attached  to  the  spindle  just 
above  the  wheel,  and  it  is  then  twirled  rapidly  between 
the  thumb  and  forefinger.  The  momentum  of  the  wheel 
keeps  it  in  motion  for  half  a  minute,  and  meantime  the 
thread  is  drawn  out  by  the  operator  from  the  pile  of 
prepared  cotton  in  her  lap.  Their  mode  of  weaving  is 
the  same  as  that  of  the  Mexicans,  and  the  fabrics  are 
not  only  durable,  but  tastefully  designed  and  colored  to 
suit  the  quality  and  price.  The  dyes  used  are,  indigo 
for  blue,  cochineal  for  red,  and  indigo  mixed  with  lemon 
juice  for  black.  The  Nicaraguans  obtain  a  highly  prized 
purple  by  pressing  the  valve  of  a  shell-fish  found  on  the 
sea-shore.  Baily  says  that  they  take  the  material  to 
the  seaside,  and,  after  procuring  a  quantity  of  fresh 
coloring  matter,  dip  each  thread  singly  into  it,  and  lay 
it  aside  to  dry.  From  the  aloe,  and  pita,  or  silk-grass, 
which  are  very  strong  and  can  easily  be  bleached,  they 

pp.  272-3;  Valenzu'ela,  in  Id.,  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  567.  The  Lacandon  hut  con 
tained  '  des  metiers  a  tisser,  des  sarbacanes,  des  baches  et  d'autres  outils  en 
silex.'  Morelet,  Voyage,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  79,  104,  197,  211.  '  Duermen  en  vna 
red,  que  se  les  entra  por  las  costillas,  o  en  vn  canizo,  y  por  cabecera  vn  ma- 
dero:  ya  se  alumbran  con  teas.'  Iterrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  x.,  cap. 
xiv.,  dec.  ii.,  lib.  iii.,  cap.  vi.  At  Masaya,  « Leur  mobilier  se  compose  de 
nattes  par  terre,  de  hamacs  suspendus,  d'un  lit  de  cuir  et  d'une  caisse  en 
cedre,  quelquefois  ornee  d'incrustations  de  cuivre.'  Belly,  Nicaragua,  torn. 
i.,  pp.,  197-8. 


GUATEMALAN  CANOES.  699 

obtain  a  very  fine  thread,  suitable  for  the  finest  weaving. 
Reeds  and  bark  give  material  for  coarser  stuff,  such  as 
ropes  and  nets.  Mats  and  hammocks,  which  are  made 
from  any  of  the  last-mentioned  fibres,  are  often  inter 
woven  with  gray  colors  and  rich  designs.  Some  idea 
may  be  formed  of  the  patient  industry  of  the  native 
when  we  learn  that  he  will  work  for  months  upon  one 
of  the  highly  prized  hats  made  from  the  fibre  of  the 
half-formed  carludovica  palmata  leaf.  They  drill  holes 
in  stones,  for  pipes  and  other  objects,  by  twirling  a  stick 
rapidly  between  the  hands  in  some  sand  and  water  placed 
upon  the  stone.10 

Canoes  are  the  usual  i  dug-outs,'  made  from  a  single 
cedar  or  mahogany  log,  cedar  being  liked  for  its  light 
ness,  mahogany  for  its  durability.  They  are  frequent 
enough  on  the  coast,  and  even  the  north-eastern  Guate 
malans  used  to  muster  fleets  of  several  hundred  canoes 
on  their  lakes  and  rivers,  using  them  for  trade  as  well  as 
war.  Pirn,  when  at  Grey  town,  particularly  observed 
the  hollowed-out  boats,  some  upwards  of  fifty  feet  in 
length,  and  straight  as  an  arrow.  He  says  that  they  are 
very  skillfully  handled,  and  may  be  seen  off  the  harbor 
in  any  weather.  The  paddles,  which  are  used  both  for 
steering  and  propelling,  are  of  light  mahogany,  four  feet 
long,  with  very  broad  blades,  and  a  cross  at  the  handle.11 

Their  wealth,  which,  since  the  conquest,  mostly  consists 
of  household  goods,  is  the  product  of  their  farms  and  in 
dustry  mentioned  under  food,  implements,  and  manu 
factures.  The  coast  tribes,  in  Salvador,  have  a  source  of 
wealth  not  yet  referred  to — balsam — and  they  are  very 
jealous  of  their  knowledge  of  obtaining  it.  The  process, 

10  '  Le  principe  colorant  est  fixe  au  moyen  d'une  substance  grasse  que  Ton 
obtient  par  1'ebullition  d'un  insecte  nomme  age.'  Morelet,  Voyage,  torn,  ii., 
pp.  130,  197.    Consult  further,  Squler's  Nicaragua,  pp.  269-73;  Bailyjs  Cent. 
Amer.,  pp.  124-5;  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  viii.,  cap.  vii.,  ix.,  lib. 
x.,   cap.   xiv.;   Crowe's  Cent.  Amer.,  pp.  44;  Squier,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  v., 
p.  215;  Doll/us  and  Mont-Serrat,  Voy.  Geologique,  p.  47;  Dunlop's  Cent.  Amer., 
p.  338;  Montanus,  Nieuwe  Weereld,  p.  274. 

11  Pirn  and  Seemann's  Dottings,  pp.  241-2;  Lafond,    Voyages,  torn,  i.,  p. 
317;  Morelet,  Voyage,  torn,  ii.,  p.  31;  Doll/us  and  Mont-Serrat,  Voy.  Geologi 
que,  pp.  47-8.     In  their  trade,  the  Lacandones  '  are  said  to  have  employed 
not  less  than  424  canoes.'  Juarros'  Hist.  Guat.,  p.  271. 


700  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMEKICA. 

as  described  by  Dollfus.  is  to  make  several  deep  incisions 
in  the  trunk  of  the  balsam-tree,  and  stuff  the  holes 
with  cotton  rags.  When  these  have  absorbed  sufficient 
balm,  they  are  placed  in  jars  of  water ,  and  submitted 
to  a  moderate  heat.  The  heat  separates  the  substance 
from  the  rags,  and  the  balsam  rises  to  the  surface  to  be 
skimmed  and  placed  in  well-closed  jars  for  shipment. 
These  people  possess  no  written  records  to  establish  own 
ership  to  their  property,  but  hold  it  by  ancient  rights 
transmitted  from  father  to  son,  which  are  transferable. 
The  right  of  first  discovery,  as  applied  to  fruit-trees  and 
the  like,  is  respected,  and  can  be  transmitted.  Goods 
and  lands  are  equally  divided  among  the  sons.  There 
is  a  general  interchange  of  products  on  a  small  scale, 
and  as  soon  as  the  farm  yield  is  ready,  or  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  hammocks,  mats,  hats,  and  cups  have  been 
prepared,  the  native  will  start  on  a  short  trading- tour, 
with  the  load  on  his  back — for  they  use  no  other  mode 
of  transport.  The  ancient  custom  of  holding  frequent 
markets  in  all  towns  of  any  importance  has  not  quite 
disappeared,  for  Masaya,  among  other  places,  continues 
to  keep  a  daily  tianguez.  Cacao-beans,  which  were  for 
merly  the  chief  currency,  are  still  used  for  that  purpose 
to  a  certain  extent,  and  make  up  a  large  item  in  their 
wealth.  The  Lacandones  at  one  time  drove  a  brisk 
trade  on  the  rio  de  la  Pasion,  employing  several  hun 
dred  canoes,  but  this  has  now  greatly  diminished,  and 
they  seem  to  grow  less  and  less  inclined  to  intercourse. 
Hardcastle  relates  that  two  shy  mountain  tribes  of  Gua 
temala  "  exchange  dogs  and  a  species  of  very  sharp  red 
pepper,  by  leaving  them  on  the  top  of  the  mountain, 
and  going  to  the  spot  in  turn."12 

The  native's  aptitude  for  art  is  well  illustrated  by  the 
various  products  of  his  industry,  decorated  as  they  are 

12  The  Quiches  '  portent  jusqu'au  Nicaragua  des  hamacs  en  fil  d'agave.' 
Morelet,  Voyage,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  145,  92,  130-1,  198,  torn,  i.,  pp.  260,  318,  320; 
Dollfus  and  Mont-Serrat,  Voy.  Ge'ologique,  pp.  18,  60;  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec. 
iii./lib.  v.,  cap.  xii.;  Juarros'  Hist.'Guat.,  pp.  68,  271,  475;  Wappaus,  Geog. 
u.  Stat.,  pp.  248,  345;  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  319;  Hardcastle,  in  Hist.  Mag., 
vol.  vi.,  p.  153;  Gage's  New  Survey,  p.  319. 


ART  AND  GOVERNMENT.  701 

with  fanciful  designs,  carvings,  and  coloring.  The  cala 
bash  cups  are  widely  circulated,  and  the  artistic  carving 
of  leaves,  curious  lines,  and  figures  of  all  descriptions,  in 
relief,  with  which  the  outside  is  ornamented,  has  been 
much  admired.  No  less  esteemed  are  the  small  Guate 
malan  earthen  figures,  painted  in  natural  colors,  repre 
senting  the  various  trades  and  occupations  of  the  people, 
which  may  be  said  to  rival  European  productions  of  the 
same  character.  The  ornaments  on  their  pottery  bear 
some  resemblance  to  the  Etruscan.  They  are  equally 
advanced  in  painting,  for  many  of  the  altar-pieces  in 
Central  America  are  from  the  native  brush,  and  their 
dishes  are  often  richly  colored  in  various  designs.  Ori 
ginal  lyric  poetry  seems  to  flourish  among  them,  and  is 
not  wanting  in  grace,  although  the  rendering  of  it  may 
not  be  exactly  operatic.  The  subject  generally  refers  to 
victorious  encounters  with  monsters,  but  contains  also 
sarcasms  on  government  and  society.13 

A  reverential  respect  for  authority  is  innate  with  these 
people,  and  the  chief,  usually  a  descendant  of  the  ancient 
caciques,  who  is  also  the  head  of  the  municipal  govern 
ment  introduced  among  them  by  the  Spaniards,  receives 
the  homage  paid  him  with  imperturbable  gravity. 
These  chiefs  form  a  proud  and  powerful  noblesse,  who 
rule  with  an  iron  hand  over  their  submissive  followers. 
Although  governed  to  all  appearance  by  the  code  of  the 
country,  they  have  their  own  laws  based  on  custom  and 
common  sense,  which  are  applied  to  civil  as  well  as 
criminal  cases.  Among  the  Lacandones,  the  chief  is 
elected  by  a  council  of  old  men,  when  death,  misconduct, 
or  the  superior  abilities  of  some  one  else  call  for  such  a 
step.  Pontelli  adds  that  the  new  chief  is  invested  with 
lion-skins  and  a  collar  of  human  teeth  to  represent  his 

13  Among  the  Nahuatls  '  mechanical  arts  are  little  understood,  and,  of 
course,  the  fine  arts  still  less  practiced.'  Squier's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  320;  Id., 
Nicaragua,  pp.  270-3.  The  Masayans  have  '  une  caisse  en  cedre,  quelque- 
fois  ornee  d'incrustations  de  cu'ivre.'  Belly,  Nicaragua,  pp.  197-8.  See 
also,  Morelet,  Voyage,  torn,  ii.,  p.  130;  Puydt,  Eapport,  in  Amerique  Centraie, 
p.  134;  Gage's  New  Survey,  p.  329;  Valois,  Mexique,  pp.  287,  420-6;  Sivtrs, 
Mittelamerika,  pp.  127,  295;  Funnell's  Voy.,  p.  113;  Dunn's  Guatemala,  p. 
281;  Pontelli,  in  CaL  Farmer,  Nov.  7,  1862. 


702  WILD  TKIBES  OF  CENTBAL  AMEKICA. 

victories ;  a  crown  of  feathers  or  a  lion-skin  is  his  usual 
distinctive  head-dress.  The  wife  of  the  chief  is  required 
to  possess  some  rare  qualities.  These  people  are  very 
strict  in  executing  the  law ;  the  offender  is  brought  be 
fore  the  old  men,  and  if  the  crime  is  serious  his  relatives 
have  often  to  share  in  his  punishment.  The  people  of 
Salvador,  according  to  Dollfus,  have  frequent  reunions 
in  their  council-house  at  night.  The  hall  is  then  lighted 
up  by  a  large  fire,  and  the  people  sit  with  uncovered 
heads,  listening  respectfully  to  the  observations  and  deci 
sions  of  the  ahuales — men  over  forty  years  of  age,  who 
have  occupied  public  positions,  or  distinguished  them 
selves  in  some  way.  Gage  makes  a  curious  statement 
concerning  the  rio  Lempa  that  may  be  based  upon  some 
ancient  law.  Any  man  who  committed  a  heinous  crime 
on  the  one  side  of  the  river,  and  succeeded  in  escaping 
to  the  other,  was  allowed  to  go  unmolested,  provided 
he  did  not  return.14 

Marriages  take  place  at  an  early  age.  often  before  pu 
berty,  and  usually  within  the  tribe.  When  the  boy,  in 
Guatemala  and  Salvador,  has  attained  the  age  of  nine, 
his  parents  begin  to  look  around  for  a  bride  for  him,  the 
mother  having  a  good  deal  to  say  in  this  matter.  Pres 
ents  are  made  to  the  parents  of  the  girl  chosen,  and  she 
is  transferred  to  the  house  of  her  future  father-in-law, 
where  she  is  treated  as  a  daughter,  and  assists  in  the 
household  duties,  until  she  is  old  enough  to  marry.  It 
sometimes  happens  that  she  has  by  this  time  become  dis 
tasteful  to  the  affianced  husband,  and  is  returned  to  her 
parents.  The  presents  given  for  her  are  then  demanded 
back,  a  refusal  naturally  follows,  and  feuds  result,  last 
ing  for  generations.  Gage  states  that  when  the  parties 
to  the  betrothal  are  of  different  tribes,  the  chiefs  are 
notified,  and  meet  in  solemn  conclave  to  consult  about 
the  expediency  of  the  alliance.  The  consultations  often 

i*  Dollfus  and  Mont-Serrat,  \roy.  Geolorjique,  pp.  20,  49-51;  Pnyclt,  Pap- 
port,  in  Ainerique  Centrale,  p.  134;  Ilassd,  Mex.  tiuat.,  p.  398;  Gaye's  New 
Survey,  pp.  318-9,  417;  Fontelli,  in  Cal.  Farnur,  Nov.  7,  1802.  '  Chaotm 
d'eux  vint  ensuite  baiser  la  main  du  chef,  hommuge  qu'il  re^nt  avec  une  dig- 
uitu  imperturbable.'  Moreld,  Voyage,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  245-6,  134. 


MARRIAGE  AND  CHILDBIRTH.  703 

extend  over  a  period  of  several  months,  during  which 
the  parents  of  the  boy  supply  the  council  with  refresh 
ments,  and  make  presents  to  the  girl's  family  for  her 
purchase.  If  the  council  disagree,  the  presents  are  re 
turned,  and  the  matter  drops.  When  the  youth  has 
reached  his  sixteenth  or  eighteenth  year,  and  the  maid 
her  fourteenth,  they  are  considered  able  to  take  care  of 
themselves;  a  house  is  accordingly  built,  and  the  father 
gives  his  son  a  start  in  life.  The  cacique  and  relations 
are  summoned  to  witness  the  marriage  ceremony,  now 
performed  by  the  priest,  after  which  the  pair  are  carried 
upon  the  shoulders  of  their  friends  to  the  new  house, 
placed  in  a  room,  and  shut  in.  The  bride  brings  no 
dowry,  but  presents  are  made  by  the  friends  of  the 
families.  Several  tribes  in  Guatemala  are  strictly  op 
posed  to  marriages  outside  of  the  tribe,  and  destroy  the 
progeny  left  by  a  stranger.  The  Lacandones  still  prac 
tice  polygamy,  each  wife  having  a  separate  house  and 
field  for  her  support.  In  Nicaragua,  where  women  are 
more  independent,  and  fewer  of  the  ancient  marriage  cus 
toms  have  been  retained  than  elsewhere,  the  ceremony  is 
often  quickly  disposed  of,  the  husband  and  wife  return 
ing  to  their  avocations  immediately  after.  The  life  of 
the  woman  is  one  of  drudgery;  household  duties,  weav 
ing,  and  the  care  of  children  keeping  her  constantly 
busy,  while  the  husband  is  occupied  in  dolce  far  niente ; 
yet  their  married  life  is  not  unhappy.  Although  the 
female  dresses  scantily  and  is  not  over  shy  when  bathing, 
she  is  by  no  means  immodest  or  unchaste,  but  bears  rather 
a  better  character  than  women  of  the  superior  race. 
Childbirth  is  not  attended  with  any  difficulties,  for  it 
sometimes  happens  that  the  woman,  after  being  delivered 
on  the  road,  will  wash  the  child  and  herself  in  the 
nearest  stream,  and  proceed  on  her  journey,  as  if  noth 
ing  had  occurred.  The  Quiches,  among  others,  still  call 
in  the  sorcerer  to  take  the  horoscope  of  the  new-born, 
and  to  appeal  to  the  gods  in  its  behalf.  He  also  gives 
the  infant  the  name  of  some  animal,  which  becomes 
its  guardian  spirit  for  life.  Belly  states  that  more  boys 


704  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

are  born  to  the  natives,  while  the  whites  have  more 
girls.  The  mother  invariably  nurses  the  child  herself 
until  its  third  year,  and,  when  at  work,  carries  it  on 
her  back  in  a  cloth  passed  round  her  body ;  the  move 
ments  of  the  mother  in  washing  or  kneading  tending 
to  rock  the  infant  to  sleep.  Otherwise  the  child  is 
little  cared  for,  and  has  to  lie  on  the  bare  ground, 
or,  at  most,  with  a  mat  under  it.  As  the  boy  grows 
older  the  father  will  take  him  into  the  field  and  forest, 
suiting  the  work  to  his  strength,  and  instructing  him  in 
the  use  of  tools,  while  the  mother  takes  charge  of  the 
girl,  teaching  her  to  cook,  spin,  and  weave.  Respect 
for  parents  and  older  people  is  inculcated,  and  children 
never  presume  to  speak  before  a  grown  person  unless 
first  addressed.  They  remain  under  the  parents'  roof 
until  married,  and  frequently  after,  several  generations 
often  living  together  in  one  house  under  the  rule  of 
the  eldest.  The  native  is  fond  of  home,  for  here  he 
escapes  from  the  contempt  of  the  other  races,  and  reigns 
supreme  over  a  family  which  is  taught  to  respect  him: 
patriotism  has  been  replaced  by  love  of  home  among 
this  oppressed  people.15 

Their  amusements  are  less  common  and  varied  than 
among  the  whites,  and  are  generally  reserved  for  special 
occasions,  when  they  are  indulged  in  to  excess.  Still, 
they  have  orderly  gatherings  round  the  hearth,  at  which 
wondrous  and  amusing  stories  form  the  chief  part  of  the 
entertainment.  Songs  follow  in  natural  order,  and  are 
loudly  applauded  by  the  listeners,  who  join  in  repeating 
the  last  words  of  the  verse.  The  subject,  as  given  by 
some  local  poet,  or  transmitted  from  an  ancient  bard,  is 
pleasing  enough,  but  the  rendering  is  in  a  plaintive,  dis- 

15  'Leur  dernier-ne  suspendu  a  leurs  flancs.'  Morelet,  Voyage,  torn,  ii.,  pp. 
198,  126,  torn,  i.,  pp.  204-5,  318.  In  Salvador,  the  'bridegroom  makes  his 
wife's  trousseau  himself,  the  women,  strange  to  say,  being  entirely  ignorant 
of  needlework.'  Foote's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  103.  Further  reference  in  Valois, 
Mexique,  pp.  280,  288;  Belly,  Nicaragua,  pp.  200-1,  253;  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat., 
pp.  303-4;  Revue  Brit.,  1825,  in  Amerique  Centrale,  p.  23;  Billow,  Nicaragua, 
p.  80;  Montanus,  Nieuwe  Weereld,  p.  272;  Gage's  New  Survey,  p.  319;  Juar- 
ros'  Hist.  Guat.,  pp.  195-6;  Tempsky's  Mitla,  p.  365;  Doll/us  and  Mont-Serrat, 
Voy.  Ge'ologique,  pp.  20,  47;  Scherzer,  Wanderungen,  p.  66;  Id.,  Die  Indianer 
von  Istlavacan,  p.  11. 


GUATEMALAN  MUSIC.  705 

agreeable  monotone.  Their  instrumental  music  is  an 
improvement  on  the  vocal,  in  some  respects,  and  prac 
tice  has  enabled  the  player  to  execute  pieces  from 
memory  with  precision  and  accord.  The  marimba,  a 
favorite  instrument,  consists  of  a  series  of  vertical  tubes 
of  different  length  but  equal  diameter,  fastened  together 
in  a  line  by  bark  fibre,  and  held  firm  between  two  pieces 
of  wood.  The  tubes  have  a  lateral  opening  at  the  base 
covered  with  a  membrane,  and  the  upper  end  is  closed 
by  a  small,  moveable  elastic  plate,  upon  which  the  per 
former  strikes  with  light  drumsticks.  The  play  of  the 
plates  causes  a  compression  of  air  in  the  tube,  and  a 
consequent  vibration  of  the  membrane,  which  produces 
a  sound  differing  in  character  according  to  the  length  of 
the  tube.  All  the  parts  are  of  wood,  the  tube  being, 
however,  occasionally  of  terra-cotta,  or  replaced  by  cala 
bash-shells.  The  marimba  of  usual  size  is  over  a  yard  in 
length,  and  consists  of  twenty- two  tubes  ranging  from 
four  to  sixteen  inches  in  length,  forming  three  complete 
octaves.  The  pitch  is  regulated  by  a  coating  of  wax  on 
the  key-plates.  Some  drumsticks  are  forked  to  strike 
two  plates  at  once.  Occasionally,  several  persons  join 
in  executing  an  air  upon  the  instrument,  or  two  marim 
bas  are  played  in  perfect  accord  with  some  song.  Their 
usual  drum  is  called  tepanabaz,  described  by  Gage  as  a 
smooth  hollow  trunk  with  two  or  three  clefts  on  the 
upper  side  and  holes  at  the  ends.  It  is  beaten  with  two 
sticks,  and  produces  a  dull  heavy  sound.  Other  drums 
covered  with  wild  goat  skin,  tortoise-shells,  pipes,  small 
bells,  and  rattles,  are  chiefly  used  at  dances.  The  Lacan- 
dones  possess  a  kind  of  mandolin,  a  double-necked,  trun 
cated  cone,  with  one  string,  made  to  pass  four  times 
over  the  bridge ;  also  a  clarionet-like  instrument  named 
chirimiya;  their  drum  is  called  tepanahuaste.  A  dance 
is  generally  a  grand  affair  with  the  native,  combining  as 
it  does  dress  with  dramatic  and  saltatory  exhibitions. 
At  the  tocontin  dance,  in  Guatemala,  from  twenty  to  forty 
persons  dressed  in  white  clothes  richly  embroidered, 
and  bedecked  with  gaudy  bands,  colored  feathers  in 


VOL.  I.    45 


706  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

gilt  frames  fastened  on  the  back,  fanciful  helmets  topped 
with  feathers,  and  feathers,  again,  on  their  legs,  in  form 
of  wings.  The  conductor  stands  in  the  centre  beating 
time  on  the  tepanabaz,  while  the  dancers  circle  round 
him,  one  following  the  other,  sometimes  straight,  some 
times  turning  half-way,  at  other  times  fully  round,  and 
bending  the  body  to  the  ground,  all  the  time  shouting 
the  fame  of  some  hero.  This  continues  for  several  hours, 
and  is  often  repeated  in  one  house  after  another.  In 
another  dance  they  disguise  themselves  with  skins  of 
different  animals,  acting  up  to  the  character  assumed, 
and  running  in  and  out  of  the  circle  formed  round  the 
musicians,  striking,  shrieking,  and  hotly  pursuing  some 
particular  performer.  There  are  also  several  dances  like 
those  of  the  Mexicans,  in  which  men  dress  in  women's 
clothes  and  other  disguises.  The  Nicaraguan  dances 
vary  but  little  from  the  above.  Several  hundred  people 
will  gather  in  some  well-cleared  spot,  their  arms  and 
legs  ornamented  with  strings  of  shells,  their  heads  with 
feathers,  and  with  fans  in  their  hands.  The  leader, 
walking  backwards,  commences  some  movements  to  be 
imitated  by  the  dancers,  who  follow  in  threes  and  fours, 
turning  round,  intermingling,  and  again  uniting.  The 
musicians  beat  drums  and  sing  songs  to  which  the  leader 
responds,  the  dancers  taking  up  the  refrain  in  their  turn, 
and  shaking  their  calabash  rattles.  After  a  while  they 
pass  round  each  other  and  perform  the  most  curious 
antics  and  grimaces,  crying,  laughing,  posturing,  acting 
lame,  blind,  and  so  on.  Drinking  is  inseparable  from 
these  reunions,  and  they  do  not  usually  break  up  until 
all  have  attained  the  climax  of  their  wishes — becom 
ing  helplessly  drunk.  The  principal  drinks  are,  atole 
made  from  maize,  but  which  assumes  different  prefixes, 
according  to  the  additional  ingredients  used,  as  istatole, 
jocoatok,  etc. ;  pulque,  chiefly  used  in  the  highlands;  and, 
not  least,  chicha,  made  from  maize  and  various  fruits 
and  roots,  fermented  with  honey  of  sugar-cane  juice. 
Gage  states  that  tobacco-leaves  and  toads  were  added  to 
increase  the  flavor.  The  Nicaraguans  make  their  favorite 


CUSTOMS  IN  GUATEMALA  AND  NICAKAGUA.  707 

drink  from  a  wild  red  cherry.  It  takes  several  weeks 
to  prepare  these  liquors,  but  by  the  generous  aid  of 
friends  the  stock  is  often  consumed  at  one  carousal.16 

Ignorant  and  oppressed  as  they  are,  superstition  is 
naturally  strong  among  them,  the  evil  eye,  ominous  im 
port  of  animals  and  the  like  being  firmly  believed  in. 
Nicaraguans  gave  as  a  reason  for  speaking  in  whis 
pers  at  night,  that  loud  talking  attracts  mosquitos. 
The  Quiches,  of  Istlavacan,  among  others,  believe  in 
certain  evil  and  certain  good  days,  and  arrange  their 
undertakings  accordingly.  When  meeting  a  stranger, 
they  present  the  forehead  to  be  touched,  thinking  that 
a  beneficial  power  is  imparted  to  them  by  this  means. 
They  still  adhere  to  their  sorcerers,  who  are  called  in 
upon  all  important  occasions,  to  predict  the  future,  exor 
cise  evil  spirits  and  the  like,  with  the  aid  of  various 
decoctions  and  incantations.  The  Chontales  have  diviners 
who,  with  the  aid  of  drugs,  taken  after  a  fast,  fall  into 
a  trance,  during  which  they  prophesy.  They  form  a 
sort  of  guild,  and  live  alone  in  the  mountains  with  a 
few  pupils,  who  support  them  in  return  for  the  instruc 
tion  received.  Although  idolatry  proper  is  abolished, 
some  ancient  practices  still  live,  blended  with  their 
Christian  worship,  and  it  is  said  that  tribes  inhabiting 
the  remote  mountain  regions  still  keep  up  their  old  rites 
in  secret.  Dollfus  is  apparently  inclined  to  believe  that 
the  songs  he  heard  the  natives  chant  every  morning  and 
evening  may  be  the  relic  of  some  ancient  religious  cere 
mony.  The  Itzas  hold  deer  saered,  and  these  animals 
were  consequently  quite  familiar  with  man,  before  the 
conquerors  subdued  the  country.  The  Lacandones  are 
said  to  have  been  the  last  who  publicly  worshiped  in  their 

is  Gage's  New  Survey,  pp.  323,  347-50;  Andagoya,  in  Navarrete,  Col.  de 
Viages,  torn,  iii.,  p.  415;  Valois,  Mtxique,  pp.  279-80,  420-6;  Dollfus  and 
Mont-Serrat,  Voy.  Gvologique,  p.  48;  Froebd's  Cent .  Amer.,  pp.  78-81;  Dapper, 
Neue  Welt,  pp.  "306,  312;  Valenzuela,  in  Squier's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  567;  Juar- 
ros'  Hist.  Gnat.,  pp.  447-9;  Coreal,  Voyages,  torn,  i.,  pp.  8,8-9;  Arricivlta, 
Cronica  Serdfica,  p.  34;  Lad,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  320-2;  Pontelli,  in  Cal.  Farmer, 
Nov.  14,  1862.  'Les  Indiens  ne  fument  pas.'  Bdly,  Nicaragua,  p.  164.  '  Ihr 
gewohnliches  Getranke  ist  Wasser.'  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  p.  304.  'Je  n'ai 
entendu  qu'a  Flores,  pendant  le  cours  de  mon  voyage,  des  choeurs  executes 
avec  justesse.'  Morelet,  Voyage,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  42-4,  325,  torn.  L,  p.  196. 


708  WILD  TKIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

temple,  and  whose  priests  sacrificed  animals  to  idols. 
By  the  side  of  the  temple  stood  two  other  large  build 
ings  used  as  meeting-houses,  one  for  men,  the  other  for 
women.  Dogs  and  tame  parrots  formed  part  of  their 
domestic  establishment.  The  native  is  very  taciturn 
before  strangers,  but  on  paying  a  visit  to  friends  he  will 
deliver  long  harangues  full  of  repetition.  It  is  almost 
impossible  to  obtain  a  direct  answer  from  him  to  any 
question.  ^  Another  peculiarity  with  many  is  to  hoard 
money  at*  the  expense  of  bodily  comfort.  It  is  buried 
in  some  secret  place,  and  the  owner  dies  without  even 
caring  to  inform  his  kin  of  the  whereabouts  of  his 
treasures.  The  favorite  occupation  of  the  people  is 
to  act  as  porters,  and  Guatemala  certainly  possesses 
the  most  excellent  carriers,  who  are  trained  for  the 
business  from  an  early  age.  They  usually  go  in  files, 
headed  by  a  chief,  all  armed  with  long  staffs  and  water 
proof  palm-leaf  mats,  and  travel  from  twenty  to  thirty 
miles  a  day,  for  days  in  succession,  without  suffering  any 
inconvenience.  The  weight  varies  from  one  hundred 
to  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  according  to  road  and 
distance,  and  is  carried  on  the  back,  supported  by  straps 
passed  over  the  forehead  and  shoulders.  They  are  very 
moderate  in  eating,  and  never  drink  cold  water  if  they 
can  avoid  it;  when  tired,  they  stretch  themselves  at 
full  length  on  the  ground,  and  are  speedily  refreshed. 
Women  are  also  accustomed  to  carry  burdens,  and  may 
frequently  be  seen  taking  several  filled  pitchers  to  mar 
ket  in  nets  suspended  from  their  forehead  and  shoulders. 
Water  they  usually  bring  in  jars  balanced  on  the  head.17 
The  ruling  diseases  are  small- pox,  which  makes  yearly 
havoc;  dysentery,  which  is  also  not  uncommon  in  the 

17  The  Lacandon  chief  received  me  with  '  the  emblem  of  friendship 
(which  is  a  leaf  of  the  fan-palm).'  Pontelli,  in  Gal.  Farmer,  Nov.  14,  1862. 
See  Tempsky's  Mitla,  pp.  364-5;  Vctiois,  Mexique,  pp.  407-8;  Escobar,  in  Land. 
Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  91;  Thummel,  Mexiko,  p.  394;  Junrros'  Hist. 
Guat.,  p.  197;  Foote's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  122;  Dollfus^  and  Mont-Serrat,  Voy. 
Ge'ologique,  pp.  48-9;  Scherzer,  Die  Indianer  von  fstldvacan,  pp.  7-15;  Reich- 
ardt,' Nicaragua,  pp.  106,  234;  Valenzuela,  in  Squier's  Cent.  Amer.,  pp. 
556-7;  Morelet,  Voyage,  torn,  i.,  p.  206,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  58,  101-2,  104,  197; 
BoyWs  Ride,  vol.  i.,  pp,  293-4,  vol  ii.,  pp,  11-12,  48, 


MEDICAL  PKACTICE.  709 

highlands  during  the  summer;  and  leprosy,  manifested 
by  wounds  and  eruptions,  and  caused  by  filth,  immoral 
habits,  and  bad  food.  In  some  parts  of  Nicaragua,  the 
latter  disease  breaks  out  in  horny  excrescences,  similar 
in  appearance  to  the  tips  of  cow-horns.  Rheumatism 
and  chest  diseases  are  rare,  in  spite  of  their  rough  life. 
Superstitious  practices  and  empirical  recipes  transmitted 
from  their  ancestors  are  the  remedies  resorted  to.  Hot 
bathing  is  the  favorite  treatment.  They  are  skillful  at 
blood-letting,  making  very  small  punctures,  and  apply 
ing  a  pinch  of  salt  to  them  after  the  operation  is  ended. 
Cauterizing  wounds  to  prevent  inflammation  is  not  un 
common,  and  does  not  affect  the  patient  much.  The 
principal  remedy  of  the  Chorotegans  consists  of  a  decoc 
tion  from  various  herbs  injected  by  means  of  a  tube. 
Some  tribes  of  the  highlands  call  in  sorcerers  to  knead 
and  suck  the  suffering  part.  After  performing  a  variety 
of  antics  and  grimaces,  the  wise  man  produces  a  black 
substance  from  the  mouth,  which  he  announces  as  the 
cause  of  the  sickness;  the  friends  of  the  patient  take 
this  matter  and  trample  it  to  pieces  amidst  noisy  demon 
strations.18 

Their  dead  are  washed,  and  dressed  in  a  fresh  suit; 
friends  then  assemble  to  express  their  regard  and  sorrow 
by  burning  copal  and  performing  a  wild  dance  round  the 
corpse,  which  is  buried  with  all  its  belongings,  as  well 
as  food  for  sustenance  on  the  long  journey.  The  Itzas, 
inhabiting  the  islands  in  the  lake  Peten,  are  said  to  have 
thrown  their  dead  into  the  lake,  for  want  of  room.19 

The  character  of  the  Guatemalans  exhibits  a  number 
of  excellent  traits.  They  have  always  been  a  gentle 

18  At  Masaya,  'The  death-rate  among  children  is  said  to  be  excessive.' 
Boyle's  Ride,  vol.  ii.,  p.  10.     'Alle  Glieder  der  Familie  batten  ein  ausserst 
ungesundes  Aussehen  und  namentlich  die  Kinder,  im  Gesicht  bleich  und 
mager,    batten   dicke,    aufgeschwollene    Bauche,'  caused   by   yucca-roots. 
Scherzer,  Wanderunyen,  pp.  494,  173-4;  MoreM,  Voyage,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  109-10, 
152;  Gage's  New  Survey,  p.  318;  Puydt,  Rapport,  in  Amerique  Centrvle,  p.  49; 
Froebel,  *Aus  Amerika,  torn,  i.,  pp.  345-6;  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat,  pp.  302,  398; 
Escobar,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  p.  91;  Scherzer,  Die  Indianervon 
Istldvacan,  pp.  10-11. 

19  Scherzer,  Die  Indianer  von  Istldvacan,  pp.  11-12;  Morelet,    Voyage,  torn, 
ii.,  p.  63;  Vulois,  Mexique,  p,  408. 


710  WILD  TEIBES  OF  CENTEAL  AMERICA. 

race,  and  easily  led  by  kindness,  but  centuries  of  oppres 
sion  have  thrown  over  them  a  timid,  brooding  spirit, 
Far  from  warlike,  they  have  nevertheless  proved  them 
selves  efficient  soldiers  during  the  late  civil  wars.  Their 
honesty  and  faithfulness  to  a  trust  or  engagement  is  uni 
versally  admitted,  and  every  traveler  bears  witness  to 
their  hospitality  and  obliging  disposition.  Although 
taciturn  before  strangers,  whom  they  naturally  distrust, 
they  are  quite  voluble  and  merry  among  themselves, 
especially  the  women;  their  mirth,  however,  wants  the 
ring  of  true  happiness.  Looking  at  the  darker  side, 
it  is  found  that  drunkenness  stands  preeminent,  and 
if  the  native  is  not  oftener  drunk,  it  is  because  the 
means  for  carousing  are  wanting.  Surrounded  by  a 
bountiful  nature,  he  is  naturally  lazy  and  improvident, 
whole  days  being  passed  in  dreamy  inaction,  without  a 
symptom  of  ennui.  He  is  obstinate,  and  clings  to  ancient 
customs,  yet  he  will  not  dispute  with  you,  but  tacitly 
forms  his  own  opinion.  Taught  to  be  humble,  he  does 
not  possess  much  manliness,  has  a  certain  cunning,  will 
weep  at  trifles,  and  is  apt  to  be  vindictive,  especially  if 
his  jealousy  is  aroused.  The  highlanders  form  an  ex 
ception  to  these  general  characteristics  in  many  respects. 
The  purer  air  of  the  mountain  has  infused  in  them  a 
certain  independent  energy,  and  industry.  Nor  are  the 
women  to  be  classed  as  lazy,  for  their  position  is  rather 
that  of  slaves  than  of  wives,  yet  they  are  vivacious  and 
not  devoid  of  coquetry,  but  of  undisputed  modesty. 
Many  of  the  remoter  tribes  are  brave,  and  the  Manches, 
for  instance,  behaved  lately  in  so  spirited  a  manner  as 
to  compel  the  government  to  treat  with  them.  The 
Itzas  are  said  to  have  been  warlike  and  cruel,  but  their 
neighbors  the  Lacandones  are  not  so  ferocious  as  sup 
posed.  The  Quiches  bear  a  high  character  for  indus 
try,  and  intelligence,  while  those  of  Rabinal  excel  in 
truthfulness,  honesty,  and  morality.  The  Vera  Paz 
tribes  are  less  active  and  industrious  than  those  of 
the  plateau;  this  applies  especially  to  the  eastern 
nations  who  are  also  more  stupid  than  the  western. 


THE  MOSQUITOS.  711 

The  Salvador  people  are  noted  for  their  phlegmatic 
temperament,  and  the  provoked  stranger  who  seeks 
to  hurry  them,  is  merely  laughed  at;  otherwise  they, 
as  well  as  the  Nicaraguans.  are  more  docile  and  indus 
trious  than  the  Guatemalans,  but  also  more  superstitious. 
Scherzer  thinks  that  they  have  all  the  inclination  for 
becoming  robbers,  but  want  the  energy.  The  Aztec  rem 
nants  in  Nicaragua  are  particularly  patient  and  thrifty, 
but  extremely  shy  and  brooding.  The  Chontales,  on 
the  other  hand,  are  said  to  have  been  a  savage  and  de 
based  race,  while  the  Cholutecs  were  brave  and  cruel 
but  subject  to  petticoat  rule.  Opinions  concerning  the 
intelligence  of  the  natives  and  their  prospect  of  ad 
vancement  are  varied,  some  affirming  that  they  are  dull 
and  spiritless,  incapable  of  making  any  progress,  while 
others  assign  them  a  high  character  and  intelligence, 
which,  properly  directed,  would  give  them  a  prominent 
position.20 

The  MOSQUITOS,  the  second  division  of  the  Central 
American  group,  are  at  the  present  day  composed  in 
part  of  an  incongruous  mixture  of  Carib  colonists  and 
negro  importations,  and  in  part  of  a  pure  native  element. 
Owing  to  the  independent  spirit  of  the  tribes  along  the 
central  chain  of  mountains,  which  successfully  resisted 

20  '  La  sorame  des  peines  est  done  limitee  comme  celle  des  jouissances;  ils 
ne  ressentent  ni  les  lines  ni  les  autres  avec  beaucoup  de  vivacite.'  Morelet, 
Voyage,  torn,  i.,  pp.  2J5-7,  196,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  104,  132,  198,  200,  253. 
'When  aroused,  however,  they  are  fierce,  cruel,  and  implacable. . .  .shrewd 
....cringing  servility  and  low  cunning. ..  .extreme  tt-achableness.'  Crowe's 
Cent.  Anter.,  pp.  42-3.  '  Melancholy  . .  .silent. . .  .pusillanimous.  . .  .timid.' 
Dunn's  Guatemala,  p.  278.  '  Imperturbability  of  the  North  American  Indian, 
but  are  a  gentler  and  less  warlike  race.'  Foote's  Cent.  Amer.,  pp.  104-5. 
Nicaragnans  '  are  singularly  docile  and  industrious . . .  not  warlike  but  brave.' 
Squier's  Nicaragua,  p.  268.  For  further  reference  concerning  these  people 
see  Squier's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  555;  Biilow,  Nicaragua,  pp.  79-81;  Juarros' 
Hist.  Gnat.,  pp.  197-8;  Belli/,  Nicaragua,  pp.  109',  160;  Puydt,  Rapport,  in 
Ame'rique  Centrale,  pp.  70,  135-6;  T'Kint,  in  Id.,  pp.  157-8;  Fossey,  Mexique, 
p.  471;  Boyle's  Ride,  vol.  i.,  pref.,  p.  xiv.,  and  p.  75;  Gage's  New  Survey, 
pp.  311-12,  333;  Valois,  Mexique,  pp.  238-9,  277,  288,  299,' 43,0;  Doll/us  and 
Mont-Serrat,  Voy.  Geologique,  pp.  47-9,  69;  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iv.,  p.  35; 
Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iii.,  lib.  iv.,  cap.  vii.;  Scherzer,  Wanderungen,  pp. 
53,  61,  455,  464-5;  Dunlop's  Cent.  Amer.,  pp.  211,  337-8.  The  Lacandones 
are  very  laconic,  sober,  temperate  and  strict.  Pontelli,  in  Cal .  Farmer,  Nov. 
7,  1862. 


712  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

the  attempts  of  Spaniards  to  penetrate  the  territory,  and 
to  the  unhealthy  climate  of  the  coast,  this  country,  with 
the  exception  of  the  northern  part  of  Honduras,  has  as 
yet  escaped  subjection  to  the  white  race.  The  country, 
aside  from  the  sea-shore,  possesses  many  attractive 
features.  The  transverse  ranges,  radiating  from  the 
principal  chain,  form  a  series  of  terraces  which  gradually 
lessen  in  elevation,  until  they  disappear  in  a  low  coast 
region.  Between  them  innumerable  rivers,  fed  by  the 
moisture-laden  sea-winds,  now  rushing  boisterously  from 
heavily  wooded  heights,  now  sluggishly  wending  their 
way  through  luxuriant  prairie-land,  flow  through  a  region 
of  most  pleasing  variety,  and  at  last  empty  into  vast 
lagoons  bordering  the  ocean.  The  aborigines  still  form 
the  greater  part  of  the  population,  and  are  composed  of 
a  large  number  of  tribes  which,  while  practicing  agri 
culture  to  a  limited  extent,  subsist  chiefly  on  natural 
fruits  and  on  the  products  of  the  chase.  Excepting  the 
small  tribes  of  the  eastern  Mosquito  country,  Mr  Squier, 
who  has  given  much  patient  research  to  their  lan 
guages,  includes  the  natives  of  this  sub-division  among 
the  Lenca  family,  at  the  head  of  which  stand  the  Gua- 
jiqueros  in  western  Honduras,  essentially  an  agricultural 
people.  East  of  these  are  the  Xicaques,  and  Poyas, 
names  given  to  a  collection  of  closely  related  tribes, 
some  of  which  have  been  brought  under  the  subjugat 
ing  influences  of  the  missionary  Fathers,  while  others 
still  keep  their  ancient  customs  intact.  The  Secos  on 
Black  lliver  are  included  by  some  writers  with  the 
Poyas.  South  and  west  of  these  are  the  Moscos,  and  in 
the  western  part  of  the  Mosquito  coast,  the  Woolwas, 
who  still  cherish  a  tradition  of  their  emigration  from 
the  north-west.  East  of  the  latter  live  the  Towkas  and 
Cookras,  who  extend  to  Blewfields,  and  speak  dialects 
varying  little  from  the  Woolwa  tongue,  but  stand  lower 
in  the  scale  of  humanity.  Bell  states  that  the  Towkas 
are  merely  a  branch  of  the  Smoos,  who  have  many  points 
in  common  with  the  Poyas,  though  differing  from  them 
in  language.  Among  other  aborigines  may  be  men- 


MOSQUITO  NATIONS.  713 

tioned  the  AJbatidnas,  Talmas,  Panamekas,  Jaras,  Taos, 
G-aufas,  Itziles,  Motucas,  and  the  Ramas  on  the  Blewfields 
lagoon;  of  several  others  the  names  are  either  lost 
or  unknown.  Following  the  coast  southward  we  meet 
the  Caribs,  a  strong,  hardy,  but  crude  race  at.  present, 
of  varied  negro  admixture,  chiefly  descended  from  the 
turbulent  natives  of  San  Vicente  island,  whom  the  Eng 
lish  transported  in  1796  to  the  island  of  Roatan,  whence 
they  were  brought  over  to  Honduras.  The  Caribs,  who 
have  within  a  few  decades  spread  from  a  small  colony 
over  the  whole  northern  coast,  driving  other  nations  into 
the  interior  and  southward,  appear  to  be  superseding 
the  aborigines,  now  fast  disappearing  under  the  anni 
hilating  effect  of  drink  and  disease.  South  of  the 
Caribs  round  cape  Gracias  a  Dios  are  the  Sambos,  or 
Mosquitos  proper,  said  to  have  sprung  from  the  union  of 
native  women  with  negro  slaves  wrecked  on  the  coast 
during  the  seventeenth  century.  Owing  to  their  geo 
graphical  position  they  were  brought  in  contact  with  the 
buccaneers,  and  placed  in  a  position  to  gain  ascendancy 
over  other  tribes  from  the  Foyas  southward,  but  were 
at  the  same  time  inoculated  with  the  degrading  vices 
and  disorders  which  are  now  so  rapidly  bringing  about 
their  extinction.  Elated  by  their  position  as  masters  of 
the  coast,  they  assumed  the  proud  title  of  Waiknas,  or 
men,  in  which  conceit  they  have  been  imitated  by  the 
subjected  tribes,  which  are  gradually  adopting  the  Sambo 
tongue.  Adjacent  to  them  are  the  Toonglas,  a  not  very 
numerous  offshoot  of  Siiioos  and  Sambos.21 

21  The  name  Mosquito  is  generally  supposed  to  have  arisen  from  the 
numerous  mosquito  insects  to  be  found  in  the  country;  others  think  that  the 
small  islands  off  the  coasts,  "which  lie  as  thick  as  mosquitoes,"  may  have 
caused  the  appellation;  while  a  third  opinion  is  that  the  name  is  a  corruption 
of  an  aboriginal  term,  and  to  substantiate  this  opinion  it  is  said  that  the 
natives  c:ill  themselves  distinctly  Misskitos.  Mosqultoland,  Berlcht,  pp.  134, 
19-23.  The  Carib  name  is  pronounced  "  Kharibees  "  on  the  coast.  Mac- 
gregor's  Pn&tenof  America,  vol.  i.,  pp.  770,  775.  'II  existe  chez  eux  des 
langues  tras  diff.'rentes,  et  nous  avons  reinarque  qu'acent  lieues  de  distance 
ils  ne  se  comprennent  plus  les  uns  les  autres.'  Varnhagen,  Prem.  Voy.  de 
Amrlgo  Vespucci,  p.  40.  See  further:  Stout's  Nicaragua,  p.  113;  Squler's 
Nicaragua,  vol.  ii.,  p.  308;  Id.,  Cent.  Amer.,  pp.  241,  244-7,  252-3;  Billow, 
Nicaragua,  p.  77;  Juarros'  Hist.  Guat.,  p.  346;  Gallndo,  in  Land.  Geoq.  8oc., 
Jour.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  290;  Bell,  in  Id.,  vol.  xxxii.,  pp.  258-9;  Bard's  Walfaia, 


714  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

Race-mixtures  in  certain  localites  have  almost  oblit 
erated  aboriginal  types,  which  are  portrayed  as  of  medium 
stature,  regular  form,  and  varying  in  color  from  light 
brown  to  dark  coppery.  The  people  about  cape  Gracias 
a  Dios  are  represented  by  the  first  voyagers  to  have  been 
nearly  as  dark  as  negroes.  The  face  is  rather  flat  and 
oval,  the  head  smaller  than  among  Europeans;  forehead 
high  and  cheek-bones  not  very  prominent;  hair  long, 
straight,  coarse,  and  black;  beard  scanty;  nose  very 
small,  thin,  and  usually  aquiline  among  the  coast  peo 
ple,  but  larger  and  broader  toward  the  interior.  The 
iris  of  the  eye  is  generally  black,  but  often  verges 
toward  brown;  mouth  broad,  with  thin  lips  and  regular 
teeth.  The  women  present  a  full  bust  and  abdomen; 
they  are  called  pretty,  but  early  marriages  soon  make 
them  old.  It  is  suspected  that  infant  murder  has 
something  to  do  with  the  rarity  of  deformed  people. 
The  Towkas  and  Ramas  present  the  finest  pure-blooded 
type,  the  former  being  very  fair,  while  the  latter  are 
large,  athletic,  and  stern-looking.  The  Poyas  are  cop 
per-colored,  short,  but  muscular,  broad-faced,  with  large 
forehead,  bent  nose,  and  small,  mild  eyes.  The  Toon- 
glas  are  duskier;  the  Smoos  approach  the  fair  Towkas 
in  hue,  though  they  have  a  flatter  head,  accompanied 
by  a  stolid  look.  The  darkest  of  all  are  the  Woolwas, 
whose  color  seems  a  mixture  of  yellow  ochre  and 
India  ink.  Proceeding  to  Honduras,  we  meet  the 
Caribs,  whose  varied  admixture  of  negro  blood  sep 
arates  them  into  yellow  and  black  Caribs.  The  former 
are  distinguished  by  a  somewhat  ruddy  hue,  with  a 
hooked  nose;  while  his  duskier  brother  is  taller,  hardier, 
and  longer-lived;  with  a  nose  inclining  to  aquiline. 
Children  are  prettier  as  they  approach  the  negro  type. 
The  hair  varies  in  curl  and  gloss  according  to  purity 
of  blood.  The  Mosquitos  proper  are  more  uniform  in 
appearance,  and  buccaneers  have  no  doubt  assisted 

pp.  123,  201-2,  243;  Pirn  and  Seemann's  Dottings,  pp.  335-6;  Young's 
Narrative,  pp.  33,  86;  Wapp'ius,  Geog.  u.  Stat.,  pp.  243-7,  333,  347-50;  Hen 
derson's  Honduras,  p.  216;  Boyle's  Ride,  vol.  i.,  pp.  xii-xiii.,  269,  287;  Sivers, 
Mttelamerika,  pp.  179-80,  287-8. 


MOSQUITO  PHYSIQUE  AND  DRESS.  715 

in  bringing  out  many  of  the  characteristics  that  have 
obtained  for  the  Sambo  race  the  leading  position  on 
the  coast.  They  are  all  well-built,  raw-boned,  nimble, 
and  of  a  dull,  dark,  copper  color.  The  face  is  oval,  with 
a  coarse,  lustful  expression,  the  hair  rough,  wavy,  and 
black,  eyes  bright  and  remarkably  strong ;  women  pretty, 
with  large  eyes,  and  small  feet  and  ankles.22 

A  piece  of  cloth  fastened  at  the  waist  in  a  twist  or  by 
a  cord,  and  reaching  to  the  knee,  constitutes  the  native 
male  costume  in  these  parts,  that  of  the  women  being 
somewhat  shorter.  This  cloth  is  either  of  cotton,  some 
times  woven  with  down,  or  of  fibres  from  the  inner  bark 
of  the  caoutchouc  tree,  beaten  on  stones  till  they  become 
soft,  and  is  often  large  enough  to  serve  for  a  covering  at 
night.  Some  are  quite  fanciful  in  color  and  design,  and 
formerly  they  were  painted.  Those  of  the  Woolwas  are 
usually  six  feet  long  by  three  broad,  striped  blue  and 
yellow ;  they  are  passed  between  the  legs  and  fastened  at 
the  waist  by  a  thong.  The  Xicaques,  on  the  contrary, 
wear  the  cloth  ser  ape -fashion,  by  passing  the  head 
through  a  slit  in  the  centre,  and  tying  the  folds  round 
the  waist.  Even  this  scanty  covering  is  often  reduced 
to  the  smallest  apron,  and  is  dispensed  with  altogether 
in  some  parts,  for  modern  travelers  speak  of  natives 
in  a  naked  state.  Women  occasionally  wear  a  small 
square  cloth,  having  an  opening  for  the  head,  one  part 
of  which  covers  the  breast,  the  other  the  back.  In 
some  parts  chiefs  are  distinguished  by  a  cotton  cap, 

22  « Die  Backenknochen  treten  nicht,  wie  bei  andern  amerikanischen 
Stammen,  auff.dlend  liervor. . .  .starke  Oberlippe.'  Mosquitoland,  Bericht,  pp. 
134-6,  59,  70,  151.  Consult  also:  Squier's  Cent.  Amer.,  pp.  230,  251,  597-8; 
Hassel,  Mex.  Gwd.,  pp.  388-9;  Froebel,  Aus  Amerika,  torn,  i.,  pp.  397-8; 
Varnhagen,  Prem.  Voy.  de  Amerigo  Vespucci,  pp.  40-1.  The  pure  type  has 
'  schlichte,  grobere,  schwarze  Haar  undfeinere  Lippen.'  Sivers,  Mittelamerika, 
pp.  74,  177,  180,  287-8;  Fount's  Narrative,  pp.  26,  28-9,  72,  75,  79,  82,  87, 
123;  Uring's  Hist.  Voy.,  p.  226;  Bell,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxii., 
pp.  256-9;  Plman-l  Seemctnn's  Dottings,  pp.  248,  305,  403;  Colon,  Hist.  Almi- 
rante,  in  Barcia,  Historiadores,  torn,  i'.,  p.  104;  Bard's  Waikna,  pp.  127,  298, 
317;  Strangeways'  Mosquito  Shore,  p.  329.  The  natives  of  Corn  island  are  '  of 
a  dark  copper-colour,  black  Hair,  full  round  Faces,  small  black  Eyes,  their 
Eye-brows  hanging  over  their  Eyes,  low  Foreheads,  short  thick  Noses,  not 
high,  but  flattish;  full  Lips,  and  short  Chins.'  Dampier's  Voyages,  vol.  i., 
pp.  31-2,  7-8. 


716  WILD  TKIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

and  a  long  sleeveless  robe,  open  in  front  and  often  nicely 
ornamented ;  in  other  places  men  of  rank  wear  turbans 
decorated  with  plumes  and  feathers,  and  dress  in  skins 
of  eagles,  tigers,  and  other  animals ;  these  are  also  used 
by  the  common  people  on  festive  occasions.  The  Smoos' 
head-dress  is  especially  pretty,  with  its  embroidery  and 
feather- work.  Ordinarily  the  long  loose  hair  is  deemed 
sufficient  to  protect  the  head,  and  is  kept  sleek  and  shin 
ing  by  palm-oil,  which  they  say  furthers  its  growth. 
The  women  have  longer  hair  than  the  men,  and  often 
dress  it  in  ringlets,  seldom  in  a  knot  or  wreath.  The 
people  of  northern  Honduras  wear  a  lock  hanging  over 
the  forehead ;  some  highland  chieftains,  on  the  contrary, 
shave  the  front  of  the  head,  but  allow  the  back  hair  to 
grow  long,  while  the  Poyas  part  theirs  in  the  middle, 
keeping  it  in  position  with  a  band.  That  of  the  religious 
men  reaches  to  the  waist,  and  generally  falls  in  braids 
behind.  In  mourning,  both  sides  of  the  head  are  shaved, 
a  bushy  comb  being  left  along  the  middle.  For 
merly  all  hair  except  that  on  the  head,  even  eyebrows 
and  lashes,  was  pulled  out,  because  it  was  thought  fit  for 
animals  only  to  have  hair  on  the  body.  All  go  bare 
footed,  and  it  is  only  where  the  native  has  to  travel 
over  a  rough  road  that  he  puts  on  alpamyats,  or  sandals 
of  bark,  wood,  or  skin,  which  are  fastened  by  thongs 
round  the  foot.  Whatever  is  wanting  in  actual  dress, 
however,  is  made  up  by  paint  and  ornaments,  of  which 
both  sexes  are  equally  fond.  The  face  and  upper  part 
of  the  body  are  either  uniformly  daubed  over  or  tattooed 
with  rays,  fanciful  lines,  and  designs  representing  animals 
and  the  like,  chiefly  in  red  and  black.  Taste  is  not 
wanting  in  this  adornment,  for  the  tint  is  often  delicate, 
and  the  black  circles  round  the  eyes  indicate  that  they 
understand  effect,  increasing  as  they  do  the  lustre  of  the 
orbs.  Esquemelin  states  that  when  visitors  were  ex 
pected,  the  men  combed  the  hair,  and  smeared  the  face 
with  an  ointment  of  oil  and  black  powder,  the  women 
using  a  red  admixture.  Tattooing  figures  on  the  body 
by  cauterization,  as  seen  by  Columbus  on  the  Mosquito 


MOSQUITO  HEAD-FLATTENING.  717 

Coast,  is  still  practiced  in  certain  parts  of  the  interior. 
Aboriginal  Mosquitos  also  perforated  ears,  lips,  and 
cheeks,  to  hold  pendants  offish-bones  and  green  stones; 
the  holes  in  the  ears  being  as  large  as  eggs.  The  natives  of 
Corn  island  not  only  carried  large  pieces  of  wood  in  the 
ears,  but  gradually  enlarged  the  hole  in  the  lower  lip; 
at  fifteen  years  of  age  the  wood  was  removed  and  a  tor 
toise-shell  inserted.  Women  wore  a  tight  bandage  round 
the  ankle  to  increase  the  size  of  their  calves.  Strings 
of  tastefully  arranged  beads,  bones,  shells,  and  stones, 
and  gaily  colored  bandages,  were  worn  round  the  neck 
and  wrist;  the  women  adorning  the  legs  and  ankles  in 
a  similar  manner,  and  also  using  feathers  and  flowers. 
Certain  interior  tribes,  as  the  Smoos,  esteem  a  round 
forehead  as  a  reproach,  and  hence  the  head  is  flattened, 
the  effect  of  which  would  be  more  noticeable,  were  it 
not  for  the  thick  bushy  hair.  This  head-flattening 
fashion  here  appears  for  the  first  time  since  we  left  the 
Columbian  group;  we  shall  see  it  once  again  further 
south,  and  that  is  all.  The  process  here  is  essentially 
similar  to  that  of  the  Columbians.  When  the  infant  is 
a  month  old,  it  is  tied  to  a  board,  and  a  flat  piece  of 
wood,  kept  firm  by  bands,  is  placed  upon  the  forehead. 
The  child  remains  in  this  painful  position  for  several 
months,  the  pressure  increasing  as  the  head  grows.23 

Towns  there  are  none,  except  in  certain  parts ;  seldom 
do  more  than  foux  or  five  houses  stand  in  a  group ;  the 
locality  being  changed  at  intervals  for  sanitary  or  super 
stitious  purposes.  A  few  upright  posts  planted  in  par 
allel  lines,  or  in  a  circle,  and  occasionally  interwoven 
with  cane  or  leaves,  support  what  may  be  called  the  hut 

23  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  i.,  cap.  vi.,  lib.  viii.,  cap.  iii.,  v.;  Es- 
quemelin,  Zee-Roovers,  pp.  150-1;  Squier,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xix.,  p.  614; 
Id.,  in  Nouvdles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1858,  torn,  clx.,  p.  134;  Martin's  Brit.  Col, 
vol.  ii.,  p.  412;  Pirn  and  Seemann's  DoUings,  pp.  248-50;  280,  308,  403, 
415;  Macgregor's  Progress  of  Amer.,  vol.  i.,  p.  772;  Dampier's  Voyages,  vol. 
i.,  pp.  11,  32;  Bard's  Waikna,  pp.  127,  253-6,  298;  Mosquitoland,  Bericht,  pp. 
116-17,  136-7;  Bell,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxii.,  pp.  256-60; 
Young's  Narrative,  pp.  12,  26,  29,  32,  72,  77,  83,122,  133.  'Alcuni  vsano 
certe  camiciuole  com'quelle,  che  vsiamo  noi,  lunghe  sino  al  belico,  e  senza 
manche.  Portano  le  braccia,  e  il  corpo  lauorati  di  lauori  moreschi,  fatti  col 
fuoco,'  Colombo,  Hist,  del  Ammiraglio,  pp.  403-5. 


718  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

proper,  which  is  a  sharply  sloping,  well- thatched  palm- 
leaf  roof  with  projecting  eaves,  reaching  to  within  three 
or  four  feet  of  the  ground.  There  is  usually  but  one 
apartment,  the  floor  of  which  is  often  coated  with  clay, 
and  raised  a  little  to  avoid  dampness.  In  the  center  is 
the  fireplace,  surrounded  by  household  ware  and  cack 
ling  hens,  and  all  round  may  be  seen  hammocks  and  nets 
suspended  from  the  bamboo  rafters.  Some  sleep  on  a 
frame- work  of  bamboo  placed  upon  posts.  The  better  class 
of  houses  contain  partitions  for  the  several  families  occu 
pying  it,  and  stand  in  fields  enclosed  by  stalk  fences.  A 
village  with  many  of  the  interior  tribes  consists  of  one  large 
building,  often  one  hundred  feet  long  by  thirty  feet  wide. 
The  front  and  end  of  these  structures  are  open,  but  the 
back  is  partitioned  off  into  small  closets  with  the  bark  of 
the  cabbage-palms,  each  serving  as  a  bedroom  for  a  mar 
ried  couple,  or  for  unmarried  women.  A  platform  imme 
diately  under  the  roof  is  used  as  a  sleeping-place  for  the 
boys,  and  an  apartment  at  the  end  of  the  hut  is  set  apart 
for  women  about  to  be  confined.  Some  of  the  Guajique- 
ro  villages  contain  over  a  hundred  substantial  huts  of 
mud,  or  of  cane  plastered  over  and  whitewashed.  The 
Toonglas  and  Cookras,  erect  temporary  sheds  near  the 
streams,  during  the  summer,  but  seek  more  secure  huts 
in  the  winter.  Carib  dwellings  are  the  neatest  of  all ; 
some  are  of  cane,  others  of  frame-work  filled  with  mud. 
Cockburn  relates  that,  during  his  journey  through  Hon 
duras,  he  came  across  a  bridge  made  of  a  net-work  of 
cane,  which  was  suspended  between  trees  so  that  the 
centre  hung  forty  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  stream. 
He  found  it  very  old  and  shaky,  and  concluded  that  it 
belonged  to  the  remote  past.24 

Redundant  nature  here  leaves  man  so  little  to  do, 
as  scarcely  to  afford  an  opportunity  for  development. 

24  StrongeUKtya*  Mosquito  Shore,  p.  334;  Froebel's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  185;  Squier's 
Cent.  Amer.,  p.  660;  Id.,  in  Harper's  Mag.,  vol.  xix.,  p.  613;  Id.,  in  Nouvelles 
Annaks  des  Voy.,  1858,  torn,  clx.,  p.  134;  Young's  Narrative,  pp.  13,  77,  98- 
9,  125;  Pirn  and  Seemann's  Dottings.  pp.  279,  295,  415-6;  Bell,iu  Land.  Geog. 
Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxii.,pp.  258-9;  Bard's  Waikna,  pp.  293-4,  318-9;  Mosqui- 
toland,  Bericht,  pp.  20,  137-9;  Sivers,  Mittelamerika,  pp.  167,  178;  Cockburn' s 
Journey,  pp.  23,  55-7. 


FOOD  IN  HONDURAS.  719 

The  people  of  northern  Honduras,  according  to  Herrera, 
cleared  the  ground  with  stone  axes,  and  turned  the  sod 
by  main  strength  with  a  forked  pole  or  with  sharp  wooden 
spades,  and  by  this  means  secured  two  or  three  yields  every 
year;  but  the  present  occupants  scarcely  take  so  much 
trouble.  On  marrying,  the  men  prepare  a  small  field 
for  a  few  beds  of  yams,  beans,  cassava,  and  squash,  some 
pepper,  and  pine-apples,  besides  twenty  to  thirty  plan 
tain  and  cocoa-nut  trees,  leaving  their  wives  to  give  it 
such  further  care  as  may  be  required.  Where  maize  is 
cultivated  it  is  either  sown  two  or  three  grains  in  holes 
two  feet  apart,  or  thrown  broadcast  over  fresh  wood 
land  a  little  before  the  rainy  season.  The  Poyas  are 
the  only  people  who  cultivate  respectable  farms.  Fish 
ing  is  the  favorite  occupation  of  the  coast  tribes,  and 
their  dexterity  with  the  spear  and  harpoon  is  quite  re 
markable.  The  proper  time  for  catching  the  larger 
species  of  fish,  such  as  the  tarpom  and  palpa,  is  at  night, 
when  a  fleet  of  pitpans,  each  with  a  pitch-pine  torch  in 
the  bow,  may  be  seen  on  the  lagoon  intermingling  in 
picturesque  confusion.  One  or  two  paddlers  propel  the 
boat,  another  holds  the  torch,  wrhile  the  harpooneer  stands 
at  the  bow  with  a  waisko-dusa,  or  staff,  having  a  loosely 
fitting,  barbed  harpoon  at  one  end,  and  a  piece  of  light 
wood  at  the  other.  A  short  line  attached  to  the  harpoon, 
passes  along  the  staff,  and  is  rolled  round  this  float  for 
convenience.  The  glare  of  the  torch  attracts  the  fish 
and  enables  the  bowman  to  spy  his  prey,  which  is  imme 
diately  transfixed  by  the  harpoon.  Away  it  darts,  but 
the  float  retards  its  progress,  and  points  out  its  where- 
•Joouts  to  the  boatmen,  who  again  seize  the  line,  and 
drag  it  to  the  shore.  Occasionally  the  tarpom  is  taken 
in  strong  nets,  the  meshes  of  which  require  to  be  six 
inches  square  in  order  to  entangle  it.  Manatees  or  sea- 
cows  are  caught  in  the  early  morning,  and  to  get  within 
striking  distance  of  the  wary  animal,  it  is  necessary  to 
deck  the  canoe  with  bushes  and  leaves,  giving  it  the  ap 
pearance  of  a  floating  tree.  The  line  attached  to  the 
harpoon  is  in  this  case  payed  out  from  the  canoe,  which 


720  WILD  TBIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

is  often  trailed  by  the  manatee  in  a  lively  manner.  It 
generally  takes  several  harpoons  as  well  as  lances  to  kill 
it.  Smaller  harpoons,  without  barb,  with  merely  quad 
rangular  points  an  inch  and  a  half  long  and  nearly  as 
wide,  are  used  for  catching  turtles  so  that  the  shell  may 
not  be  damaged.  As  the  canoe  approaches,  the  turtle 
slides  under  the  water;  the  bowman  signalizes  the  oars 
man  how  to  steer,  and  when  the  turtle  rises  to  breathe, 
it  is  speared  dragged  into  the  canoes,  and  placed  on  its 
back.  Some  fishermen  will  jump  into  the  water  after 
the  animal,  and  bring  it  up  in  their  hands,  but  this 
feat  is  attended  with  danger,  from  bites  and  sharp 
coral.  The  hawk-bill  turtle  is  set  free  after  the  shell 
has  been  stripped  of  its  scales,  but  the  green  species 
is  eaten,  and  its  eggs,  which  are  esteemed  a  dainty, 
are  sought  for  in  the  sand  by  poking  suspected  places 
with  a  stick.  Smaller  fish  are  speared  with  the  sinnockj 
a  long  pole  with  a  fixed  point.  The  river  people 
take  less  pleasure  in  fishing,  and  resort  thereto  only 
as  driven  by  necessity.  Weirs  of  branches  and  clay 
are  constructed,  with  a  small  outlet  in  the  middle, 
where  men  are  stationed  to  catch  the  passing  fish 
with  nets  and  spears.  The  Poyas  employ  a  still  surer 
method.  The  water  is  beaten  with  sticks  for  some  dis 
tance  above  the  weir,  so  as  to  drive  the  fish  together;  a 
quantity  of  juice  extracted  from  a  wild  vine  called 
pequine,  which  has  a  stupefying  effect,  is  thrown  into  the 
water,  and  the  men  have  merely  to  select  the  best  look 
ing,  the  smaller  ones  being  allowed  to  float  away  and 
recover  in  the  unadulterated  waters  below.  The  preserv 
ing  offish  is  the  work  of  women,  who  cut  them  in  slices, — . 
sometimes  rubbing  them  with  salt, — and  place  the  pieces 
on  a  framework  of  cane  over  the  fire  to  be  smoke-dried ; 
after  which  they  are  exposed  to  the  sun  for.  a  day  or  two. 
Part  of  the  fish  is  cooked,  or  baked  in  oil,  and  eaten  at 
once.  If  we  except  the  Smoos  and  Xicaques,  who  fol 
low  game  with  true  precision  and  patience,  the  usual 
mode  of  hunting  is  as  primitive  as  weir-fishing.  A 
number  of  men  assemble  and  set  fire  to  the  grass,  whicfe 


MOSQUITO  COOKEKY.  721 

drives  the  terrified  animals  into  a  corner,  where  they 
are  shot  or  struck  down,  or  the  game  is  entrapped  in 
holes  partly  filled  with  water.  The  wild  hog.  the  tapir, 
and  deer  supply  most  of  the  meat,  which  is  cured  in  the 
same  way  as  fish :  some  cutting  the  meat  in  strips,  and 
curing  it  on  the  buccan,  or  grate  of  sticks,  while  others 
prefer  the  barbecue  method  which  is  to  smoke-dry  the 
whole  animal.  Certain  old  writers  state  that  human 
flesh  was  eaten,  but  this  is  discredited  by  others,  who 
think  that  the  error  arose  from  seeing  the  natives  feast 
on  monkeys,  which,  skinned,  have  much  the  appear 
ance  of  humans.  The  statement  of  their  ea,ting  raw 
fish  may  also  be  wrong,  for  the  natives  of  the  present 
day  are  very  careful  about  thoroughly  cooking  their  food, 
and  even  avoid  fruit  not  fully  ripened.  A  well-known 
article  of  food  is  the  Carib  bread,  a  sort  of  white  hard 
biscuit  made  from  cassava  or  mandioc  roots,  which  are 
skinned,  washed,  and  grated  on  a  board  set  with  sharp 
stones.  The  pulp  is  rinsed  in  water  to  extract  the 
poisonous  juice,  and  when  it  is  sufficiently  whitened  by 
this  means,  the  water  is  carefully  pressed  out,  and  the 
substance  set  to  dry  in  the  sun.  The  sifted  flour 
is  made  into  large  round  thin  cakes,  which,  after 
being  exposed  to  the  sun  for  a  while,  are  slowly 
baked  over  the  fire.  The  Poyas  make  large  rolls,  which 
are  wrapped  in  leaves  and  baked  in  the  ashes.  These 
soon  become  sour,  and  are  then  eaten  with  a  relish. 
Others  grind  cassava  or  maize  on  the  metate,  and  bake 
tortillas.  A  gruel  is  also  made  of  the  flour,  and  eaten 
with  salt  and  chile,  or  syrup.  One  of  their  dainties  is 
bisbire,  the  name  given  to  plantains  kept  in  leaves  till 
putrid,  and  eaten  boiled.  Scalding  hot  cacao  mixed 
with  chile  is  the  favorite  stimulant,  of  which  large  quan 
tities  are  imbibed,  until  the  perspiration  starts  from  every 
pore.  Cacao-fruit  is  also  eaten  roasted.  Notwithstand 
ing  the  richness  of  the  soil  an&  the  variety  of  its  pro 
ductions,  the  natives  are  accused  of  resorting  to  insects 
for  food,  and  of  eating  their  own  vermin.  The  coast 
people  have  the  greater  selection,  but  trust  mostly  to 

TOL.  I.         46 


722  WILD  TEIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

fishing,  while  the  interior  tribes  after  natural  products 
depend  upon  the  chase.  The  Cookras  subsist  chiefly  on 
the  cabbage-palm.  Sambo  girls  have  a  peculiar  fancy 
for  eating  charcoal  and  sand,  believing  that  their  charms 
are  improved  thereby.  No  regularity  is  observed  in 
eating,  but  food  is  taken  at  any  hour,  and  with  voracity ; 
nor  will  they  take  the  trouble  to  procure  more,  until  the 
whole  stock  is  consumed,  arid  hunger  drives  them  from 
their  hammocks.  The  Poyas  and  Guajiqueros  seem  to  be 
the  only  tribes  who  have  any  idea  of  providing  for  the 
future ;  the  latter  laying  up  a  common  reserve.25 

Frequent  bathing  is  the  rule,  yet  the  Sambos,  who 
have  a  better  opportunity  for  this,  perhaps,  than  other 
tribes,  are  described  as  dirty  in  their  surroundings,  and, 
when  warmed  by  motion,  emit  a  disagreeable  odor, 
arising  from  the  use  of  ointments  and  powders.  The 
Poyas,  Xicaques,  Secos,  and  especially  the  Caribs  are, 
on  the  contrary,  very  cleanly  in  their  habits.26 

The  bow  and  arrow  figures  as  the  chief  weapon  of 
the  Mosquitos,  the  former  being  usually  of  iron-wood, 
spanned  with  twisted  mahoe-bark,  and  often  six  feet  in 
length;  the  latter  of  reed  or  wood,  hardened  in  fire, 
and  pointed  with  hard  wood,  'flint,  fish-bones,  or  teeth. 
They  not  only  handle  the  bow  well,  but  some  are  ex 
pert  in  the  art  of  defense.  To  attain  this  dexterity, 
children  are  taught  to  turn  aside,  with  a  stick,  the  blunt 
darts  thrown  at  them,  and  in  time  they  become  suffi 
ciently  expert  to  ward  off  arrows  in  the  same  manner. 
They  also  fight  with  cane  lances  about  nine  feet  long, 
with  oblong  diamond  points,  javelins,  clubs,  and  heavy 
sharp -pointed  swords  made  of  a  poisonous  wood,  a 
splinter  from  which  causes  first  madness  and  then 

25  TIerrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  viii.,  cap.  iii-v.;  Macgregor's  Progress 


The  Woolwas  had  fish  'which  had  been  shot  with  arrows.'  Pirn  and  See- 
mann's  Dottings,  pp.  403,  248-50,  300-1,  407,  412-13;  Dampier's  Voyages,  vol. 
i.,  pp.  9-13,  35-7. 

26  Boyle's  Ride,  vol.  i.,  pref.,  p.  18;  Young's  Narrative,  pp.  76,  99,  133; 
Torquemada,  Monarq.  Ind.t  tom.  i.,  p.  335. 


MOSQUITO  WEAPONS  AND  WAR.  723 

death.  The  milky  juice  of  the  manzanilla-tree  is  used 
to  poison  arrows  and  darts.  Blowpipes,  whose  light 
arrows  surely  and  silently  bring  down  birds  at  a  hundred 
feet  and  over,  are  in  great  favor  with  the  youth.  Armor 
is  made  of  plaited  reeds  covered  with  tiger-skins,  and 
ornamented  with  feathers;  besides  which,  the  northern 
Mosquitos  employ  a  breastplate  of  twisted  cotton,  like 
that  of  the  Mexicans.  Mosquito  women  are  said  to  be 
as  good  archers  as  the  men.27 

Aboriginal  wars  were  continually  waged  in  Hondu 
ras  without  any  other  object  than  to  avenge  the  death 
of  an  ancestor,  or  to  retaliate  on  those  who  had  carried 
away  friends  into  slavery.  Neighboring  tribes,  how 
ever,  agreed  to  a  truce  at  certain  times,  to  allow  the 
interchange  of  goods.  Previous  to  starting  on  an  ex 
pedition,  turkeys,  dogs,  and  even  human  beings  were 
sacrificed  to  influence  the  gods;  blood  was  drawn  from 
tongue  and  ears,  and  dreams  carefully  noted,  and  their 
import  determined.  Ambassadors  were  sent  to  challenge 
the  enemy  to  a  pitched  battle,  and,  if  they  were  not  re 
sponded  to,  the  country  was  ravaged.  When  prisoners  were 
taken  they  were  usually  held  as  slaves,  after  having  the 
nose  cut  off.  Forty  thousand  men  sometimes  composed 
an  expedition,  operating  without  chief  or  order,  devising 
ambushes  and  stratagems  as  it  suited  them,  and  accom 
panied  by  women  to  act  as  porters.  Mosquito  warriors 
blacken  the  face,  and  place  themselves  under  the  tem 
porary  command  of  the  bravest  and  most  experienced. 
The  coast  people  are  bold  and  unyielding,  and  usually 
kill  their  prisoners.  When  the  Sambos  confederate  with 
their  neighbors,  they  expect  their  allies  to  pay  for  friends 
lost  in  battle.28 


27  Of  the  people  of  Las  Pertas  islands  it  is  said;  '  Aen't  endt  van  haer 
geweer  een  hay-tandt,  schieten  met  geen  boogh.'  Esquemelin,  Zee-Roovers, 
pp.   71,    150.     Also   see:    Colon.   Hist.  Almirante,  in  Barcia,  Historiadores, 
torn,  i.,  p.  105;  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iii.,  lib.  ix.,  cap.  x.,  and  dec.  iv., 
lib.  viii.,  cap.  iii.;  Dampier's  Voyages,  vol.  i.,  pp.  7-8;  Card's  Waikna,  pp. 
120,  128. 

28  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  viii.,  cap.  iii.;  Esquemelin,  Zee-Roovers, 
p.  153;  Dampier's   Voyages,  vol.  i.,  p.  8;  Delaporte,   Reisen,   torn,  x.,  p.  406; 
Strangeways'  Mosquito  Shore,  p,  331. 


724  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

Domestic  utensils  in  the  homes  of  the  Mosquitos  con 
sist  of  stones  for  grinding  grain  and  roots,  clay  pots  and 
plates  for  cooking  purposes,  and  gourds,  calabashes,  and 
nets  for  holding  food  and  liquids.  The  stone  hatchet, 
which  is  fast  becoming  a  relic,  is  ten  inches  long,  four 
broad,  and  three  thick,  sharp  at  both  ends,  with  a 
groove  to  hold  the  handle  which  is  firmly  twisted  round 
its  centre.  Besides  the  implements  already  referred  to 
under  fishing  and  weapons,  may  be  mentioned  the  lasso, 
in  the  use  of  which  they  are  very  expert,  and  the  paia- 
pee,  a  pretty  water-tight  basket  that  the  Caribs  plait  of 
reeds.  The  men  usually  sleep  in  hammocks,  or  on  mats 
spread  on  the  ground  near  the  fire,  with  a  stick  for  a 
pillow,  while  the  women  prefer  a  platform  of  cane  raised 
a  few  feet  from  the  ground,  and  covered  with  a  mat  or 
a  skin.29 

Fibres  of  mahoe  and  ule  bark,  pisang-leaves  and  silk- 
grass  furnish  material  for  ropes,  nets,  mats,  and  coarse 
fabrics.  Most  of  the  Mosquitos  grow  a  little  cotton, 
which  the  women  spin  on  a  rude  wheel,  like  that  of  the 
Guatemalans,  and  weave  on  a  frame  loom  into  strong 
and  neat  cloths.  The  favorite  blue  color  for  dj^eing  is 
obtained  from  the  jiquilite  plant;  the  yellow  from  the 
achiolt  tree.  Pottery  is  a  very  ancient  art  among  them, 
as  may  be  seen  from  the  fine  specimens  discovered  in 
the  graves  and  ruins  of  Honduras.  Their  red  cooking- 
pots  are  very  light  but  strong,  and  the  water-jars,  which 
are  only  slightly  burnt  to  permit  percolation,  show  con 
siderable  taste  in  design.30 

Nowhere  do  we  find  more  daring  and  expert  boat 
men  than  the  Mosquitos,  who  will  venture  out  upon  the 
roughest  sea  in  a  boat  barely  large  enough  to  hold  a  man 

29  'Hammocks,  made  of  a  Sort  of  Rushes.'  Cockburn's  Journey,  pp.  64, 
23.  '  El  almohada  vu  palo,  o  vna  piedra:  los  cofres  son  cestillos,  aforrados 
en  cueros  de  venados.'  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  viii.,  cap.  v.  Con 
sult  also:  Young's  Narrative,  pp.  76-7;  Dampier's  Voyages,  vol.  i.,  p.  85; 
Squier's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  660;  Mosquitoland,  Bericht,  pp.  100,  116,  123,  138, 
173. 

so  Sivers,  Mittelamerika,  p.  167;  Bard's  Waikna,  pp.  127,298-9.  '  Auf 
irgend  eine  Zubereitung  (of  skins)  verstehen  sich  die  Indianer  nicht.'  Mps- 
quitoland,  Bericht,  pp.  190,  148.  '  They  make  large  Jars  here,  one  of  which 
will  hold  ten  Gallons,  and  not  weigh  one  Pound.'  Cockburn's  Journey,  p.  83. 


BOATS  AND  FISHERIES.  725 

and  a  boy.  If  the  boat  capsize  it  is  at  once  righted, 
bailed  out,  and  the  voyage  resumed,  and  seldom  is  any 
part  of  the  cargo  lost.  The  dory,  or  ordinary  sea-boat 
is  a  hollowed-out  tree,  often  twenty-five  to  fifty  feet  long, 
four  to  six  wide,  and  four  to  five  deep,  round-bottomed, 
buoyant,  and  with  good  handling  safe.  The  best  are 
made  by  the  up-river  tribes,  especially  the  Towkas,  who 
prepare  them  roughly  with  axe  and  fire,  and  sell  them 
to  the  coast  people  to  be  finished  according  to  fancy. 
After  the  dug-out  has  been  trimmed,  it  is  often  soaked 
in  water  for  a  time,  so  that  the  sides  may  be  stretched 
and  secured  with  knees.  Thefitpan,  which  is  used  on 
rivers  and  lagoons,  differs  from  the  dory  in  being  flat- 
bottomed,  with  broad  and  gradually  rounded  ends,  and 
of  less  depth  and  width.  Cedar  is  chiefly  used  for  pit- 
pans  on  account  of  its  lightness,  and  the  stronger  mahog 
any  for  dories:  but  the  latter  are,  however,  soon  injured 
by  worms  if  kept  in  the  water.  Small  boats  are  pro 
pelled  by  a  single  broad-bladed  paddle;  sails  also  are 
employed  with  the  crean  or  keeled  canoe.31 

Harpoon  and  canoe  are  the  basis  of  the  Mosquito's 
wealth,  for  with  them  he  obtains  his  food  and  the  tortoise- 
shell,  the  principal  article  of  traffic.  The  season  for 
catching  hawk-bill  turtles  is  from  April  to  August,  when 
fleets  of  canoes,  each  manned  by  about  twelve  men,  pro 
ceed  to  different  parts  of  the  coast,  as  far  south  as  Chiri- 
qui,  and  bring  home  ten  thousand  pounds  of  shell  on  an 
average.  Green  turtles,  which  are  caught  near  reefs, 
also  find  a  good  market  in  Blewfields  and  elsewhere. 
All  keep  hogs,  the  Caribs  more  than  others;  many  pos 
sess  cattle  and  horses,  which  are  allowed  to  run  wild 
over  the  prairies,  the  horses  being  lassoed  whenever 
required  for  riding.  Their  manner  of  breaking  them  is 
unique.  One  man  leads  the  horse  with  the  lasso  into 
water,  to  a  depth  of  three  or  four  feet,  when  another 

31  Young's  Narrative,  pp.  11, 19,  76,  160-1;  Martin's  West  Indies,  vol.i.,  pp. 
155-6;  Lam-pier's  Voyages,  vol.  i.,  pp.  35,  85.  '  Der  Tuberose  tree  der  Eng- 
lander  liefert  die  starksten  Baumstamme,  deren  die  Indianer  sich  zur  Anfer- 
tigting  ihrer  grossten  Wasserfahrzeuge  bedienen.'  Mosquitoland,  Bericht,  pp. 
116,  70,  147. 


726  WILD  TBIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

jumps  upon  his  back,  and  responds  to  buckings  and  skit- 
tishness  with  blows  on  the  head,  until  in  about  half  an 
hour  the  exhausted  animal  surrenders.  A  line  of  bark- 
fibre  serves  for  reins,  and  a  few  plaited  palm- leaves  for 
saddle.  Preservation  of  wealth  is  little  thought  of,  for 
cattle  are  most  recklessly  slaughtered  at  feasts  and  for 
offences,  and  fruit-trees,  as  well  as  other  property  are, 
as  a  rule,  destroyed  on  the  death  of  the  owner.  Quite 
a  trade  is  carried  on  in  these  parts,  the  inland  tribes 
bringing  rough  canoes,  calabashes,  skins,  cloth,  honey, 
and  cacao  to  the  coast  people,  and  receiving  therefor  tur 
tles,  salt,  English  fancy  and  useful  articles ;  while  many 
of  the  latter  undertake  lengthy  coast  trips  to  dispose  of 
the  bartered  produce,  as  well  as  their  own.  The  Wan- 
kees  deal  heavily  in  bisbire,  or  decomposed  plantains, 
while  sarsaparilla  and  honey  are  the  staple  articles  of 
the  Secos  and  Poyas.  A  mixture  of  shrewdness  and 
simplicity  characterizes  their  dealings.  A  party  wishing 
to  dispose  of  hides,  for  instance,  first  produces  the  worst 
ones,  which  are  thrown  aside  by  the  buyer  until  those 
of  the  standard  quality  are  brought  out ;  a  sum  is  then 
offered  for  the  whole,  which  is  often  unhesitatingly  ac 
cepted  by  the  native  who  is  too  dazzled  by  the  apparently 
high  price  to  consider  the  amount  of  produce  given  for 
it.  Very  little  value  is  placed  upon  labor,  for  canoes, 
which  have  taken  a  considerable  time  to  prepare,  are 
often  bartered  for  a  mere  trifle.  The  people  of  Hondu 
ras  have  always  a  stock  of  cloth  and  honey  to  pay  taxes 
with,  and  set  a  high  value  on  colored  feathers  obtained 
from  Yucatec  coast  traders,  who  take  cacao  for  return 


cargoes.32 


Although  versatile  enough  in  handicrafts,  their  men 
tal  faculties  are  exceedingly  crude.  With  the  aid  of 
fingers  and  toes  the  Sambo  is  able  to  count  to  twenty, 
but  anything  beyond  that  confuses  him.  Time  is  reck- 

32  The  Mosquitos  have  '  little  trade  except  in  tortoise-shells  and  sarsapa 
rilla.'  Squier's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  659.  Compare  Bard's  Waikna,  p.  317;  Hell, 
in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxii.,  p.  252;  Strangeways'  Mosquito  Shore, 
p.  337;  Young's  Narrative,  pp.  16,  82,  86-7,  91,  126;  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen., 
dec.  iv.,  lib.  viii.,  cap.  iii.,  v.;  Mosquitoland,  Bericht,  pp.  148,  171-4,  190. 


MOSQUITO  CALENDAR  AND  ART.  727 

oned  by  kates,  or  moons,  thirteen  of  which  make  a  mani, 
or  year.  When  asked  to  fix  the  date  of  an  event,  he 
will  say  that  it  occurred  so  many  sleeps  or  moons  ago ; 
but  when  the  time  exceeds  a  year  or  two,  the  answer  is 
given  in  the  rather  indefinite  term  of  "many,  many 
years;"  consequently  he  is  unable  to  tell  his  age.  His 
ideas  of  cosmology  are  equally  vague;  thus,  stars  are 
held  to  be  glowing  stones.  The  people  of  Honduras  call 
the  year  iolar,  and  divide  it  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
Mexicans,  by  whom  the  system  has,  no  doubt,  been  in 
troduced.  They  reckon  time  by  so  many  nights  or  twi 
lights,  not  by  days,  and  determine  the  hour  by  the 
height  of  the  sun.  The  song-language  of  the  Mosquitos 
differs  greatly  from  that  employed  in  conversation,  a 
quaint  old-time  style  being  apparently  preserved  in  their 
lyrics.33 

The  art  of  extracting  and  melting  gold  has  long  been 
known  to  them,  but,  although  they  wear  a  few  orna 
ments  of  this  metal,  they  do  not  seem  to  prize  it  very 
highly.  At  the  time  of  Cockburn's  visit  to  Honduras, 
dams  were  used  in  mining,  and  instruments  of  cane  to 
sift  the  gold.  The  mode  employed  by  the  Poyas  to 
separate  gold  from  sand  is  the  one  known  in  California 
as  panning,  and  is  thus  described  by  Squier:  "Scooping 
up  some  of  the  sand  in  his  bowl,  and  then  filling  it  with 
water,  he  whirled  it  rapidly,  so  that  a  feathery  stream 
of  mingled  sand  and  water  flew  constantly  over  its  edge. 
He  continued  this  operation  until  the  sand  was  nearly 
exhausted,  and  then  filled  the  bowl  again.  After  repeat 
ing  this  process  several  times,  he  grew  more  careful, 
balancing  the  bowl  skillfully,  and  stopping  occasionally 
to  pick  out  the  pebbles ....  after  the  process  was  com 
plete,  the  Foyer  showed  me  a  little  deposit  of  gold,  in 

33  The  Mosquitos  '  divisaient  1'annee  en  18  mois  de  20  jours,  et  ils  appel- 
laient  les  mois  loalar.'  Malte-Brun,  Precis  de  la  Ge'og.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  472. 
'Dit  konense  reeckenen  by  de  Maen,  daer  van  sy  vyftien  "voor  een  jaer 
reeckenen.'  Exquemdin,  Zee-Roovers,  p.  152.  'Fiir  die  Berechnnng  der  Jahre 
existirt keine  Aera.  Daher  weiss  Niemand  sein  Alter.'  Mosquitoland,  Bericht, 
pp.  142,  267-8.  See  also  Bard's  Waikrta,  pp.  244-5;  Young's  Narrative,  p. 
76;  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  viii.,  cap.  vi. 


728  WILD  TEIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

grains,  at  the  bottom  of  the  calabash."  The  gold  dust 
passes  into  the  hands  of  the  white  trader.34 

The  Mosquitos  proper  are  ruled  by  a  hereditary  king, 
who  claims  sovereignty  over  the  interior  tribes  of  the 
Mosquito  Coast,  which,  in  many  cases,  is  merely  nomi 
nal.  Before  the  English  made  their  influence  felt,  this 
monarch,  who,  in  these  latter  degenerate  days,  does  not 
possess  many  prerogatives,  seems  to  have  had  but  a  small 
extent  of  territory,  for  among  the  earlier  travelers  some 
assert  that  the  inhabitants  of  this  coast  lived  under  a 
republican  rule,  while  others  observed  no  form  of  gov 
ernment.  Each  village  or  community  has  a  principal 
man,  or  judge,  selected  from  the  eldest  and  ablest,  who 
settles  minor  grievances,  referring  weightier  matters  to 
the  king,  and  superintends  the  contribution  of  canoes, 
tortoise-shells,  and  produce  for  the  support  of  the  mon 
arch  and  chiefs — for  regular  taxes  are  not  collected. 
Among  the  Poyas,  the  old  men,  who  are  highly  re 
spected  by  their  juniors,  assemble  every  evening  to 
deliberate  upon  the  duties  of  the  following  day;  all 
members  of  the  tribe  take  part  in  the  work,  and  share 
alike  in  the  results.  According  to  Young,  the  Mos 
quitos  had  an  officer,  in  whom  was  vested  certain 
authority.  The  Caribs  are  also  ruled  by  elders,  dig 
nified  by  the  title  of  captains.  Their  laws  are  in  some 
respects  harsh :  for  instance,  a  woman  who  has  had  in 
tercourse  with  a  man  of  another  race  is  whipped  slowly 
to  death.  Sambos  are  less  particular  in  this  matter, 
the  adulterer  being  merely  mulcted  in  a  cow.  If  the 
decision  of  a  chief  be  not  satisfactory,  the  contestants 
resort  to  trial  by  combat.  The  Xicaques  live  in  com 
munities  of  from  seventy  to  one  hundred  persons  ruled 
by  chiefs  elected  for  life.  The  insignia  of  a  judge  or 
ruler  in  Honduras  are  a  white  staff,  often  elaborately 
ornamented  with  a  golden  head  and  tassels.  Formerly 


34  Sard's  Waikna,  pp.  292-3;  Cockburn's  Journey,  p.  37;  Gomara,  Hist. 
Ind.,  fol.  63.  The  natives  of  Honduras  had  '  peda<jos  de  Tierra,  llamada 
Calcide,  con  la  qual  se  funde  el  Metal.'  Colon,  Hist.  Almirante,  in  Barcia, 
Historiadores,  torn,  i.,  p.  104. 


GOVERNMENT,  SLAVERY,  POLYGAMY.  729 

each  town  or  province  was  ruled  by  an  hereditary  cacique, 
who  administered  justice  with  four  nobles  as  counselors. 
Theft  was  punished  by  confiscation  of  property,  and  in 
graver  cases  the  ears  and  hands  of  the  culprit  were 
cut  off;  the  adulterer  caught  in  the  act  had  his  ear-rings 
forcibly  torn  out;  then  he  was  whipped  by  the  relatives 
of  the  injured,  and  deprived  of  his  possessions.  The 
woman  went  free  on  the  supposition  that  she,  as  the 
weaker  party,  was  not  responsible.35 

One  principal  object  of  war  among  the  ancient  nations 
of  Honduras  was  to  make  slaves,  but  the  Mosquito 
Coast  was  free  from  this  scourge,  according  to  all 
accounts.36 

Polygamy  obtains,  some  men  having  six  wives  each, 
and  the  king  yet  more.  The  first  wife,  who  as  a  rule, 
is  betrothed  from  early  infancy,  is  mistress  command 
ing;  her  marriage  is  attended  with  festivities,  and  later 
additions  to  the  harem  are  subject  to  her.  The  custom 
is  to  marry  early,  often  before  puberty,  and  it  is  not  un 
usual  to  see  a  girl  of  thirteen  with  an  offspring  in  her 
arms ;  but  the  marriage  tie  is  not  very  binding,  for  the 
wife  may  be  discarded  or  sold  at  will,  on  the  slightest 
pretence,  especially  if  children  do  not  follow  the 
union.  The  interior  tribes,  which  are  less  given  to  plu 
rality  of  waves,  bear  a  pretty  good  character  for  female 
chastity.  The  cacique  'of  ancient  Honduras  married 
among  his  own  class.  On  behalf  of  a  suitor  not  pre 
viously  engaged,  an  old  man  was  dispatched  with 
presents  to  the  father  of  the  chosen  girl,  before  whom 
he  made  a  long  harangue  on  the  ancestry  and  qualities 

35  IJerrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  viii.,  cap.  v. ;  Cock-burn's  Journey,  p. 
45;  Dampier's  Voyac/es,  vol.  i.,  pp.  10-11;  Esquemelin,  Zee-Eoovers,  p.  150; 


p. 

134;  Young's  Narrative,  pp.  71,  98;  Mosquitoland,  Berichi,  pp.  171-2. 
steben  unter  eignen  Kaziken,  die  ihre  Anfiihrer  im  Kriege  machen  und 
welchen  sie  unbedingt  gehorchen.'  Poyas,  '  Ihre  Regierungsform  ist  aristo- 
kratisch.'  Hassel,  Mex.  Gnat.,  pp.  388,  390.  Mosquito  '  conjurers  are  in  fact 

the  priests,  the  lawyers  and  the  judges the  king  is  a  despotic  monarch.' 

Bonny  castle's  Span.  Amer.,  vol.  i.,  p.  174. 

36  Torquemada,  Monarq.  Ind.,  torn,  i.,  p.  335. 


730  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

of  the  youth.  If  this  proved  satisfactory,  the  pres 
ents  were  accepted,  and  Bacchanalia  followed.  Next 
morning  the  bride  was  closely  wrapped  in  a  gorgeously 
painted  cloth,  and,  seated  upon  the  shoulder  of  a  man, 
was  conveyed  to  the  bridegroom,  a  number  of  friends 
accompanying  her,  dancing  and  singing  along  the  road, 
drinking  out  of  every  rivulet,  and  feasting  at  every 
stopping  -  place.  On  arrival,  she  was  received  by  the 
female  friends  of  the  groom,  and  subjected  to  a  cleaning 
and  perfuming  process,  lasting  three  days,  during  which 
the  friends  of  the  two  families  held  a  grand  feast  to 
celebrate  the  approaching  union.  She  wras  then  deliv 
ered  to  the  husband,  who  kept  her  three  nights  at  his 
home,  and  then  proceeded  to  the  house  of  his  father-in- 
law,  where  the  couple  remained  three  other  nights,  after 
which  they  returned  to  their  own  house  and  renewed 
festivities.  These  were  the  ceremonies  attending  the  mar 
riage  of  nobles  only.  An  old  woman  acted  as  messenger 
for  common  swains,  and  brought  a  present  of  cacao  to 
the  bride's  parents,  which  was  consumed  at  the  pre 
liminary  feast.  The  girl  was  then  delivered  to  the  old 
woman,  together  with  a  return  present  of  cacao  to  serve 
for  two  feasts,  one  taking  place  at  the  house  of  the 
bridegroom,  the  other  at  the  bride's.  Relationship  was 
no  impediment  to  marriage,  and  widows  were  received 
among  the  wives  of  the  late  husband's  brother.  Im 
morality  ruled,  and  the  most  lascivious  performances 
prevailed  at  their  festivals.  On  the  islands  in  the 
gulf  of  Honduras  and  on  the  Belize  coast,  the  suitor  had 
to  undergo  a  preliminary  examination  by  the  proposed 
father-in-law  as  to  his  ability  to  perform  the  duties  of 
husband ;  if  satisfactory,  a  bow  and  arrow  were  handed 
him,  and  he  at  once  presented  himself  before  the  ob 
ject  of  his  affection  with  a  garland  of  leaves  and 
flowers,  which  she  placed  upon  her  head  instead  of 
the  wreath  always  worn  by  a  virgin.  Friends  there 
upon  met  at  the  home  of  the  bride  to  discuss  the 
prospects  of  the  couple,  and  to  witness  the  act  of  giving 
her  to  the  bridegroom,  partaking,  meanwhile,  of  some 


MOSQUITO  MAEKIAGE  CUSTOMS.  731 

cheering  liquid.  The  next  day  the  bride  appeared  be 
fore  the  mother,  and  tore  oft'  her  garland  with  much 
lamentation.  Among  the  Sambos  the  betrothed  suitor 
must  give  presents  of  food  and  other  articles  to  the 
parents  of  his  intended,  as  payment  for  their  care  of 
her  until  she  attains  the  marriageable  age,  when  he 
comes  to  claim  her.  Should  the  parents  then  refuse  to 
give  up  the  girl,  they  are  bound  to  refund  the  value  of 
the  presents  twice  or  thrice  told.  The  usual  price  paid 
for  a  wife  is  a  cow  or  its  equivalent,  which  is  also 
exacted  from  any  man  infringing  on  the  marital  right, 
while  the  female  for  such  offence  is  merely  beaten. 
Esquemelin  adds  that  when  the  young  man  came  to 
claim  his  bride,  he  was  questioned  as  to  his  ability  to 
make  nets  and  arrows,  and  if  all  went  well,  the  daughter 
was  summoned  to  bring  a  calabash  of  wine,  which  the 
three  drained  between  them  in  token  of  the  new  rela 
tionship.  The  widow  was  bound  to  supply  the  grave 
of  her  husband  with  provisions  for  a  year,  after  which 
she  took  up  the  bones  and  carried  them  with  her  for 
another  year,  at  last  placing  them  upon  the  roof  of  her 
house,  and  then  only  was  she  allowed  to  marry  again. 
The  Carib  must  provide  a  separate  house  and  field  for 
each  of  his  wdves,  where  she  not  only  supports  her 
self,  her  children,  and  her  husband,  but  can,  if  she 
pleases,  accumulate  property.  The  husband  is  expected 
to  spend  his  time  equally  between  his  wives,  but  not  to 
assist  in  providing  necessities  after  the  marriage  day; 
should  his  help  be  required,  the  wife  must  pay  him  the 
customary  rate  of  wages.  The  several  wives  compete 
jealously  with  each  other  to  provide  the  best  for  their 
husband,  and  are  comparatively  well-behaved,  owing, 
perhaps,  to  the  severe  punishment  of  infidelity.  Among 
the  Smoos,  wives  of  one  husband  generally  live  together, 
each  wife  bringing  her  share  to  make  up  her  lord's 
dinner.  Widows  are  the  property  of  the  relatives  of 
the  husband,  to  whom  'widow-money'  must  be  paid 
before  they  are  allowed  to  marry  again.  The  method 
of  courtship  among  the  Woolwas  is  to  place  a  deer's 


732  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

carcass  and  some  firewood  at  the  door  of  the  intended ; 
if  accepted,  marriage  ensues.  Each  wife  has  usually 
a  separate  establishment.  The  Towkas,  who  are  more 
inclined  to  monogamy,  have  an  interesting  marriage 
ceremony,  of  which  Squier  gives  a  long  account.  On 
the  betrothal  of  children  a  corresponding  cotton  band 
is  fastened  above  the  elbow  or  below  the  knee  of 
each.  These  bands  are  selected  by  the  old  men  so 
as  to  be  distinct  from  others  in  color,  and  are  re 
newed  when  worn  out.  They  also  wear  necklaces  to  ) 
which  a  shell  or  bead  is  added  every  year,  and  when  the 
boy  has  ten  added  to  his  string,  he  is  called  muhasal,  or 
ten,  signifying  half  a  man;  when  the  twentieth  and  final 
shell  is  added,  he  is  considered  a  full  man,  and  is  called 
#//,  meaning  twenty.  If  his  intended  has  by  this  time 
attained  her  fifteenth  year,  preparations  are  at  once  made 
for  the  marriage.  A  general  holiday  is  taken  by  the 
villagers,  who  clear  from  grass  a  circular  piece  of  ground, 
which  is  defined  by  a  ring  of  stones,  and  trampled  smooth ; 
a  little  hut  is  then  erected  in  the  centre  having  a  small 
opening  at  the  top,  and  another  at  the  side  facing  the 
east.  Within  the  hut,  the  entrance  of  which  is  covered 
with  a  mat,  is  a  heap  of  copal-twigs,  and  without,  at  the 
edge  of  the  circle,  a  canoe  filled  with  palrn-wine  is 
placed,  having  a  large  pile  of  white  calabashes  by  its 
side.  At  noon  the  villagers  proceed  to  the  home  of  the 
bridegroom,  who  is  addressed  in  turn  by  the  old  men ; 
they  then  start  with  the  youth  for  the  house  of  the  bride 
where  the  young  man  seats  himself  before  the  closed  en 
trance  on  a  bundle  of  presents  intended  for  the  bride. 
The  father  raps  at  the  door  which  is  partly  opened  by 
an  old  woman  wrho  asks  his  business,  but  the  reply  does 
not  seem  satisfactory,  for  the  door  is  slammed  in  his 
face.  The  old  men  try  their  power  of  persuasion  with  the 
same  result,  and  at  last  determine  to  call  Orpheus  to 
their  aid.  Music  hath  charms!  the  door  is  seen  to  open, 
and  a  female  peeps  timidly  out :  louder  swells  the  music, 
and  the  bridegroom  hastens  to  unroll  his  bundle  contain 
ing  beads  and  other  articles.  The  door  opens  wider  and 


MOSQUITO  COUKTSHIP.  733 

wider  as  each  present  is  handed  in  by  the  father,  until 
it  is  entirely  thrown  back,  revealing  the  bride  arrayed 
in  her  prettiest,  seated  on  a  crickery,  in  the  remotest 
corner.  While  all  are  absorbed  in  examining  the  pres 
ents,  the  bridegroom  dashes  in,  shoulders  the  girl  like 
a  sack,  and  trots  off  for  the  mystic  circle,  which,  urged 
on  by  the  frantic  cries  of  the  women,  he  reaches  before 
the  crowd  can  rescue  her.  The  females,  who  cannot 
pass  the  ring,  stand  outside  giving  vent  to  their  despair 
ing  shrieks,  while  the  men  squat  within  the  circle  in 
rows,  facing  outward.  The  old  men  alone  remain  stand 
ing,  and  one  of  them  hands  a  lighted  stick  to  the  couple 
inside  the  hut,  with  a  short  speech.  Soon  an  aromatic 
smoke  curls  up  from  the  copal  pile,  whereat  the  women 
grow  silent,  but  when  it  subsides,  a  sudden  gayety  takes 
possession  of  them,  and  the  music  is  again  heard.  The 
reason  for  this  is  that  the  bridegroom,  if  he  has  any  ob 
jections  to  the  girl,  may  expel  her  while  the  gum  is 
burning,  but  if  it  burns  out  quietly,  the  groom  is  sup 
posed  to  be  satisfied  and  the  marriage  complete.  The 
women  now  pass  filled  calabashes  to  the  men,  who  soon 
become  excited  and  start  a  dance  which  increases  in 
wildness  with  each  additional  cup,  and  does  not  end  till 
most  of  them  have  bitten  the  dust.  After  dark  the 
crowd  proceeds  with  lighted  torches  to  the  hut,  which  is 
torn  down,  disclosing  the  married  pair  sitting  demurely 
side  by  side.  The  husband  shoulders  his  new  baggage 
and  is  escorted  to  his  home.  The  following  day  every 
body  presents  a  gift  of  some  kind,  so  as  to  place  the 
couple  on  an  equal  footing  with  the  rest  of  the  villagers.37 
The  position  of  a  wife  is  not  an  enviable  one,  as  the  care 
of  the  household,  the  farm,  and  all  hard  and  degrading 
work  fall  to  her  share,  while  her  liege  lord  spends  most 
of  his  time  in  idling.  When  about  to  be  confined,  she 


37  Bard's    Waikna,   pp.  127,  129-30,   202-11,  236,  243,  299-300,  321-3; 
Store, 
,  iii.,  p. 
they  live  till  death  separates  them. 


Strangeways'  Mosquito  Shore,  pp.   332,  336;    Froebel's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.    137; 
Oviedp,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  216.     'They  marry  but  one  Wife,  with  whom 
hem.'  Damjner's  Voyages,  vol.  i.,  p.  9.     'Doch 


besitzen  in  der  That  die  meisten  Manner  nur  ein  Weib.'  Mosquitoland,  Bericht, 
pp.  1M-6,  136-9;  Salazar  y  Olarte,  Hist.  Conq.  Mex.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  312. 


734  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

proceeds  to  a  hut  erected  for  this  purpose  in  the  forest,  a 
short  distance  from  the  village,  where  she  remains  from  a 
week  to  two  months,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  tribe, 
attended  by  female  friends  who  supply  all  her  wants, 
since  she  is  not  allowed  to  handle  food  herself.  No  one 
must  pass  to  the  windward  of  the  hut,  because  an  obstruc 
tion  of  the  air  might  cause  the  death  of  the  mother  and 
child,  and  for  thus  offending  the  guilty  party  must  pay 
the  damages.  In  such  seclusion  it  is  easy  to  dispose  of 
deformed  children,  and  it  is  believed  that  this  is  done  to 
avoid  the  disgrace  of  a  nickname,  which  might  otherwise 
attach  to  the  family.  At  the  expiration  of  the  period  of 
purification,  the  mother  returns  to  the  village  carrying  the 
infant  tied  to  her  back  in  a  cloth.  The  village  witch 
has  in  the  meantime  fastened  round  its  neck,  a  peiv  or 
charm,  consisting  of  a  bag  of  small  seeds  with  which  to 
pay  old  Charon  for  ferriage  across  the  river,  in  case  of 
an  early  death.  The  child  is  suckled  for  about  two  years ; 
yucca- root  pap  also  forms  a  great  part  of  its  food  in  some 
parts,  but  otherwise  it  receives  little  care.  The  mother 
delivers  herself,  cutting  the  navel-string  with  her  own 
hand ;  she  also  washes  the  infant's  clothes,  for  it 
is  believed  that  the  child  will  die  if  this  is  done 
by  another ;  after  washing  herself  and  suckling  the  child 
she  returns  to  the"  village.  Formerly  all  children  born 
within  the  year  were  taken  to  the  temple  by  the  parents, 
wrapped  in  a  net  and  painted  cloth,  and  laid  to  sleep 
under  a  cake  made  of  honey  and  iguana-flesh.  Notice 
was  taken  of  dreams,  and  if  the  child  appeared  well  and 
happy,  they  augured  riches  and  long  life  for  it,  if  weak 
and  sorrowful,  it  would  be  poor  and  unfortunate;  if  no 
dreams  occurred,  it  betokened  an  early  death.  Acting  on 
this  superstition,  parents  often  became  careless  about  the 
future  of  their  children,  and  suffered  them  to  grow  up 
without  attention.  Priests  were  not  allowed  to  marry, 
and  the  care  and  education  of  the  sons  of  prominent  men 
were  entrusted  to  them.38 

38  Esquemelin  relates  that  the  natives  on  the  Belize  coast  and  adjacent 
islands  carried  the  new-born  infant  to  the  temple,  where  it  was  placed 


MOSQUITO  DIVERSIONS.  735 

Drinking  is  the  chief  amusement,  and  to  hecome 
helplessly  drunk  is  the  sum  of  all  enjoyment.  Fre 
quent  sihkrans  or  feasts  are  held,  lasting  for  days,  at 
which  large  numbers  assist  to  drain  the  canoeful  of 
liquor  prepared  for  the  occasion.  Occasionally  sur 
rounding  villagers  are  invited,  and  a  drinking-bout  is 
held,  first  in  one  house  and  then  in  another,  until  the 
climax  is  reached  in  a  debauch  by  both  sexes  of  the 
most  revolting  character.  Q.uarrels  are  generally  put 
off  for  these  occasions,  but,  as  the  wives  have  carefully 
hidden  all  weapons,  recourse  is  had  to  the  fist,  with 
which  the  combatants  exchange  blows  in  turn  until  one 
has  had  enough.  These  trials  of  endurance  are  also 
held  in  sport;  the  Smoo  or  Woolwa,  for  instance,  who 
wishes  to  be  held  most  worthy  of  the  fair  sex,  en 
gages  in  a  lowta  or  striking-match  with  a  rival,  each  one 
presenting  his  bent  back  to  the  other  in  turn,  until  the 
bravest  stands  declared.  Death  is  not  unfrequently  the 
result  of  such  trials.  Even  boys,  carried  away  by  emu 
lation,  hold  lighted  sticks  to  each  other's  skin.  In 
early  times  the  people  of  Honduras  held  regular  festi 
vals  at  the  beginning  of  each  month,  at  the  time  of 
electing  officers,  at  harvest  time,  and  three  other  grand 
celebrations  during  the  year,  for  which  much  food  and 
drink  were  prepared.  As  the  wine  took  effect,  the  par 
ticipants  were  seized  with  a  desire  to  move  to  the  exhil 
arating  sound  of  drum,  flute,  and  rattle,  and  a  simple 
dance  was  organized.  That  of  the  Carib  is  merely  a 
forward  and  backward  movement  of  hands  and  feet, 
accompanied  by  a  peculiar  intonation  of  voice,  and  at 
their  seekroes,  or  festivals  in  commemoration  of  the  de 
parted,  they  stalk  in  a  circle,  one  following  the  other, 

naked  in  a  hole  filled  with  ashes,  exposed  to  the  wild  beasts,  and  left  there 
until  the  track  of  some  animal  was  noticed  in  the  ashes.  This  became  patron 
to  the  child  who  was  taught  to  offer  it  incense  and  to  invoke  it  for  protection. 
Zee-Roovers,  pp.  64-9,  149.  The  genitals  are  pierced  as  a  proof  of  constancy 
and  affection  for  a  woman.  Id.,  pp.  151-3.  Compare  Herrera,  Hist.  Gfn.,  dec. 
iv.,  lib.  i.,  cap.  vi.,  lib.  viii.,  cap.  iii.-vi.;  Young's  Narrative,  pp.  73,  75,  123, 
125;  Bell,  in  Loud.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxii.,  pp.  251,  254-5,  257-8;  Pirn 
and  Seemann's  Dottings,  pp.  249,  306-8;  Torquemada,  Monarq.  Ind.,  torn,  i., 
p.  335;  Delaporte,  Reisent  torn,  x.,  p.  409;  Crowe's  Cent.  Amer.,  pp.  49,  245-7. 


736  WILD  TKIBES  OF  CENTKAL  AMERICA. 

and  singing  in  a  loud  and  uncouth  tone.    Their  pas  seul 
is  livelier,   however,   the  performer    skipping   up   and 
down,  bending  the  body  in  different  ways,  and  making 
the  most  grotesque  movements.     They  are  not  satisfied 
with  a  mere  drinking-bout  at  their  reunions,  but  spread 
a  good  table,   to  which  guests  often  bring  their  own 
liquor.     The  Towkas  and  others  prefer  the  circle  dance, 
walking  at  a  slow,  swinging  pace,  beating  their  knuckles 
against  emptied  calabashes,  and  joining  in  a  refrain,  at 
the  end  of  which  they  strike  their  cups  one  against 
another's.     At  each  additional  potation,  the  walk  is  in 
creased  in  speed,  until  it  assumes  a  trot  and  ends  in  a 
gallop,    the   calabashes   rattling    in    accordance.      The 
Sambo  dance  is  like  a  minuet,  in  which  the  performers 
advance  and  recede,  making  strange  gesticulations.    The 
women  have  also  a  dance  among  themselves, — for  they 
are  not  allowed  to  join  with  the  men, — in  which  they 
form  a  ring,  holding  each  other  round  the  waist  with 
the  left  hand,  bending,  wriggling,  shaking  calabash  rat 
tles,  and  singing  until  exhausted.     Dramatic  representa 
tions    usually  accompany   these    saltatory   exhibitions, 
wherein  the  various  phases  of  a  lover's  trials,  comical 
sketches,  or  battles  are  depicted.     The  people  of  Hondu 
ras  are  fond  of  disguising  themselves  with  feather  tufts, 
and  skins  of  animals,  whose  actions  and  cries  they  imi 
tate.     The  favorite  entertainment  of  the  Sambos  is  to 
put  on  a  head-dress  of  thin  strips  of  wood  painted  in 
various  colors  to  represent  the  beak  of  a  sword-fish, 
fasten  a  collar  of  wood  round  the  neck,  from  which  a 
number  of  palm-leaves  are  suspended,  and  to  daub  the 
face  red,   black,  and  yellow.     Two  men  thus  adorned 
advance  toward  one  another  and  bend  the  fish-head  in 
salute,  keeping  time  with  a  rattle  and  singing,   "  shovel- 
nosed  sharks,  grandmother!"  after  which  they  slide  off 
crab-like,  making  the  most  ludicrous  gestures  imagin 
able.    This  fun  exhausted,  fresh  men  appear,  introducing 
new  movements,  and  then  the  spectators  join  in  a  'walk 
around,'  flourishing  white  sticks  in  their   hands,  and 
repeating  the  above-mentioned  refrain  in  a  peculiar  buz- 


GUAJIQUERO  DANCE.  737 

zing  tone  produced  by  placing  in  the  mouth  a  small 
tube  covered  with  the  membrane  of  a  nut.39 

The  Gruajiqueros  in  an  interesting  performance  de 
scribed  by  Squier,  depict  incidents  from  their  history. 
A  square  piece  of  ground  having  a  tree  in  the  centre  is 
marked  off,  and  two  poles  adorned  with  feathers  are 
erected  in  opposite  corners,  one  bearing  the  head  of  a 
deer,  the  other  that  of  a  tiger.     A  dull,  monotonous 
music  is  heard,  and  two  parties  of  youth,  fantastically 
dressed  up  and  painted,  move  up  to  the  square  in  a  slow, 
but  not  ungraceful  dance,  and  station  themselves  round 
the  poles  that  bear  their  respective  insignia.     A  man, 
stooping  as  if  bent  with  age,  starts  out  from  the  deers, 
dances  round  the  ground,  trying  to  arouse  the  mirth  of 
the   spectators   with  his    grotesque   movements.      The 
tigers  also  dispatch  a  man,  who  does  his  best  to  excel 
the  other  one  in  contortions  and  grimaces.      After  a 
while  they  meet,  and  commence  a  discussion  which  ends 
in  open  rupture,  the  rising  passions  being  well  delineated. 
The  two  men  who  represent  ambassadors  then  return  to 
their  party  with  an  account  of  the  mission,  the  result  of 
which  is   a  general  excitement,  both  factions  starting 
out,  dancing  backwards  and  forwards,  up  and  down  the 
square,  until  they  meet  under  the  tree,  in  the  centre. 
The  leader  of  each  then  steps  out  and  recites  the  glories- 
and  prowess  of  his  tribe,  amidst  the  applause  of  his  own 
men,  and  the  disapproval  of  the  others.     As  soon  as 
they  are  worked  up  to  the  requisite  pitch  of  irritation, 
the  dialogue  ceases,  the  music  strikes  up,  and  a  mimic 
combat  ensues,  in  which  the  armies  advance  and    re 
treat,  close  and  separate,  using  short  canes  for  weapons. 
At  last  the  tigers  lose  their  standard  and  take  to  flight, 
whereat  the  victors  execute  a  dance  of  triumph;   but 
finding  how  dearly  the  victory  has  been  bought,  their 

39  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  viii.,  cap.  iii.,  vi.;  Bell,  in  Lond.  Geog. 
Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxii.,  p.  255-6.  The  Woolwas  'liaben  gewisse  Jahresfeste 
bei  welchen  weder  ein  Fremder  noch  Weiber  und  Kinder  des  eigneii  Stam- 
mes  zugelassen  werden.  Bei  diesen  Festen  fuhren  sie  mit  lantern  Geschrei 
ihre  Ta'nze  auf,  "wobei  ihnen  ihr  Gott  Gesellschaft  leistet."  '  Froebel,  Aus 
Amerika,  torn,  i.,  pp.  407-8. 

Voh   T.     47 


738  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

joy  is  turned  into  sorrow,  and  they  bend  their  head 
upon  the  knees,  breaking  out  in  loud  lament.  In  a  few 
moments  one  of  them  starts  up  and  begins  a  panegyric  on 
the  fallen  brave,  which  is  followed  by  a  mimic  sacrifice 
and  other  ceremonies.  The  vanquished  are  now  seen  to 
approach  with  downcast  eyes,  bringing  tribute,  which 
they  lay  at  the  feet  of  the  victors,  who  receive  it  with 
imperious  bearing.  The  music  at  these  entertainments 
is  not  of  a  very  inspiring  nature ;  drums,  consisting  of  a 
section  of  hollow  tree  covered  with  skin,  which  are  gene 
rally  beaten  with  the  hand,  and  flutes  of  bamboo  with 
four  stops  on  which  eight  notes  are  played  with  different 
•degrees  of  speed  for  variety,  being  the  usual  instruments. 
The  Guajiqueros  also  use  the  chirimaya,  two  flutes  joined 
in  one  mouthpiece;  the  syrinx,  or  Pan's  pipe;  a  long 
calabash  with  a  narrow  opening  at  the  small  end,  into 
which  the  performer  blows  suddenly,  at  intervals,  to 
mark  time;  and  a  sort  of  drum  consisting  of  a  large 
earthen  jar,  over  the  mouth  of  which  a  dressed  skin  is 
tightly  stretched.  To  the  centre  of  the  skin,  and  passing 
through  an  opening  in  the  bottom,  is  attached  a  string 
which  the  performer  pulls,  the  rebound  of  the  membrane 
producing  a  very  lugubrious  sound.  In  western  Hon 
duras  the  so-called  strum-strum  is  much  used.  This  is 
a  large  gourd  cut  in  the  middle,  and  covered  with  a  thin 
board  having  strings  attached.  The  marimba,  and  the 
Jews-harp  which  has  been  introduced  by  the  trader,  are, 
however,  the  favorite  instruments  for  a  quiet  reunion, 
and  the  few  tunes  known  to  them  are  played  thereon  with 
admirable  skill  and  taste.  Songs  always  accompany  their 
dances  and  are  usually  impromptu  compositions  on  suit 
able  subjects,  gotten  up  for  the  occasion  by  the  favorite 
singers  of  the  village,  and  rendered  in  a  soft,  but  mono 
tonous  and  plaintive  tone.  They  have  no  national  melo 
dies,  but  on  the  receipt  of  any  good  or  bad  message,  their 
feelings  generally  find  vent  in  a  ditty  embodying  the 
news.  Talking  is  a  passion  with  them,  and  as  soon  as  a 
piece  of  news  is  received  at  a  village,  two  or  three  younger 
men  will  start  with  their  women  and  children  for  the 


BEVERAGES  OF  HONDURAS.  739 

next  hamlet,  where  it  is  discussed  for  hours  by  the  as 
sembled  population,  who  in  their  turn  dispatch  a  messen 
ger  to  the  next  village,  and  thus  spread  the  news  over 
the  whole  country  in  a  very  short  time.  In  story-tell 
ing,  those  who  concoct  the  biggest  lies  receive  the  most 
applause.  Of  course,  the  pipe  must  be  smoked  on  these 
occasions,  but  as  their  own  tobacco  has  become  too  mild 
for  them,  recourse  is  had  to  the  vilest  description  of 
American  leaf.  When  this  is  wanting,  the  smoke-dried 
leaves  of  the  trumpet  and  papah  tree  are  used  by  men  as 
well  as  women.  The  favorite  drink  is  mishla,  prepared 
chiefly  from  cassava- roots ;  but  others  from  bananas,  pine 
apples,  and  other  fruits  are  also  used.  A  number  of 
young  women  provided  with  good  teeth,  untiring  jaws, 
and  a  large  supply  of  saliva,  are  employed  to  chew 
about  half  of  the  boiled  and  peeled  roots  requisite  to  make 
a  canoeful  of  liquor,  the  remainder  being  crushed  in  a 
mortar.  This  delectable  compound  is  stirred  with  cold 
water,  and  allowed  to  ferment  for  a  day  or  two,  when  it 
assumes  a  creamy  appearance,  and  tastes  very  strong  and 
sour.  Plantains  are  kneaded  in  warm  water,  and  then 
allowed  to  stand  for  a  few  days  till  the  mixture  ferments, 
or  the  fruit  is  left  in  the  water  in  small  pieces,  and  the 
kneading  performed  in  the  cup  previous  to  drinking.  A 
fermented  drink  from  powdered  cacao  and  indigenous 
sugar-cane  juice  is  called  ulung,  and  pesso  is  the  name 
given  to  another  made  from  crushed  lime-rinds,  maize 
and  honey ;  in  early  times  mead  wras  a  favorite  drink  in 
Honduras.  The  cocoa-nut  palm  yields  monthly  a  large 
quantity  of  liquor  known  as  caraca.  The  tip  of  the 
undeveloped  shoots  are  cut  off,  and  the  branch  bent  down 
so  as  to  allow  the  fluid  to  drip  into  a  calabash  placed 
beneath.  Its  seeds,  when  crushed  and  steeped  in  hot 
water  give  the  acchioc.40 


Sard's  Waikna,  pp.  205-9,  226-9,  232-3,  299;  Mosquitoland,  Beric.ht,  pp.  108, 
141-2,  146-7,  196,  201-2,  267;  Crowe's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  247;  Pirn  and  See- 
mann's  Pollings,  pp.  306, 405;  Young's  Narrative,  pp.  30-3, 72,  77-8, 125, 132- 


740  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

No  name  for  a  supreme  good  spirit  is  found  in  the 
vocabulary  of  the  Mosquitos;  all  their  appeals  are  ad 
dressed  to  Wulasha,  the  devil,  the  cause  of  all  misfor 
tunes  and  contrarieties  that  happen.  The  intercessors 
with  this  dread  being  are  the  suJcias,  or  sorceresses,  gen 
erally  "dirty,  malicious  old  hags,  who  are  approached  with 
gifts  by  the  trembling  applicant,  and  besought  to  use 
their  power  to  avert  impending  evils.  They  are  sup 
posed  to  be  in  partnership  with  their  devil,  for  whom 
they  always  exact  the  half  of  the  fee  before  entering 
upon  any  exorcising  or  divination.  These  witches  exer 
cise  a  greater  power  over  the  people  than  the  chief — a 
power  which  is  sustained  by  the  exhibition  of  certain 
tricks,  such  as  allowing  poisonous  snakes  to  bite  them, 
and  handling  fire,  which  they  have  learned  from  pre 
decessors  during  their  long  preparation  for  the  office, 
passed  amidst  exposure  and  fasts  in  the  solitude  of  the 
wilderness.  The  people  of  Honduras  had  also  evil  sor 
cerers  who  possessed  the  power  of  transforming  men  into 
wild  beasts,  and  were  much  feared  and  hated  accord 
ingly;  but  their  priests  or  hermits  who  live  in  com 
munion  with  materialized  gods,  in  small,  elevated  huts, 
apart  from  the  villages,  enjoyed  the  respect  of  all,  and 
their  advice  was  applied  for  on  every  matter  of  import 
ance.  None  but  the  principal  men  could  approach  them 
without  the  necessary  offering  of  maize  and  fowl,  and 
they  humbly  knelt  before  them  to  receive  their  oracular 
answer.  Preparatory  to  important  undertakings,  dogs, 
cocks,  and  even  men  were  sacrificed  to  obtain  the  favor 
of  their  idols,  and  blood  was  drawn  from  tongue,  ears, 
and  other  members  of  the  body.  They  thought  it  like 
wise  necessary  to  their  welfare  to  have  naguas,  or  guar 
dian  spirits,  whose  life  became  so  bound  up  with  their 
own  that  the  death  of  one  involved  that  of  the  other. 
The  manner  of  obtaining  this  guardian  was  to  proceed 
to  some  secluded  spot  and  offer  up  a  sacrifice:  with  the 

5;  Esquemelin,  Zee-Eoovers,  pp.  150-1.  The  natives  of  Honduras  kept  small 
birds  which  '  could  talk  intelligibly,  and  whistle  and  sing  admirably.'  Cock- 
burn's  Journey,  pp.  52-3,  46,  70-2,  88-99. 


MOSQUITO  CUSTOMS.  741 

beast  or  bird  which  thereupon  appeared,  in  dream  or  in 
reality,  a  compact  for  life  was  made,  by  drawing  blood 
from  various  parts  of  the  body.  Caribs  and  Woolwas 
assemble  at  certain  periods  every  year,  to  propitiate  con 
trolling  spirits  with  ceremonies  transmitted  from  their 
forefathers.  A  variety  of  ghosts,  as  Lewire,  the  spirit 
of  the  water,  are  supposed  to  play  their  pranks  at  night, 
and  it  is  difficult  to  induce  anyone  to  leave  the  hut 
after  dark,  unless  in  company.  The  belief  in  dreams 
is  so  firmly  rooted  that  their  very  course  of  life  is  in 
fluenced  by  it.  Every  dream  has  a  direct  or  indirect 
meaning ;  thus,  a  broken  calabash  betokens  loss  of  wife ; 
a  broken  dish,  the  death  of  a  mother.  Among  other 
superstitions,  it  was  believed  that  the  lighting  of  an  owl 
upon  the  house-top  would  be  followed  by  the  death  of 
an  inmate ;  when  thunder  roared,  cotton-seed  was  burned ; 
broken  egg-shells  and  deer-bones  were  carefully  pre 
served  lest  the  chickens  or  the  deer  should  die  or  disap 
pear.  Aware  of  the  peculiar  influence  of  the  moon  on 
man  and  matter,  they  are  careful  not  to  sleep  in  its 
glare,  nor  to  fish  when  it  is  up,  and  mahogany-cutters 
abstain  from  felling  trees  at  certain  periods  for  fear  the 
wood  may  spoil.  They  are  wonderfully  good  path 
finders,  and  will  pass  through  the  densest  forest  without 
guiding  marks;  as  swimmers  they  are  not  to  be  sur 
passed.  Their  mode  of  greeting  a  friend  is  very  effu 
sive,  according  to  Dampier.  One  will  throw  himself  at 
the  feet  of  another,  who  helps  him  up,  embraces  him, 
and  falls  down  in  his  turn  to  be  assisted  up  and  com 
forted  with  a  pressure.  Cockburn  says  that  the  Hon 
duras  people  bend  one  knee  to  the  ground  and  clap  their 
hands  in  token  of  farewell.41 

Their  licentious  life,  and  fruit  and  fish  diet,  with  lim 
ited  use  of  salt,  have  left  their  constitution  very  suscep- 

41  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  viii.,  cap.  iv-vi.;  Cockbum's  Journey, 
pp.  36,  45-6;  Dampier' s  Voyages,  vol.  i.,  pp.  8-9,  86;  Mosquitoland,  Bericht, 
pp.  142-3;  Martin's  Brit.  Col.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  413;  Bard's  Waikna,  pp.  228-32, 
239-43,  256-8,  273-4.  Sivers  was  thought  possessed  of  the  devil,  and  care 
fully  shunned,  because  he  imitated  the  crowing  of  a  cock.  Sivers,  Mttelameri* 
ka,  p.  178. 


742  WILD  TKIBES  OF  CENTEAL  AMERICA. 

tible  to  epidemics  as  well  as  other  diseases.  The  most 
common  disorders  are  affections  of  the  bowels,  such  as 
dysentery  and  diarrhoea,  but  chills,  rheumatism,  con 
sumption,  and  measles  are  not  unfrequent.  Children 
suffer  much  from  worms,  and  their  abdomen  is  some 
times  enormously  swollen.  A  very  painful,  though 
not  dangerous  eye-disease  termed  unkrihikun  is  preva 
lent;  and  the  burrowing  of  the  tick  in  the  skin  causes 
wounds  and  inflammation  if  the  fly  be  not  speedily  re 
moved  ;  the  chegoe,  or  sand-flea,  attacks  the  feet  in  the 
same  manner.  But  small-pox  and  leprosy  are  the  great 
est  scourges  of  this  country,  the  former  having  here  as 
elsewhere  in  America  committed  enormous  ravages 
among  the  population.  Leprosy — that  living  death 
reflecting  the  sins  of  former  generations,  so  capricious 
in  the  selection  of  its  victims,  taking  the  parent,  yet 
leaving  the  child  intact,  or  seizing  upon  the  offspring 
without  touching  its  mother — may  certainly  be  less  de 
structive,  but  it  is  nevertheless  fearful  in  its  effect;  half 
of  the  natives  of  the  Mosquito  country  being  more  or 
less  marked  by  it,  either  in  the  shape  of  white  or  livid 
spots,  or  red,  white,  and  scabbed  bulpis.  All  sickness 
and  affliction  is  supposed  to  be  the  work  of  the  evil 
spirit  who  has  taken  possession  of  the  affected  part ;  su- 
kias  must,  therefore,  be  called  in  to  use  their  incanta 
tions  and  herbs  against  the  enemy.  The  witch  appears 
with  her  face  painted  in  hideous  devices,  and  begins 
operations  by  placing  some  herbs  beneath  the  pillow  of 
the  patient,  blowing  smoke  over  him,  rubbing  the 
body  with  the  hands,  and  muttering  strange  words.  If 
this  is  not  effective,  a  decoction  is  made  from  the  herbs, 
to  be  used  as  a  drink  or  fomentation,  and  the  patient  is 
fenced  in  with  painted  sticks,  with  strict  orders  to  let 
no  one  approach ;  the  witch  herself  bringing  the  food  to 
the  patient,  whistling  a  plaintive  strain  and  muttering 
over  the  invalid  for  some  time  to  chase  away  the  evil. 
No  pregnant  woman,  or  person  who  has  lately  buried  a 
friend,  must  come  near  the  house  during  the  illness,  nor 
must  any  one  pass  to  the  windward  of  it;  lest  the  sick 


MOSQUITO  MEDICAL  TKEATMENT.  743 

be  deprived  of  breath;  any  presumed  breach  of  these 
injunctions  leaving  a  safe  loophole  for  the  sorceress,  in 
case  her  remedies  fail.  During  epidemics,  the  sukias 
consult  together  and  note  their  dreams,  to  ascertain  the 
nature  and  disposition  of  the  spirit.  After  muttering 
incantations  all  night,  and  invoking  all  sorts  of  terrible 
monsters,  they  plant  small  painted  sticks,  mounted  by 
grotesque  figures,  to  the  windward  of  the  village,  and 
announce  the  expulsion  of  the  evil.  Should  the  scourge 
continue,  it  is  supposed  that  the  spirits  are  obstinate,  and 
the  people  remove  to  other  parts,  burning  the  village. 
The  instructions  of  the  sukia  are  always  scrupulously 
followed,  and  the  credulous  native  may  be  seen  lying  on 
the  beach  for  days,  exposed  to  all  weathers,  smeared 
with  blood  and  waiting  for  restoration  from  ills.  Scari 
fications  are  much  resorted  to,  and  fever  patients  throw 
themselves  into  cold  water,  where  they  remain  until 
dead  or  until  the  fever  leaves  them.  In  Honduras,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  patient  is  taken  out  of  the  water 
after  a  short  immersion,  and  rolled  to  and  fro  before  a 
fire,  until  half  dead  with  fatigue,  when  he  was  left  to 
be  restored  by  sleep;  blood  is  let  from  the  thighs,  legs, 
and  shoulders ;  vomiting  is  promoted  by  certain  herbs ; 
vermin  are  administered  for  jaundice.  In  sickness  a 
rigid  diet  is  observed,  the  patient  subsisting  chiefly  on 
iguana  broth.  Snake-bites  are  cured  by  chewing  the 
guaco-root,  and  poulticing  the  wound  therewith;  the 
Caribs  apply  an  oil  obtained  from  the  head  of  the  tom- 
my-goff  as  an  antidote  for  its  bite.  Herrera  states 
that  the  comfort  of  a  sick  person  was  but  little  regarded ; 
bread  and  drink  were  placed  near  the  patient's  head, 
and  if  strong  enough  to  partake  thereof,  well  and  good, 
but  if  not  he  might  die;  nobody  took  any  notice  of 
him.  after  this.  The  Mosquitos  are  not  entirely  devoid 
of  affection,  but  their  grief  seems  to  be  reserved  for  the 
dead,  not  the  dying.42 

42  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  viii.,  cap.  v.,  dec.  v.,  lib.  i.,  cap.  x.; 
Crowe's  Cent.  Amer.,  pp.  245-7;  Young's  Narrative,  pp.  23,  26,  28,  73,  82; 
Sell,  in  Land.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxii.,  pp.  253,  260-1;  Mosquitoland, 
Bericht,  pp.  132,  148-51;  Bard's  Waikna,  pp.  243-4. 


74A  WILD  TEIBES  OF  CENTKAL  AMERICA. 

The  corpse  is  wrapped  in  a  cloth  and  placed  in  one 
half  of  a  pitpan  which  has  been  cut  in  two;  friends 
assemble  for  the  funeral  and  drown  their  grief  in  mush- 
la,  the  women  giving  vent  to  their  sorrow  by  dashing 
themselves  on  the  ground  until  covered  with  blood,  and 
inflicting  other  tortures,  occasionally  even  committing 
suicide.  As  it  is  supposed  that  the  evil  spirit  seeks  to 
obtain  possession  of  the  body,  musicians  are  called  in  to 
lull  it  to  sleep,  while  preparations  are  made  for  its  re 
moval;  all  at  once  four  naked  men,  who  have  dis 
guised  themselves  with  paint,  so  as  not  to  be  recognized 
and  punished  by  Wulasha,  rush  out  from  a  neighboring 
hut,  and,  seizing  the  rope  attached  to  the  canoe,  drag 
it  into  the  woods,  followed  by  the  music  and  the  crowd. 
Here  the  pitpan  is  lowered  into  the  grave  with  bow, 
arrow,  spear,  paddle,  and  other  implements  to  serve  the 
departed  in  the  land  beyond ;  then  the  other  half  of  the 
boat  is  placed  over  the  body.  A  rude  hut  is  constructed 
over  the  grave,  serving  as  a  receptacle  for  the  choice  food, 
drink,  and  other  articles  placed  there  from  time  to  time 
by  relatives.  The  water  that  disappears  from  the  porous 
jars  is  thought  to  have  been  drunk  by  the  deceased,  and 
if  the  food  is  nibbled  by  birds  it  is  held  to  be  a  good 
sign.  On  returning  from  the  grave  the  property  of  the 
deceased  is  destroyed,  the  cocoa-palms  being  cut  down, 
and  all  who  have  taken  part  in  the  funeral  undergo 
a  lustration  in  the  river.  Relatives  cut  off  the  hair,  the 
men  leaving  a  ridge  along  the  middle  from  the  nape 
of  the  neck  to  the  forehead ;  widows,  according  to  some 
old  writers,  after  supplying  the  grave  with  food  for 
a  year,  take  up  the  bones,  and  carry  them  on  the 
back  in  the  daytime,  sleeping  with  them  at  night,  for 
another  year,  after  which  they  are  placed  at  the  door, 
or  upon  the  house-top.  On  the  anniversary  of  death, 
friends  of  the  deceased  hold  a  feast  called  seelcroe,  at 
which  large  quantities  of  liquor  are  drained  to  his 
memory.  Squier,  who  witnessed  the  ceremonies  on  an 
occasion  of  this  kind,  says  that  males  and  females  were 
dressed  in  ule  cloaks  fantastically  painted  black  and 


CHAEACTEB  OF  THE  MOSQUITOS.  745 

white,  while  their  faces  were  correspondingly  streaked 
with  red  and  yellow,  and  they  performed  a  slow  walk- 
around,  the  immediate  relatives  prostrating  themselves 
at  intervals,  calling  loudly  upon  the  dead,  and  tearing 
the  ground  with  their  hands.  At  no  other  time  is  the 
departed  referred  to,  the  very  mention  of  his  name  being 
superstitiously  avoided.  Some  tribes  extend  a  thread 
from  the  house  of  death  to  the  grave,  carrying  it  in  a 
straight  line  over  every  obstacle.  Froebel  states  that 
among  the  Woolwas  all  property  of  the  deceased  is 
buried  with  him,  and  that  both  husband  and  wife  cut 
the  hair  and  burn  the  hut  on  the  death  of  either,  plac 
ing  a  gruel  of  maize  upon  the  grave  for  a  certain  time.43 
Hospitality,  a  gentle  and  obliging  disposition,  faith 
fulness  in  the  fulfilling  of  engagements,  honesty  and 
docility,  balanced  by  an  inapt-ness  to  make  any  avail  of 
natural  benefits,  and  a  supineness  in  matters  of  veracity 
and  judgment,  by  reason  of  which  they  fall  into  many 
excesses,  especially  in  drink,  characterize  both  Mosquitos 
and  Caribs.  The  apathy  and  slowness  of  the  unadul 
terated  aboriginal  are,  however,  in  striking  contrast  to  the 
vivacious  and  impressible  nature  of  the  Caribs,  whose  ver 
satility  evidences  a  rather  higher  intelligence,  which  is 
again  overshadowed  by  an  inordinate  vanity,  based  chiefly 
upon  their  greater  strength  and  stature.  Both  possess  a 
certain  industry,  the  one  being  more  plodding,  the  other 
more  energetic  though  less  patient;  this  trait  is  also 
noticeable  in  their  pastimes,  where  the  native  is  far  less 
exuberant  and  noisy  than  his  darker  neighbor.  With 
regard  to  the  effect  of  negro  admixture  on  character, 
comparisons  may  be  made  among  the  Caribs  themselves, 
when  it  will  be  found  that  the  black  race  is  much  more 


43  The  dead  '  are  sewed  up  in  a  mat,  and  not  laid  in  their  grave  length 
ways,  but  upright  on  their  feet,  with  their  faces  directly  to  the  east.'  Amer., 
Span.  ScttL,  p.  46.  'Em  anderer  Eeligionsgebrauch  der  alten  Mosquiten 
war,  dass  sie  bey  dem  Tode  ernes  Hausvaters  alle  seine  Bedieuten  mit  ihm 
begruben.'  Delaporte,  Beisen,  torn,  x.,  p.  408.  Bard's  Waikna,  pp.  68-73, 
245-6;  Mosquitoland,  Bericht,  pp.  136,143-4;  Pirn  and  Seemann's  Dottings,  pp. 
307-8;  Sell,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxii.,  p.  255;  Frobel,  Aus  Ame- 
rika,  torn,  i.,  p.  407;  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  viii.,  cap.  v-vi.; 
Esquemelin,  Zee-Hoovers,  pp.  152-3. 


746  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTEAL  AMERICA. 

mercurial  and  vehement  than  the  purer  type,  and  pos 
sesses  greater  volubility.  The  severe  discipline  kept  up, 
and  the  disposition,  among  the  women  at  least,  to  pro 
vide  for  the  morrow,  augurs  well  for  their  future.  The 
bravery  and  love  of  freedom  which  so  long  kept  the 
Spanish  invaders  at  bay  both  on  the  western  and  north 
ern  borders  and  on  the  coast  was  subsequently  subdued, 
instance  the  mild  disposition  of  the  independent  Xi- 
caques,  Poyas,  and  Secos,  who  are  now  inclined  rather 
to  peaceful  diplomacy  than  to  warlike  demonstrations ; 
yet  the  Caribs  manifested  considerable  spirit  during  a 
late  conflict  with  the  Honduras  government,  and  proved 
themselves  efficient  soldiers.  The  character  given  to  the 
nations  of  this  subdivision  by  ancient  waiters,  contains 
many  unenviable  qualities,  for  not  only  are  they  de 
scribed  as  lazy,  vicious,  lying,  inconstant,  but  as  cruel, 
void  of  affection,  and  of  less  intelligence  than  the  Mex 
icans;  nevertheless  they  are  obedient,  peaceable,  and 
quiet.  The  only  characteristic  we  have  concerning  the 
Albatuins  is  that  they  were  savage,  and  until  of  late 
the  Ramas  bore  the  same  character.  Among  the  in 
dustrious  Towkas  we  find  that  gentle  melancholy 
which  characterizes  some  of  the  Guatemalans;  while 
their  brothers,  the  Smoos,  have  the  reputation  of  being 
a  very  simple  people  whom  the  neighbors  take  delight 
in  imposing  upon,  yet  their  women  are  said  to  be  more 
ingenious  than  the  Sambo  women.  Proceeding  to  the 
Toonglas  and  Sambos,  we  observe  a  preponderance  of 
bad  qualities,  attributable,  no  doubt,  to  their  intercourse 
with  buccaneers  and  traders.  By  most  writers  they  are 
characterized  as  a  lazy,  drunken,  debauched,  audacious 
race,  given  to  thieving;  capricious,  quarrelsome,  treacher 
ous  and  exacting  among  themselves,  though  obliging  to 
strangers,  their  only  redeeming  traits  being  hospitality, 
and  a  certain  impulsiveness  which  is  chiefly  exhibited 
in  grief,  and  indicates  something  good  at  heart.  Their 
want  of  energy,  which  deters  them  alike  from  household 
work  and  the  commission  of  great  crimes,  will  not  pre 
vent  them  from  undertaking  wearisome  voyages  to  dis- 


THE  ISTHMIANS.  747 

pose  of  mere  trifles;  and  their  superstitious  fears  and 
puerility  under  affliction,  are  entirely  lost  when  facing 
the  raging  surf  or  hungry  shark.  Other  writers  take  ad 
vantage  of  this  trait  to  show  that  they  are  high-spirited 
enough  to  carry  anything  through  when  once  aroused, 
and  add  that  they  have  proved  themselves  faithful  to 
their  masters,  are  docile  and  intelligent,  abhorring  to 
appear  mean  and  cowardly.44 

The  ISTHMIANS,  by  which  name  I  designate  all  the 
nations  occupying  the  territory  lying  between  the  San 
Juan  River  and  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Nicaragua 
on  the  north,  and  the  gulf  of  Uraba,  or  Darien,  and  the 
River  Atrato  on  the  south,  present  several  peculiarities 
when  compared  with  the  other  nations  of  Central  Amer 
ica.  The  inhabitants  of  these  regions  are  a  hardy  and 
active  race,  jealous  of  their  independence  and  ever  hos 
tile  to  those  who  attempt  to  penetrate  their  country. 
Their  resoluteness  in  excluding  all  foreigners  is  mate 
rially  strengthened  by  the  rugged  and  malarious  nature 
of  the  country,  by  its  deep  ravines,  its  miasmatic  swamps, 
its  abrupt  heights,  its  rapid  streams,  its  tangled  under 
growth,  and  densely  wooded  districts.  The  air  of  the 
table-lands  and  valleys  is  hot  and  moist,  the  soil  exceed 
ingly  fertile,  but  the  interior  and  mountainous  locali 
ties  have  a  milder  and  more  temperate  climate  with  but 
little  variation  except  that  of  the  dry  and  wet  seasons. 
In  the  lowlands  of  Panama,  the  swampy  nature  of  the 
surface,  with  the  great  humidity  of  the  atmosphere,  pro 
duces  a  luxuriant  vegetation,  and  the  consequent  quan 
tity  of  decomposed  vegetable  matter  under  the  influence 
of  a  vertical  sun,  engenders  a  miasma  deadly  to  the  un- 
acclimated.  The  rich  and  marshy  nature  of  the  soil, 

44  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iii.,  lib.  viii.,  cap.  vii.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  i.,  cap.  vi., 
lib.  viii.,  cap.  iii.,  v.;  Young's  Narrative,  pp.  78-82,  85,  87,  122,  133;  Bell, 
in  Land.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxii.,  pp.  250-2,  257-8;  Sard's  Waikna, 
pp.  245,  317,  324;  Mosquitoland,  Bericht,  pp.  135, 139-40,  144-5,  236;  Strange- 
ways'  Mosquito  Shore,  p.  329;  Puydt,  Rapport,  in  Amerique  Centrale,  p.  71;  Pirn 
and  Seemann's  Dottings,  pp.  248-9,  279,  308-9;  Boyle's  Eide,  vol.  i.,  pref., 
pp.  13,  18;  Morelet,  Foyage,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  240,  289,  302;  Crowe's  Cent.  Amer., 
pp.  49,  243. 


748  WILD  TKIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

however,  sends  forth  immense  palm-trees,  in  the  branches 
of  which  the  natives  build  their  houses,  thus  obtaining 
a  purer  air  and  greater  safety  from  the  numerous  wild 
animals  and  dangerous  reptiles  that  infest  that  region. 
A  great  portion  of  the  territory  is  rich  in  minerals  which 
were  once  produced  by  the  natives  in  great  quantities, 
but  which,  unfortunately,  were  the  loadstone  that  drew 
upon  them  the  ruthless  Spanish  plunderers. 

In  the  northern  part  of  Costa  Rica  along  the  head 
waters  of  the  Rio  Frio  the  Guatusos,  or  Pranzas,  are  lo 
cated.  Mr  Squier  is  inclined  to  think  they  are  of  the 
same  stock  as  the  Nahuas.  Some  striking  physical 
peculiarities  observed  among  them  have  given  rise  to 
various  surmises  and  startling  conclusions  regarding 
their  origin.  Dwelling  in  the  western  part  of  the  state 
are  the  Terrabas  and  the  Changuenes,  fierce  and  bar 
barous  nations,  at  constant  enmity  with  their  neigh 
bors.  In  the  south-east  and  extending  to  the  borders 
of  Chiriqui  dwell  the  Talamancas  composed  of  a  number 
of  different  tribes  and  declared  by  some  to  be  allied  in 
race  with  the  Guatusos.  Besides  these  are  the  Buricas, 
Torresques,  Toxas,  and  others.45  In  the  mountains  of 
Chiriqui  are  the  Valientes,  so  called  by  the  Spaniards  from 
their  heroic  resistance  to  the  invaders.  Many  of  the 
warlike  nations  who  occupied  the  country  at  the  time  of 
the  discovery  derived  their  names  from  the  caciques 
that  governed  them.  The  people  who  dwell  along  the 
shore  of  the  Carribean  Sea,  between  Porto  Belo  and 
Uraba,  and  occupy  the  Limones,  Sasardi,  and  Pinos 
islands  are  supposed  to  be  a  branch  of  the  once  powerful 

45  The  Guatusos  '  are  said  to  be  of  very  fair  complexion,  a  statement 
which  has  caused  the  appellation  of  Indios  blancos,  or  Guatusos — the  latter 
name  being  that  of  an  animal  of  reddish-brown  colour,  and  intended  to  desig 
nate  the  colour  of  their  hair.'  Froebel's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  24;  Id.,  Aus  Amer., 
torn,  i.,  p.  244.  Speaking  of  Sir  Francis  Drake's  mutineers  and  their  escape 
from  Esparsa  northward,  he  says :  '  It  is  believed  by  many  in  Costa  Rica 
that  the"  white  Indians  of  the  Rio  Frio,  called  Pranzos,  or  Guatusos ....  are 
the  descendants  of  these  Englishmen.'  .Boyle's  Ride,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  210,  27,  and 
vol.  i.,  pref.,  pp.  xx-xxii.  'Talamanca  contains  26  different  tribes  of  In 
dians;  besides  which  there  are  several  neighbouring  nations,  as  the  Chan- 
guenes,  divided  into  thirteen  tribes;  the  Terrabas.  the  Torresques,  Urinamas, 
and  Cavecaras.'  Juarros'  Hist.  Guat.,  p.  373;  tiquier's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  413; 
Ilassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  p.  407;  Torquemada,  Monarq.  Ind.,  torn,  i.,  pp.  331-3. 


ISTHMIAN  NATIONS.  749 

Darien  nations  who  to  the  present  day  remain  uncon- 
quered.  Their  province  is  situated  on  the  western  shore 
of  the  gulf  of  Uraba,  and  their  town  was  originally  near 
the  mouth  of  the  River  Atrato.  The  town  and  the  river 
as  wel^as  the  province  were  called  by  the  natives  Da 
rien.  This  town  was  conquered  in  1510  by  a  little  band 
of  shipwrecked  Spaniards  under  the  Bachiller  Enciso. 
Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa,  Francisco  Pizarro,  and  men  of 
like  metal  were  there,  and  this  was  the  first  successful 
conquest  and  settlement  on  Tierra  Firme.  Whence,  as 
the  conquests  of  the  Spaniards  widened,  the  name  Darien 
was  at  length  applied  to  the  greater  part  of  the  Isthmus. 
Still  further  westward  were  the  once  powerful  province 
of  Cueva,  and  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of  Panama,  dis 
covered  in  1515  by  Tello  de  Guzman.  This  was  a 
famous  fishing-station,  the  word  Panama  signifying  in 
the  native  tongue  a  place  where  many  fish  are  taken. 
Along  the  western  shore  of  the  bay  of  Panama  dwelt 
several  independent  and  warlike  nations,  those  of  Cutara, 
Paris,  Uscoria,  besides  many  others  who  waged  con 
tinual  war  against  each  other  with  the  object  of  in 
creasing  their  territories  and  adding  lustre  to  their 


names.46 


Slight  differences  only  are  observable  in  the  Isthmian 
physique.  The  people  are  generally  well-built,  muscular, 
and  of  average  height,  although  old  authorities,  such  as 
Herrera,  Andagoya,  and  Gomara,  describe  a  tribe,  whom 

46  '  The  indians  who  at  present  inhabit  the  Isthmus  are  scattered  over 
Bocas  del  Tore,  the  northern  portions  of  Veraguas,  the  north-eastern  shores 
of  Panama  and  almost  the  whole  of  Darien,  and  consist  principally  of  four 
tribes,  the  Savanerics,  the  San  Bias  Indians,  the  Bayanos,  and  the  Cholos.' 
Seemann's  Voy.  Herald,  vol.  i.,  p.  317.  '  At  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  Darieu, 
the  country  was  covered  with  numerous  and  well-peopled  villages.  The  in 
habitants  belonged  to  the  Carribbee  race,  divided  into  tribes,  the  principal 
being  the  Mandinghese,  Chucunaquese,  Dariens,  Cunas,  Anachacunas,  &c. 
On  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Uraba  dwelt  the  immense  but  now  nearly 
exterminated  tribe  of  the  Caimans, — only  a  few  remnants  of  the  persecutions 
of  the  Spaniards,  having  taken  refuge  in  the  Choco  Mountains,  where  they 
are  still  found  ...The  Dariens,  as  well  as  the  Anachacunas,  have  either 
totally  disappeared  or  been  absorbed  in  other  tribes.'  Puydt,  in  Lond.  Geog. 
Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxviii.,  pp.  91-2;  Fitz-Eoy,  in  Id.,  vol.  xx.,  pp.  163-4;  Ro- 
qu2tte,in.  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1855,  torn,  cxlvii.,  p.  30;  Bateman,  in  N. 
Y.  Century,  6th  Decem.,  1860;  Andayoya,  in  Navarrete,  Col.  de  Viages,  torn, 
iii.,  p.  406;  Macgregor's  Progress  of  Amer.,  vol.  i.,  p.  823;  Brasseur  de 
Bourbourg,  Popol  Vuh,  introd.,  p.  ccii.  See  Tribal  Boundaries. 


750  WILD  TKIBES  OF  CENTKAL  AMERICA. 

they  locate  near  E scoria  and  Quarecas,  as  being  very 
tall — veritable  giants.  Women,  as  a  rule,  are  small  and 
of  delicate  proportions,  but  after  attaining  a  certain  age, 
incline  to  obesity.  The  mountain  tribes  are  generally 
shorter  in  stature,  with  more  pleasing  features  than  the 
coast-dwellers.  A  notable  difference  between  the  Isth 
mians  and  the  other  aborigines  of  the  Pacific  States,  is 
the  short,  rather  flat  nose,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
almost  universal  aquiline  cast.  In  color  they  are  of  a 
medium  bronze  tint,  varying  according  to  localities,  the 
mountain  tribes  being  the  darker.  Black,  straight,  and 
very  abundant  coarse  hair,  black  or  dark  eyes,  and 
excellent  teeth  predominate.47  In  Costa  Rica,  on  the 
Rio  Frio,  is  the  frequently  spoken  of  but  never  accurately 
described  nation — the  Guatusos — whom  somewhat  myth 
ical  accounts  describe  as  of  fair  complexions,  with  light 
hair  and  blue  eyes.  Likewise  Albinos  are  spoken  of  by 
Wafer,  who  relates  having  seen  people  "milk  white, 
lighter  than  the  colour  of  any  Europeans,  and  much 
like  that  of  a  white  horse."  Furthermore,  it  is  said 
that  their  bodies  were  covered  with  a  milk-white  down, 
which  added  to  the  whiteness  of  their  skin;  hair  and 
eyebrows  white,  and  eyes  oblong,  with  the  corners  point 
ing  downwards.  During  daylight  they  were  weak- 
sighted,  restive,  and  lacking  energy,  but  after  sundown, 
their  cheerfulness,  activity,  and  eyesight  returned — the 
latter  being  apparently  as  good  as  that  of  other  people.48 

47  Savanerics,  'a  fine  athletic  race.'  Seemami's  Voy.  Herald,  vol.  i.,  p.  318. 
'Tienen  los  caseos  de  la  cabe^a  gruessos.'  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  p. 
138.     '  The  Chocos  are  not  tall  noi-  remarkable  in  appearance,  but  always 
look  well  conditioned.'  Michler's  Darien,  p.  65.     '  Son  apersonados.'  Ddvila, 
Teatro  Ecles.,  torn,  ii.,  fol.  56;  Gomara,  Hist.  Ind.,  fol.  77,  87;  Keif  ridge's  Darien 
Surveys,  pp.  10,  36;  Colon,  Hist.  Alntirante,  in  Barcia,  Historiadores,  torn,  i., 
p.  107;  Puydt,  in  Land.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxviii.,  pp.  95-7;  Peter  J\far- 
tyr,  dec.  viii.,  lib.  vi;   Gisbo'rne's  Darien,  p.  155;   Cockburn's  Journey,  p.  235; 
D  Avity,  L'Ame'rique,   torn,  ii.,  p.  98;   Winthrop's  Canoe  and  Saddle,  p.  365; 
Afacgregor's  Progress  of  Amer.,  vol.  i.,  p.  823;  Fransham's  World  in  Miniature, 
p.  25.     '  Afirmana  Pasqualde  Andagoya,  auer  visto  algunos  tan  grandes,  que 
los  otros  hombres  eran  enanos  con  ellos,  y  que  tenian  buenas  caras,  y  cuer- 
pos.'  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  ii.,  lib.  iii.,  cap.  vi.;  Andagoya,  in  Navarrete, 
Col.  de  Viages,  torn,  iii.,  p.  41'2;  Gage's  New  Survey,  p.  174;  Darien,  Defence 
of  the  Scots'  Settlement,  pp.  69-70;  Cullen's  Darien,  pp.  65,  67. 

48  Golfo  Dulce.     '  Modicae  sunt  staturoe,  bene  compositis  membris,  mori- 
bus  blandis  et  non  invenustis.'  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  329.     '  It  is  a  uni 
versal  belief  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  from  Belize  to  Aspinwall,  that  the  Frio 


DKESS  OF  THE  ISTHMIANS.  751 

Cotton  textures  and  the  bark  of  a  certain  tree,  beaten 
in  a  wet  state  until  soft  and  pliant,  were  the  materials 
used  by  the  Isthmians  to  cover  their  nakedness,  if,  in 
deed,  they  covered  it  at  all.  Where  cotton  was  used,  as 
in  parts  of  Costa  Rica,  the  costume  was  simply  a  small 
strip  of  cloth  which  both  men  and  women  wound  round 
the  loins  or,  as  on  the  islands  in  the  gulf  of  Nicoya,  the 
women  passed  it  between  the  legs,  and  fastened  it  to  a 
string  round  the  waist.  These  latter  ornamented  their 
scanty  raiment  prettily  with  various  designs  painted  in 
colors,  and  also  with  seeds  and  shells.  Near  the  bay  of 
Herradura  the  men  wore  a  kind  of  mantle  covering  the 
whole  front  and  back  of  the  wearer,  made  of  the  above- 
mentioned  bark,  in  the  centre  of  which  was  a  hole 
through  which  the  head  passed.  The  women  of  this 
locality  only  wrap  themselves  in  a  piece  of  bark,  with 
out  taking  the  trouble  to  fashion  a  mantle  of  it.  Yet 
more  simple  was  the  dress  of  the  men  near  Cartago ;  a 
few  cotton  strings  wound  round  the  foreskin  of  their 
virile  member,  sufficed  them.19  Near  Panama  and  Da- 
rien,  the  caciques  only  wore  long  cotton  mantles  thrown 
over  the  shoulder  and  reaching  nearly  to  the*feet,  the 
common  people  going  naked,  only  encasing  their  privy 
parts  in  a  kind  of  funnel  made  of  gold,  silver,  shell,  or 
bamboo,  according  to  the  wealth  of  the  wearer,  and 
which  was  held  in  place  by  a  string  fastened  to  two 

tribe  have  white  complexions,  fair  hair,  and  grey  eyes.'  Boyle's  Ride,  vol.  i., 
pp.  20,  236,  and  pret'.,  pp.  xxi-xxii.;  Squier,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy., 
1856,  torn,  cli.,  pp.  6,  12;  Id.,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  62;  Wafer's  New 
Voy.,  pp.  131-7. 

49  '  El  mieinbro  generative  traen  atado  por  el  capullo,  ha^iendole  entrar 
tanto  adentro,  que  a  algunos  no  se  les  pares^e  de  tal  arnia  sino  la  atadura, 

?ue  es  unos  hilos  de  algodon  alii  revueltos.'  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  toin.iii.,  pp. 
09-11,  179.      See  also:  Cockburn's  Journey,  pp.   181-3,   188;    Wagner  and 
Scherzer,  Costa  Rica,  pp.  557-9;  Boyle's  Ride,  vol.  i.,  p.  251.    Referring'to  Vasco 
Nunez  de  Balboa,   '  La  gente  que  hallo  andaua  en  cueros,  sino  eran  senores, 
cortesanos,  y  mugeres.'  Gomara,  Hist.  Ind.,  fol.  82,  66,  87.     Uraba;'Ex 


(Balboa},  p.  9;  Wafer's  New  Voy.,  pp.  37,  87, 102,  plate,  132-4,  138-48,  plate; 
Wallace,  in  Miscellanea  Curiosa,  vol.  iii.,  p.  418;  Warburton's  Darien,  p.  322; 
Navarrete,  Col.  de  Viages,  torn,  iii.,  p.  26;  Andagoya,  in  Id.,  pp.  307-8,  407, 
412;  Ilerrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  ii.,  lib.  iii.,  cap.  v..  vi..  and  dec.  iv.,  lib.  i.,  cap. 
x.;  Michkr's  Darien,  pp.  43,  65-6,  86. 


752  WILD  TKIBES  OF  CENTKAL  AMERICA. 

holes  in  the  sides  which  was  passed  round  the  waist. 
Women  in  the  same   localities  wore  cotton  petticoats 
reaching  to  the  knees,  or,  if  ladies  of  quality,  to  the 
ankles.     Near  the  gulf  of  Nicoya,  women  wore  the  long 
hair  parted  in  the  middle  from  the  front  to  the  back  of 
the  head,  and  plaited  into  two  braids  which  hung  down 
on  either  side  over  the  ears.     The  men  tied  the  hair  up 
in  a  stiff  queue  with  a  cotton  band,  which  was  at  times 
arranged  so  as  to  rise  straight  over  the  crown  of  the 
head.     Necklaces  of  colored  beads  or  of  tiger's  teeth 
were  worn  as  ornaments.     Like  many  nations  of  the 
Hyperborean  group,  the  Chorotegans  of  Nicoya  pierced 
the  lower  lip  and  inserted  a  round  piece  of  bone.    Their 
arms  they  painted  with  a  mixture  of  their  own  blood 
and  charcoal.     In  portions  of  Yeragua  and  Behetrias 
even  the  funnel  or  cotton  strings  were  omitted,  and  the 
Gugures,   Mandingos,  and  many  others  on  the  Pacific 
seaboard,  like  the  people  of  Yeragua,  went  entirely  na 
ked,  the  chiefs  only  wearing  long  mantles.     All  of  the 
Isthmians  were  fond  of  ornaments;  among  those  which 
deserve  special  notice  is  the  nose-pendant.     This  was  a 
crescent- shaped  piece  of  gold  or  silver,  of  various  sizes 
for  different  occasions,  those  used  on  holidays  hanging 
down  so  as  to  cover  the  mouth,  while  those  for  ordinary 
use  only  reached  the  upper  lip.     Besides  the  nose-pend 
ant  were  ear-rings  and  a  number  of  heavy  necklaces  of 
gold,  silver,  tiger's  teeth,  colored  seeds,  shells,  and  coral, 
according  to  the  wealth  of  the  wearer.     Under  their 
breasts  the  richer  women  also  wore  gold  bars  as  a  sup 
port,  which  were  held  up  by  strings  passed  over  the 
shoulders.     Guanines,  or  figures  of  animals  made  of  gold, 
were  worn  around  the  neck  by  the  men  on  the  coast  of 
Yeragua,  Chiriqui,   and  Uraba;  others  again  wore  on 
their  heads  fillets  or  crowns  of  gold  or  of  the  claws  of 
wild  beasts,  or  of  feathers.     Thus  did  these  naked  sav 
ages  decorate  themselves,  often  to  the  extent  of  several 
pounds  weight.     Women  considered  it  a  mark  of  beauty 
to   have   thick   legs,   and  to   that  end  wore   bandages 
round    them.      Another   Hyperborean   custom   is  here 


ISTHMIAN  BODY-PAINTING.  753 

met  with — the  anointing  of  the  body  with  oil — which 
in  these  tropics  is  extracted  from  the  bixa  or  seed  of  the 
arnotto,  and  over  which  they  sprinkled  down  and  feath 
ers.  Painting  the  body  was  everywhere  practiced,  and 
was  carried  to  a  great  extent,  the  different  colors  and 
figures  employed  each  having  its  peculiar  significance. 
On  going  to  war,  paint  was  used  more  freely  than  at 
other  times,  and  the  greater  the  warrior  the  thicker  the 
paint.  Among  the  men  of  Cueba  painting  had  a  double 
object;  it  served  as  an  ornament  to  the  person,  and  also 
as  a  mark  of  distinction  of  rank.  The  chief,  when  he 
inherited  or  attained  his  title,  made  choice  of  a  certain 
device,  which  became  that  of  all  his  house.  Freemen 
were  painted  from  the  mouth  downward,  and  on  the 
arms  and  chest,  while  slaves  were  only  painted  or  tat 
tooed  from  the  mouth  upward.  All  the  lords,  servitors, 
and  vassals  who  were  freemen,  were  painted  in  exactly 
the  same  manner.  If  the  son  of  a  chief  adopted  the 
ancestral  totem,  he  could  not  afterward  change  it  on 
coming  into  his  inheritance,  but  if  during  his  father's 
life-time  he  declined  to  use  the  distinctive  badge  of  his 
house,  he  could,  when  he  became  chief,  choose  any  new 
device  he  might  fancy.  A  son  who  did  not  adopt  his 
father's  totem  was  always  hateful  to  him  during  his 
lifetime.  The  natives  on  the  northern  coast  of  Chiriqui 
painted  the  body  in  wavy  lines,  from  the  shoulders  to 
the  heels ;  through  the  cartilage  of  the  nose  they  stuck  a 
porcupine-quill,  and  in  the  chin  the  tooth  of  a  wild 
beast.  The  women  had  holes  made  in  their  cheeks 
through  which  they  stuck  little  bunches  of  feathers: 
they  also  wore  tiger's  claws  in  their  ears.  At  San  Bias, 
some  of  the  men  painted  themselves  in  black  streaks, 
and  the  women  in  red.  At  Porto  Belo,  the  king  was 
painted  black  and  all  his  subjects  red.  The  natives  of 
Escoria  tattooed  breast  and  arms;  the  women  of  Darien 
across  the  bridge  of  the  nose  from  one  cheek  to  the 
other;  they  also  blacken  their  teeth.  Others  have 
figures  of  birds,  animals,  or  trees  painted  all  over  the 
body,  according  to  fancy;  their  favorite  colors  being 

Vol.  I.    48 


754  WILD  TKIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMEKICA. 

black,  red,  and  yellow,  which  are  laid  on  with  pencils 
made  of  wood,  chewed  at  the  end  till  they  become  soft.50 
All  the  Isthmians  pull  out  the  hair  from  every  part  of 
the  body  except  the  head,  and  rub  themselves  with 
herbs,  which  prevent  its  further  growth.  Both  sexes 
pride  themselves  on  the  length  of  the  hair,  and  most  of 
them  allow  it  to  grow  to  its  full  length  and  hang  loose 
over  their  shoulders,  but  keep  it  cut  on  the  forehead  as 
low  as  the  eyebrows.  The  men  of  Cariai  and  some 
parts  of  Chiriqui,  bind  it  with  fillets  and  wind  it  in  rolls 
round  the  head,  fastening  it  with  a  comb  made  of  the 
heart  of  the  palm-tree ;  others  wear  round  their  head  a 
band  made  of  bark  or  certain  fibres  of  plants,  and  at 
festivals  they  often  wear  high  caps,  made  from  the  gaudy 
feathers  of  parrots.  At  Tanela  married  women  cut  their 
hair  short.  It  appears  that  head-flattening  again  crops 
out  in  these  parts.  Las  Casas  states  that  infants  had 
their  heads  placed  between  two  pads,  one  in  front  and 
another  behind,  in  order  to  increase  the  length  of  the 
head  and  width  of  the  forehead.51 

In  Costa  Rica  many  of  the  natives  live  in  small  huts 
built  of  plaited  rushes.  In  the  year  1545,  Diego  Guti 
errez,  governor  of  Nueva  Cartago,  in  Costa  Rica,  at- 


so  Seemann's  Voy.  Herald,  vol.  i.,  pp.  314,  316;  Porras,  in  Navarrete,  Col. 
de  Viages,  torn,  i.,  p.  285;  Colon,  in  Id.,  p.  298;  Coc/cburn's  Journey,  pp. 
240-1;  Gage's  New  Survey,  p.  191;  Montanus,  Nieuwe  Weereld,  pp.  88,  284; 
and  Dapper,  Neue  Welt,  pp.  99,  319;  Puydt,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol. 
xxxviii.,  pp.  95-8;  Self  ridge's  Darivn  Surveys,  p.  10;  Cullen's  Darien,  pp.  67- 
8;  Esquemelin,  Z^e-Roovers,  p.  142;  Las  Casas,  Hist.  Apologe'tica,  MS.,  cap. 
ccxlii-ccxliv.  The  women  of  Cueba  '  se  ponianuna  barra  de  oro  atravessada 
en  los  pechos,  debaxo  de  las  tetas,  que  se  las  levanta,  y  en  ella  algunos  paxa- 
ros  e  otras  figuras  de  relieve,  todo  de  oro  fino:  que  por  lo  menos  pessaba  cjen- 
to  e  (jinqiienta  e  ami  dosqientos  pessos  una  barreta  destas ....  Destos  caracoles 
grandes  se  hac,en  uuas  conte^icas  blancas  de  muchas  maneras,  e  otras  colo- 
r.idas,  e  otras  negras,  e  otras  moradas,  e  canuticos  de  lo  mesmo:  e  ha<jen 
briijaletes  en  que  con  estas  quentas  mezclan  otras,  e  olivetas  de  oro  que  se 
poiien  en  las  munecas  y  en^itna  de  los  tobillos  e  debaxo  de  las  rodillas  por 
gentileqa:  en  especial  las  mugeres.  . .  .Traen  assimesmo  qar^illos  de  oro  en  las 
orejas,  e  horadanse  las  nariqes  hecho  un  agugero  entre  las  ventanas,  e  cuel- 
gm  de  alii  sobre  el  labio  alto  otro  <jar<jillo.'  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  pp. 
126,  138. 

51  Their  hair  '  they  wear  usually  down  to  the  middle  of  the  Back,  or  lower, 
hanging  loose  at  its  full  length  . .  .All  other  Hair,  except  that  of  their  Eye 
brows  and  Eye-lids,  they  eradicate.'  Wafer's  New  Voy.,  pp.  132-3;  Gis- 
borne's  Darien,  p.  155;  Macgregor's  Progress  oj  Amer.,  p.  824;  D'Avity, 
L'Ame'rique,  torn,  i.,  p.  98. 


DWELLINGS  ON  THE  ISTHMUS.  755 

tempted  to  explore  that  territory.  Arriving  at  the 
province  of  Suere  upon  a  river  of  that  name  at  a  point 
some  twelve  leagues  distant  from  the  North  Sea,  he 
came  to  a  village,  and  there  occupied  a  house  belonging 
to  the  chief  of  the  district.  The  old  Milanese  chronicler, 
Girolamo  Benzoni,  who  accompanied  the  expedition, 
describing  the  dwelling  of  the  cacique,  says  it  was 
shaped  like  an  egg  and  was  forty-five  paces  in  length 
and  nine  in  breath.  The  sides  were  of  reeds  and  the 
reof  of  palm-leaves  all  interlaced  and  well  executed. 
There  were  but  few  other  houses  in  the  village  and 
those  of  inferior  character.  Padre  Zepeda,  a  Jesuit,  who 
in  1750  lived  among  the  Guatusos  for  several  months, 
speaking  of  their  towns  and  gardens,  says  that  when 
the  rains  commence,  they  construct  small  huts  in  the 
trees,  where  they  live  safe  from  the  danger  of  floods.52 
Unlike  most  other  nations,  the  Isthmians  do  not  build 
their  villages  in  squares,  but  generally  form  long  streets, 
keeping  the  houses  well  apart  from  each  other,  probably 
as  a  precaution  against  conflagrations.  On  many  parts  of 
the  coast  of  Darien  and  on  the  gulf  of  Uraba,  the  villages 
are  built  in  the  water.  Others  are  on  the  banks  of  rivers, 
and  many  of  them  are  spacious  and  constructed  with 
great  skill  and  attention  to  details.  The  supporting 
posts  of  the  roof  are  large  bamboos  or  palm-trees.  Three 
or  four  of  these  are  driven  into  the  ground  at  equal  dis 
tances,  proportioned  according  to  the  intended  length  of 
the  house,  and  across  the  top  is  laid  the  ridge-pole;  on 
each  side  a  number  of  shorter  posts  are  sunk,  from 
which  long  rafters  are  laid  to  the  ridge-pole ;  the  whole 
is  then  covered  with  palm-leaves,  both  roof  and  sides. 
Other  houses  are  plastered  inside  and  outside  with  mud, 
and  these  have  a  flooring  of  open  bamboo  work,  raised 
six  or  eight  feet  from  the  ground.  The  dwellings  are 
divided  into  two  or  more  rooms,  having  no  doors  to  the 
entrances,  which  are  reached  by  ladders.  Sometimes  the 

52  Benzoni,  Hist.  Mondo  Nuovo,  f ol .  86 ;  Squier,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des 
Voy.,  1856,  torn,  cli.,  p.  9;  Froebel,  Aus  Amer.,  torn,  i.,  p.  246;  Id.,  Cent. 
Amer.,  p.  26;  Wagner  and  Scherzer,  Costa  Rica,  p.  253. 


756  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

house  is  built  without  walls,  in  which  case  the  roof 
descends  to  below  the  level  of  the  floor,  and  the  struc 
ture  is  left  open  at  both  ends,  having  the  appearance  of 
an  elevated  platform.  The  Savanerics  and  some  others 
on  the  coast  of  Yeragua  build  circular  or  pyramidal 
dwellings,  by  driving  strong  posts  into  the  ground 
sloping  toward  each  other,  so  as  to  unite  in  a  point 
where  they  are  strongly  bound  with  withes  or  vines, 
across  which  are  tied  small  sticks,  some  peeled,  others 
with  the  bark  on,  or  blackened,  thereby  producing  a 
pleasing  effect.  The  walls  inside  are  lined  with  reeds 
beautifully  interwoven.  The  upper  portion  of  the  struc 
ture  is  thatched  on  the  outside  with  straw  and  on  the 
apex  is  placed  an  ornament  of  baked  clay.  In  the  centre 
of  the  dwelling  is  a  spacious  apartment,  and  round  the 
walls  are  small  rooms  in  which  different  families  reside.53 
Each  village  has  a  public,  town,  or  council  house,  or 
fort,  one  hundred  or  more  feet  in  length,  constructed  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  dwellings,  but  with  no  interior 
partitions;  in  the  walls  are  loop-holes  for  the  discharge 
of  arrows.  There  is  an  entrance  at  each  end,  and  thick 
doors,  made  of  split  palm-tree  and  bamboo  strongly 
bound  together  with  withes,  are  kept  in  readiness  to  shut 
out  the  enemy.  The  doors  are  kept  in  position  by  strong 
posts  set  in  the  ground  behind  them.  In  the  province 
of  Veragua  they  build  strong  wooden  fences  or  palisades 
round  some  of  the  villages,  to  protect  them  from  attacks 
of  enemies  and  wild  beasts.  During  the  expedition  of 
Gaspar  de  Espinosain  1517,  Diego  de  Albitez,  who  in 
vaded  the  province  of  a  cacique  named  Tabraba,  some 
distance  south-west  from  Panama,  found  the  inhabitants 

53  Puydt,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxviii.,  p.  95;  Seemann's  Voy. 
Herald,  vol.  i.,  pp.  319,  321-2;  Pirn  and  Seemann's  Dottings,  p.  151;  Michler's 
Darien,  p.  84;  Wafer's  Neic  Voy.,  pp.  149-52;  Cockburn's  Journey,  pp.  234- 
5.  On  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Grande,  the  Spaniards  under  Johan  de  Tavira 
found  '  muchas  poblaqiones  en  barbacoas  6  casas  muy  altas,  fechas  e  arma 
das  sobre  postes  de  palmas  negras  fortfssimas  e  quassi  inexpugnables'. . . . 
*  Hay  otra  manera  de  buhfos  6  casas  en  Nata  redondos,  como  unos  chapiteles 
nmy  altos.'  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  50,  131,  8,  46.  '  En  otras  muchas 
partes  hacian  sns  casas  de  madera  y  de  paja  de  la  forma  de  una  campana. 
Estas  ernn  muy  altas  y  muy  capaces  que  moraban  en  cada  una  de  ellas  diez  y 
mas  vecinos.'  Las  Casas,  Hist.  Apologetica,  ATS,,  cap.  43. 


ISTHMIAN  EDIFICES.  757 

protected  by  strong  fortifications.  Their  forts  are  built 
with  much  skill.  The  ground  is  first  enclosed  by  a  deep 
trench,  upon  the  inner  bank  of  which  trees  are  planted, 
and  the  interstices  filled  up  with  logs  and  rocks.  In 
many  parts  of  the  country  the  inhabitants  were  found 
living  in  the  tops  of  trees  like  birds,  laying  sticks  across 
from  one  branch  to  another,  and  building  their  houses 
upon  them.  In  1512,  Yasco  Nunez  de  Balboa  surveyed 
several  channels  at  the  mouth  of  the  River  Atrato  in 
quest  of  gold  and  plunder.  The  surrounding  country 
was  low  and  marshy,  but  the  soil  sent  forth  immense 
palm-trees,  in  the  branches  of  which  the  natives  built 
their  houses.  Yasco  Nunez,  entering  an  affluent  of  the 
Rio  Negro,  discovered  a  large  tree-top  village,  the  name 
of  whose  ruler  was  Abieiba.  The  houses  were  divided 
into  several  apartments,  each  of  a  size  sufficient  to  accom 
modate  several  families.  They  were  built  of  wood  and 
willows,  and  were  so  pliable  and  yet  so  strong,  that  the 
swaying  to  and  fro  of  the  branches,  to  which  the  elastic 
tenement  yielded,  did  not  in  the  least  interfere  with  the 
safety  of  the  occupants.  Ladders,  made  of  a  single 
large  bamboo  split  in  two,  were  used  in  making  the 
ascent  and  descent.  These  were  drawn  up  at  night,  or 
in  case  of  the  invasion  of  an  enemy.  On  the  coast  of 
Yeragua  Columbus  discovered  similar  dwellings,  and  he 
says  that  he  could  not  account  for  the  custom,  unless  it 
was  through  fear  of  griffins  which  abound  in  that  coun 
try,  or  of  enemies,  each  tribe  being  at  war  with  every 
other  tribe  along  the  coast.  The  true  cause,  however, 
of  their  taking  to  trees  for  places  of  residence,  is  to 
place  themselves  beyond  the  reach  of  sudden  and  vio 
lent  floods,  which  are  caused  by  the  swelling  of  streams 
after  storms  in  the  mountains,  and  also  in  order  to  be 
out  of  the  reach  of  reptiles  and  wild  beasts  in  which 
that  country  abounds.54  Some  of  the  Isthmians  built 

54<H:illaron  muchos  pueblos  cercados,  con  palenques  de  madera.'  Her- 
rera,  H'tst.  Gm.,  dec.  iii.,  lib.  iv.,  cap.  ix.,  dec.  i.,  lib.  ix.,  cap.  ii..  vi.  '  Ten- 
gano  le  lor  case  in  cima  de  gli  alberi.'  Benzoni,  Hist.  Mondo  Nuovo,  fol. 
160.  See  also:  Ir vine's  Columbus,  vol.  iii.,  p.  176;  Gomara,  Hist.  Ind.,  fol. 
75;  Colon,  Hist.  Almimnte,  in  Barcia,  Historiadores,  torn,  i.,  p.  108. 


758  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

large  enclosures  for  the  chiefs,  which  early  contempo 
rary  writers  call  the  king's  palace.  Yasco  Nunez  de 
Balboa,  on  his  march  through  the  province  of  Comagre, 
situated  on  the  northern  coast  of  Darien  about  thirty 
leagues  from  the  gulf  of  Uraba,  relates  that  he  visited 
the  dwelling  or  palace  of  the  cacique  Comagre,  which 
he  describes  as  follows:  It  was  one  hundred  and  fifty 
by  eighty  paces  in  dimension,  constructed  upon  heavy 
posts,  which  stood  within  a  stone  wall.  The  upper 
part  of  the  building  was  beautifully  finished  with  tim 
bers,  interlaced  in  such  a  manner  as  to  strike  the  be 
holder  with  amazement.  The  building  contained  various 
apartments — chambers,  pantry,  and  wine-cellar.  In  one 
very  large  apartment  were  sacredly  kept  the  remains  of 
the  king's  ancestors  arranged  round  the  walls.55 

The  Costa  Ricans  live  chiefly  by  hunting  and  fishing, 
and  many  of  them  cultivate  maize,  beans,  and  bananas; 
the  Talamancas,  especially,  are  agriculturists.  Accord 
ing  to  Father  Zepeda,  and  others  who  penetrated  some 
distance  into  the  country  of  the  Gruatusos,  they  had 
large  fields  under  cultivation.  Salt  is  seldom  used  by 
any  of  these  tribes,  and  none  of  them  ever  eat  dogs,  as 
they  keep  them  for  hunting  purposes.  Their  chief  game 
is  wild  hogs  and  deer,  but  they  are  not  very  particular 
as  to  their  animal  diet,  for  they  eat  whatever  they  can 
catch,  including  reptiles.  Their  mode  of  cooking  fish 
renders  them  exceedingly  palatable,  which  is  by  roast 
ing  them  wrapped  in  plantain-leaves.  Bananas  are 
usually  pulled  when  green,  and  buried  in  sand  to  ripen.56 
Many  of  the  other  Isthmians  are  agriculturists,  and 

55  Of  Coraagre's  palace  it  is  said,  '  Longitudinem  dimensi  passuum  cen 
tum  quinquaginta,  latitudinem  uero  pedum  octoginta,  in  uacuo  dinumera- 
runt:  laquearibus  et  pauiruentis  arte  eximia  laboratis.'  Peter  Martyr,  dec. 
ii.,  lib.  iii.  Compare  further:  Montanus,  Nicuwe  Weereld,  pp.  64-5,  87;  Dap 


per,  Neue  Welt,  pp.  71-2,  98;  Darien,  Defence  of  the  Scots'  Settlement,  p._Sl. 

56  Squier,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,   1856,  torn,  cli.,  p, 
Ride,  vol.  i.,  pref.,  pp.  xii.,  xxiii.;  Ifassd,  Mex.  Guat.,  p.  407;  Cockburn's 


Journey,  pp.  2J4,  224-5;  Wagner  and  Scherzer,  Costa  Rica,  pp.  558-9.  On  the 
Chara  Islands,  '  comen  los  indios  en  estas  islas  muchos  venados  e  puercos, 
que  los  hay  en  grand 'ssima  cantidad,  e  mahiz,  e  fesoles  muchos  e  de  diver- 
sas  maneras,  e  muchos  e  buenos  pescados,  e  tambien  sapo . . . .  e  ninguna 
cosa  viva  dexan  de  comer  por  sueia  que  sea.'  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.t  torn,  iii., 
p.  110. 


FOOD  OF  THE  ISTHMIANS.  759 

grow  considerable  quantities  of  maize,  plantains,  cacao, 
pimiento,  and  cocoa-nuts ;  their  means  of  subsistence  are 
further  largely  supplemented  by  game  and  fish.  A 
staple  article  of  food  among  the  coast  tribes  is  turtle,  of 
which  they  capture  large  numbers.  Monkeys  afford 
them  a  favorite  meal,  and  they  are  especially  fond  of 
iguanas,  young  alligators,  and  their  eggs.  From  the 
yucca  as  well  as  corn  they  make  a  good  quality  of  bread. 
The  Doraches  and  Guaimies  of  Veragua  subsist  mainly 
on  wild  roots  and  a  fruit  called  pixbaex,  somewhat  resem 
bling  dates,  which  toasted,  makes  an  agreeable  and 
wholesome  food.  Most  of  their  dishes  are  highly  sea 
soned  with  pimiento,  a  kind  of  pepper  produced  by  a 
small  shrub  which  is  very  abundant  on  Tierra  Firme. 
The  toocan  bird  lives  chiefly  on  the  berry,  which  it  dis 
charges  from  the  stomach  almost  immediately  after  swal 
lowing  it;  the  natives  prefer  it  thus,  as  its  bitterness  is 
partly  absorbed  by  the  bird.  It  is  said  that  the  Ca- 
ribs  ate  human  flesh  whenever  they  had  an  opportunity. 
Herrera  says  that  some  of  the  Isthmians  purchased 
slaves,  whom  they  sold  to  the  Caribs  for  food,  and  the 
inhabitants  of  Paria  supplied  boys  to  the  natives  of  Tu- 
braba  for  the  same  purpose.  They  cooked  the  flesh  of 
their  enemies,  and  ate  it  seasoned  with  salt  and  aji 
(chile).57  When  a  piece  of  ground  is  to  be  planted,  a 
number  of  the  villagers  collect  and  cut  down  the  brush 
wood  on  a  selected  spot ;  the  seed  is  then  scattered  among 
the  wood  as  it  lies.  In  due  time  the  grain,  which  is 
well  sheltered  from  the  sun  by  the  branches,  springs  up 
and  overtops  them,  and  when  fit  for  harvesting  the  ears 
are  gathered.  After  this,  the  underwood  and  corn 
stalks  are  set  on  fire,  and  the  ground  continues  to  be 

57  '  Hanno  la  maggior  parte  di  questa  costiera  per  costume  di  mangiar 
came  kurnana  e  quando  maugiauano  de  gli  Spagiiuoli,  v'erano  di  coloro 
che  ricusauano  di  cibarsene,  temendo  ancora  che  nel  lor  corpo,  non  gli 
facessero  quelle  carni  quaiche  danno.'  Benzoni,  Hist.  Hondo  Nuovo,  fol. 
49.  On  the  coast  '  they  live  principally  upon  fish,  plantains,  and  bananas, 
with  Indian  corn  arid  a  kind  of  cassava.'  Se> 'fridge's  Darien  Surveys,  pp.  10, 
20.  Compare  Colon,  in  Navarrete,  Col.  de  Viages,  torn,  i.,  p.  308;  Ualboa, 
in  /(/.,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  364-5;  Alcedo,  Dice.,  torn,  v.,  p.  293;  Cullen's  Darien, 
pp.  65,  68-9;  Colombo,  Hist.  Ammiraylio,  p.  412;  Meyer,  Nach  dem  Sacra 
mento,  pp.  20-2. 


760  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

used  for  agricultural  purposes.  In  hunting  deer  and 
wild  swine,  dogs  are  used  to  drive  them  out  of  the  dense 
forest;  at  other  times  they  set  fire  to  a  part  of  the  woods, 
and  as  the  animals  try  to  escape,  they  kill  them  with 
spears  and  arrows.  Birds  are  killed  with  a  blow-pipe. 
When  fishing  they  use  nets  made  of  mahoe-bark  or  silk- 
grass,  and  in  places  where  rocks  prevent  their  using  a 
net,  they  catch  them  with  their  hands  or  shoot  them 
with  arrows.  Fishing  by  torchlight  with  spears  is  fre 
quently  practiced.  The  Savanerics  poison  pools  with 
pounded  leaves  of  the  barbasco,  and  thus  obtain  fish 
without  much  labor.  For  duck-hunting  they  also  em 
ploy  the  often-described  trick  of  placing  a  calabash  on 
the  head,  and  in  this  manner  approach  the  game.  The 
men  of  Cueba  are  celebrated  for  making  pure  white  salt 
from  sea  water — an  article  much  used  in  this  locality. 
In  the  same  province  a  kind  of  communism  obtained ;  all 
provisions  were  delivered  to  the  chief,  who  distributed 
to  each  his  share.  Part  of  the  community  were  em 
ployed  as  agriculturists,  and  part  as  hunters  and  fisher 
men.  At  his  meals  the  cacique  was  served  by  women, 
some  of  his  principal  men  eating  with  him.58 

In  their  personal  habits  the  Isthmians  are  cleanly; 
they  bathe  generally  twice  a  day  and  sometimes  oftener ; 
but  commonly  at  sunrise  and  sunset.  The  interior  of 
their  dwellings  has  a  neat  appearance,  and  order  and 
cleanliness  prevail  in  all  their  domestic  arrangements.59 

Bows  and  arrows,  long  spears,  javelins,  flint-edged 
clubs,  and  blow-pipes,  are  the  weapons  used  in  these 
parts.  The  bows  are  beautifully  made,  those  of  the 

58  '  Cogen  dos  y  tres  vezes  al  ano  maiz,  y  por  esto  no  lo  engraneran. '  Go- 
mara,    Hist.  Ind.,  fol.  82,  88.     '  Seguian  mucho  la  caqa  de  venados,  y  de 
aquellos  puercos  con  el  ombligo  al  espinazo.'  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  ii., 
lib.  Hi.,  cap.  v.,  xv.     For  further  details  see  Michler's  Darien,  pp.  65,  68,  81; 
Andagoya,  in  Navarrete,   Col.  de  Viages,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  403,  407;  Montanus, 
Nieuwe'Weereld,  p.  71;  and  Dapper,  Neue  Welt,  p.  79;  Seemann's  Voy.  Herald, 
vol.  i.,  pp.  315,  319;  Peter  Martyr,   dec.  viii.,  lib.  vii.;  Oviedo,  Hist.   Gen., 
torn,  iii.,  pp.   132-3,   136,   139;  Wafer's  New  Voy.,  pp.  88,  101,  106-7,  129- 
130,  152-6,  170-7. 

59  Jfichler's  Darien,  p.  65;  Cockburn's  Journey,  p.  236.     'Tienen  por  cos- 
tumbre,  assi  los  indios  como  las  indias,  de  se  banar  tres  o  quatro  ve(jes  al 
dia,  por  estar  limpios  e  porque  di(jen  que  descansan  en  lavarse.'  Oviedo. 
Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  135-6. 


WEAPONS  OF  THE  ISTHMIANS.  761 

Costa  Ricans  being  about  seven  feet  long,  of  a  dark- 
colored,  very  hard  wood,  with  the  string  of  well-twisted 
silk-grass.  Arrows  are  of  the  same  wood,  very  long,  and 
pointed  with  a  porcupine-quill  or  fish-bone.  The  bows 
and  arrows  of  those  farther  south  are  much  shorter,  and 
of  black  palm-wood,  as  are  also  their  lances  and  javelins. 
The  arrows  are  pointed  with  flint  or  fish-bone,  or  are 
hardened  in  the  fire  and  barbed ;  the  shaft  is  of  reed 
having  a  piece  of  hard  wood  eight  or  ten  inches  in  length 
inserted  in  the  end.  The  inhabitants  of  Coiba  and  some 
of  the  tribes  on  the  western  shore  of  the  gulf  of  Uraba, 
do  not  use  bows  and  arrows.  In  this  respect,  so  far  as  I 
have  observed,  they  form  an  exception;  as  among  the 
almost  innumerable  tribes  situated  between  the  gulf  of 
Uraba  and  the  Arctic  Ocean  I  know  of  none  others 
where  bows  and  arrows  are  not  used.  These  people  in 
battle  employ  a  long  wooden  sword,  and  wooden  spears, 
the  ends  of  which  are  hardened  in  the  fire  and  tipped 
with  bone;  they  also  make  use  of  slings  and  darts. 
Their  javelins  are  thrown  with  much  force  and  dexterity 
by  means  of  a  stick  slightly  grooved  to  hold  the  pro 
jectile.  It  is  called  estorica  and  is  held  between  the 
thumb  and  two  fingers,  there  being  a  small  loop  on  the 
side,  near  the  centre,  in  which  the  forefinger  is  placed ; 
the  dart  is  cast  straight  from  the  shoulder,  while  the 
projector  is  retained  in  the  hand.  I  have  noticed  a 
somewhat  similar  contrivance  employed  by  the  Aleutian 
Islanders.60  The  blow-pipe  which  is  used  with  much 
effect,  is  about  six  or  seven  feet  long,  and  the  darts  shot 
from  it  are  made  of  Mucaw-wood,  very  thin  with  an 

60  In  Cueva,  '  no  son  flecheros,  e  pelean  con  macanas  e  con  lanc,as  luengas 
y  con  varas  que  arrojaii,  coino  dardos  con  estoricas  (que  son  cierta  manera 
de  avientos)  de  unos  bastones  bien  labrados.'  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii., 
pp.  127,  129.  '  Sunt  autem  ipsorum  arma,  non  arcus,  non  sagittse  uene- 
natse,  uti  habere  indigenas  illos  trans  sinum  orientales  diximus.  Cominus 
hi  certant  ut  plurimum,  ensibus  oblongis,  quos  macanas  ipsi  appellant, 
ligneis  tamen,  quia  ferrum  non  assequuntur:  et  prseustis  sudibus  aut  osseis 
cuspidibus,  missilibus  etiam  ad  prseluim  utuntur.'  Peter  Martyr,  dec.ii.,  lib. 
iii.,  also,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  x.,  dec.  v.,  lib.  ix.  Compare  further,  Herrera,  Hist  Gen., 
dec.  i.,  lib.  ix.,  cap.  vi.,  lib.  x.,  cap.  i.;  Andagoya,  in  Navarrete,  Col.  de 
Viages,tom.  iii.,  p.  403;  Porras,  in  Id.,  torn,  i.,  p.  285;  Cockburn's  Journey, 
p.  225;  D'Avity,  L'Amerique,  p.  98;  Otis'  Panama,  pp.  77-8;  Puydt,  in  Lond. 
Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxviii.,  pp.  95,  98. 


762  WILD  TKIBES  OF  CENTKAL  AMERICA. 

exceedingly  sharp  point,  notched,  so  that  when  an 
object  is  struck  it  breaks  off  and  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  extract  the  broken  point;  others  are  poisoned  so  that 
a  slight  wound  causes  death  in  a  short  time.  One  end 
is  wrapped  with  a  little  cotton,  until  it  fits  the  tube 
which  is  placed  to  the  mouth  and  the  dart  blown  out. 
It  is  quite  effective  for  a  distance  of  one  hundred  yards. 
Different  varieties  of  poison  have  been  described  by 
writers  and  travelers.  Herrera  speaks  of  one  which  he 
says  was  made  with  certain  grey  roots  found  along  the 
coast,  which  were  burnt  in  earthen  pipkins  and  mixed 
with  a  species  of  poisonous  black  ant ;  to  this  composition 
were  added  large  spiders,  some  hairy  caterpillars,  the 
wings  of  a  bat,  and  the  head  and  tail  of  sea-fish  called 
tavorino,  very  venomous,  besides  toads,  the  tails  of  snakes, 
and  manzanillas.  All  these  ingredients  were  set  over  a 
fire  in  an  open  field  and  well  boiled  in  pots  by  a  slave  till 
they  were  reduced  to  a  proper  consistency.  The  unfor 
tunate  slave  who  attends  to  the  boiling  almost  invariably 
dies  from  the  fumes.  Another  poisonous  composition  is 
spoken  of  as  having  been  made  of  fourteen  different  in 
gredients  and  another  of  twenty-four,  one  that  kills  in 
three  days,  another  in  five,  and  another  later,  and  when 
one  was  employed  it  was  stated  that  sometimes  the 
wounded  lived  as  many  days  as  the  poison  had  been  made. 
The  natives  said  that  fire,  sea  water,  and  continency  were 
the  antidotes  against  the  venom,  others  affirmed  that 
the  dung  of  the  wounded  person  taken  in  pills  or  other 
wise  was  a  cure.  Peter  Martyr  writes  that  the  poison 
was  made  by  old  women  skilled  in  the  art,  who  were 
shut  up  for  two  days  in  a  house  where  they  boiled  the 
ingredients;  if  at  the  expiration  of  the  time,  the  women 
were  found  in  good  health  instead  of  being  half  dead, 
they  were  punished  and  the  ointment  was  thrown  away. 
Captain  Cochrane  in  his  Journal  in  Colombia,  says  that 
they  obtain  the  poison  from  a  small  frog  called  the  rana 
de  veneno.  These  frogs  are  kept  in  a  hollow  cane  and 
regularly  fed.  When  required  for  use,  they  take  one 
and  pass  a  pointed  stick  down  its  throat  and  out  at  one 


WEAPONS,  AKMOE,  AND  WAKS.  763 

of  its  legs.  The  pain  brings  to  the  back  of  the  toad  a 
white  froth,  which  is  a  deadly  poison  and  in  it  the  darts 
are  rubbed;  below  the  froth  a  yellow  oily  matter  is 
found  which  is  carefully  scraped  off,  as  it  is  also  a 
powerful  poison,  but  not  so  lasting  as  the  first  substance, 
which  will  retain  its  deadly  properties  for  a  year  while 
the  yellow  matter  looses  its  strength  after  five  or  six 
months.61  The  javelins  used  by  the  Caribs  were  not 
made  pointed  but  square  at  the  end,  they  also  have  very 
long  pikes  and  heavy  clubs.  When  Bartolome  Hurtado 
in  1516  visited  the  island  of  Caubaco  he  relates  that  the 
cacique  presented  him  with  a  golden  armor  valued  at 
one  thousand  castellanos.  At  the  island  of  Cabo  seven 
leagues  distant,  the  warriors  wore  a  thick  matted  armor 
of  cotton  impervious  to  arrows;  they  were  armed  with 
pikes  and  in  their  march  were  accompanied  with  drums, 
conchs,  and  fifes.62 

Wars  arise  chiefly  from  the  jealousies  and  ambition 
of  rival  chieftains.  Battles  are  frequent  and  sanguinary, 
often  lasting  for  many  days,  and  are  fought  with  tena- 

61  'The  pipe  was  made  of  two  pieces  of  reed,  each  forming  a  half  circle; 
these  being  placed  together  left  a  small  hole,  just  large  enough  for  the  ad 
mission  of  the  arrow. . .  .The  arrows  are  about  eight  inches  long. ,  the  point 
very  sharp,  and  cut  like  a  corkscrew  for  an  inch  up  ...  This  is  rolled  in  the 
poison  . .  .The  arrow  will  fly  one  hundred  yards,  and  is  certain  death  to  man 
or  animal  wounded  by  it;  no  cure  as  yet  having  been  discovered.  A  tiger, 
when  hit,  runs  ten  or  a  dozen  yards,  staggers,  becomes  sick,  and  dies  in  four 
or  five  minutes.  A  bird  is  killed  as  with  a  bullet,  and  the  arrow  and  wounded 
part  of  the  flesh  being  cut  out,  the  remainder  is  eaten  without  danger.' 
Cochrane's  Journal  in  Colombia,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  405-7.  '  Thatpoyson  killeth  him 
that  is  wounded,  but  not  suddenly.  . .  Whoso  is  wounded,  Hues  a  miserable 
and  strict  life  after  that,  for  he  must  abstaine  from  many  things.'  Peter 
Martyr,  dec.  viii.,  lib.  viii.  '  Some  woorali  (corova)  and  poisoned  arrows 
that  I  obtained  from  the  Indians  of  the  interior  were  procured  by  them, 
from  Choco  . .  their  deadly  effect  is  almost  instantaneous.'  Cullen's  Da 
rien,  p.  67.  '  We  inquired  of  all  the  Indians,  both  men  and  boys,  at  Caledo 
nia  Bay  and  at  San  Bias  for  the  "curari"  or  "urari"  poison. . .  they  brought 
us  what  they  represented  to  be  the  bona-ftde  poison  . .  It  turned  out  to  be 
nothing  but  the  juice  of  the  manzanillo  del  play  a.  So,  if  this  is  their  chief 
poison,  and  is  the  same  as  the  "curari,"  it  is  not  so  much  to  be  dreaded.' 
Selfridae's  Darien  Surveys,  pp.  136-7.  See  further,  Fitz-lioy,  in  Lond.  Geog. 
So'c.,  Jour.,  vol.  xx.,  p.  164;  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  i.,  lib.  vii.,  cap.  xvi.; 
Michler's  Darien,  p.  77;  Dawpier's  Voyages,  vol.  i.,  p.  41. 

^Acosta,  N.  Granada,  p.  6;  Gomara,  Ilixt.  Ind.,  fol.  88;  Carli,  Cartas, 
pt  i.,  p.  17.  '  Traian  susc-oseletes  fechos  de  algodon,  que  les  llegaban  e  aba- 
xuban  de  las  espaldas  dellos,  e  les  llegaban  a  las  rodilbis  e  deride  abaxo,  e  las 
mangas  fasta  los  codos,  e  tan  gruesos  como  un  colchou  de  cama,  son  tan 
fuertes,  queuua  ballesta  no  lospasa.'  Pacheco,  Col.  Doc.  Ined.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  516. 


764  WILD  TKIBES  OF  CENTKAL  AMERICA. 

cious  courage.  Throughout  Darien  it  is  customary  to 
place  sentinels  at  night  in  the  highest  houses  of  the 
towns,  to  keep  watch  and  give  warning  of  the  approach 
of  an  enemy.  At  the  commencement  of  a  campaign, 
chiefs  and  captains  experienced  in  war  are  nominated 
by  the  head  of  the  tribe,  to  lead  the  men  in  battle  and 
conduct  the  operations ;  they  wear  certain  insignia,  so 
as  to  be  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the  men,  lofty 
plumes  on  the  head,  and  a  quantity  of  golden  orna 
ments  and  jewels,  besides  which  they  are  painted  in  a 
different  style.  All,  however,  adorn  themselves  when 
going  to  battle,  with  a  profusion  of  necklaces,  bracelets, 
and  golden  corselets.  The  men  are  cheered  on  to  battle 
and  encouraged  during  the  fight  by  the  blowing  of  large 
shells  and  the  beating  of  drums.  In  the  province  of 
Cueba,  women  accompany  the  men,  fighting  by  their 
side  and  sometimes  even  leading  the  van.  The  action 
is  commenced  with  the  slings  and  estoricas,  but  they 
soon  meet  at  close  quarters,  when  the  heavy  wooden 
swords  and  javelins  are  brought  into  use.  Certain  rules 
and  military  regulations  are  observed  whereby  the  brave 
are  rewarded,  and  offenders  against  military  discipline 
punished.  Nobility  is  conferred  on  him  who  is  wounded 
in  war,  and  he  is  further  rewarded  with  lands,  with 
some  distinguished  woman,  and  with  military  command ; 
he  is  deemed  more  illustrious  than  others,  and  the  son 
of  such  a  father,  following  the  profession  of  arms,  may 
inherit  all  the  father's  honors.  He  who  disobeys  the 
orders  of  his  chief  in  battle  is  deprived  of  his  arms, 
struck  with  them,  and  driven  from  the  settlement.  All 
booty  is  the  property  of  him  who  captured  it.  The 
prisoner  is  the  slave  of  the  captor ;  he  is  branded  on  the 
face  and  one  of  his  front  teeth  knocked  out.  The  Caribs, 
however,  used  to  kill  and  eat  .their  prisoners.  Wafer 
mentions  that  upon  some  occasions,  he  who  had  'killed 
an  enemy  cut  off  his  own  hair  as  a  distinguishing  mark 
of  triumph,  and  painted  himself  black,  continuing  so 
painted  until  the  first  new  moon.63 

63  '  Cuando  iban  a  la  guerra  llevaban  coronas  de  oro  en  las  cabezas  y  unas 


ISTHMIAN  DISHES  AND  IMPLEMENTS.  765 

The  Isthmians  sleep  in  hammocks,  often  beautifully 
made,  and  suspended  between  two  trees  or  upright  posts. 
Owing  to  the  material  of  which  they  are  composed  they 
are  exceedingly  cool  and  well  adapted  to  the  climate. 
Gourds,  calabashes,  and  cocoa-nut  shells  are  employed 
for  water-bowls  and  drinking-cups.  Their  other  house 
hold  utensils  consist  of  earthen  jars,  flint  knives,  stone 
hatchets  and  boxes  ingeniously  made  of  palm-leaves, 
and  covered  with  deer  or  other  skins.  Drums  of  differ 
ent  sizes,  some  very  large,  others  small,  are  made  of  the 
hollow  trunk  of  a  tree  covered  at  the  ends  with  deer's  hide. 
Those  of  the  largest  size  are  kept  at  the  chiefs  residence 
or  at  the  town-house.  Hammocks  are  made  of  finely 
woven  cloth,  or  more  frequently  of  plaited  grass  of 
various  colors  and  curiously  ornamented.  Wooden  mor 
tars,  made  from  the  knotty  part  of  a  tree,  are  used  to 
pound  yucca,  from  which  they  make  their  cassava.  The 
metate  or  rubbing-stone  is  also  in  use  among  them. 
They  have  nets  of  different  kinds  for  both  fishing  and 
hunting.  At  night,  as  a  light  for  their  dwellings  they 
use  torches  made  from  palm-wood  dipped  in  oil  and 
beeswax.  The  lords  and  principal  men  of  the  provinces 
of  Darien  and  Uraba  are  reputed  to  have  drunk  from 
golden  cups  of  rich  and  beautiful  workmanship.  Peter 
Martyr  gives  an  account  of  golden  trumpets  and  a  great 
number  of  bells  found  by  the  Spaniards  in  a  town  situ 
ated  on  the  River  Dabaiba  (Atrato).  The  bells  were 
used  at  ceremonies  and  festivals,  giving  forth  a  sweet 
and  pleasant  sound ;  the  tongues  or  clappers  were  beau 
tifully  made,  of  fish-bones.  In  another  part  of  the 
country,  on  the  gulf  of  Uraba,  says  Peter  Martyr,  as 
rendered  by  the  ancient  translator:  " They  founde  also  a 

patenas  grandes  en  los  pechos  y  braceletes  y  otras  joyas  en  otros  lugares  del 
cuerpo.'  Las  Casas,  Hist.  Apologetica,  MS.,  cap.  Ixv.,  ccxliv.  '  El  herido  en 
la  guerra  es  hidalgo,  y  goza  de  grandes  franquezas.'  Gomara,  Hist,  Ind.,  fol. 
88.  'A  los  que  pueden  matar  maiaii,  e  a  los  que  prenden  los  hierran  e  se 
sirven  dellos  por  esclavos.'  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  129,  126.  See 
further:  Quintana,  Vidas  Espanoles  (Balboa),  p.  8;  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen., 
dec.  ii.,  lib.  iii.,  cap.  v.;  Andacjoya,  in  Navarrete,  Col  deViages,  torn,  iii., 
pp.  399,  403,  412;  Peter  Martyr,  dec.  iii.,  lib.  iv.,  dec.  viii.,  lib.  \iii.;  Wafer's 
New  Voy.,  p.  133. 


766  WILD  TKIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMEEICA. 

great  multitude  of  shetes,  made  of  the  silke  or  cotton  of 
the  gossampine  tree:  likewise  diuers  kindes  of  vessels 
and  tooles  made  of  wood,  and  many  of  earth:  also  many 
brest  plates  of  gold,  and  ouches  wrought  after  their  man 


ner." 


They  manufacture  strong  cords  from  the  bark  of  the 
mahoe-tree,  which  is  taken  off  in  long  strips,  beaten  with 
sticks,  cleaned,  and  then  twisted.  A  finer  description 
of  thread  is  made  from  a  species  of  pita,  of  which  the 
leaves  undergo  a  somewhat  similar  process  in  prepara 
tion  as  flax,  being  steeped  in  water  for  several  days,  then 
dried  in  the  sun  and  afterwards  beaten,  producing  fine 
silky  threads,  from  which  their  hammocks  and  finer 
kinds  of  nets  for  catching  small  fish  are  made.  From 
the  same  plant  they  make  excellent  baskets  and  mat 
ting;  the  materials  are  first  dyed  in  different  colors, 
prettily  mixed  and  woven  together  so  closely  as  to  hold 
water.  They  are  of  a  soft  texture  and  exceedingly  du 
rable.  The  Dorachos  are  famed  for  the  manufacture  of 
pottery,  water-bottles,  and  other  household  utensils,  ele 
gantly  shaped  and  prettily  painted.  Cotton  cloths  are 
woven  by  women,  and  considering  the  rude  and  simple 
implements  they  work  with,  the  fineness  of  texture  and 
blending  of  colors  present  a  marvel  of  skill  and  patience. 
The  process  of  weaving  is  thus  described  by  Wafer: 
"The  Women  make  a  Roller  of  Wood,  about  three  Foot 
long,  turning  easily  about  between  two  Posts.  About 
this  they  place  Strings  of  Cotton,  of  3  or  4  yards  long, 
at  most,  but  oftner  less,  according  to  the  use  the  Cloth 
is  to  be  put  to,  whether  for  a  Hammock,  or  to  tie  about 
their  Waists,  or  for  Gowns,  or  for  Blankets  to  cover 
them  in  their  Hammocks,  as  they  lie  in  them  in  their 

64  '  La  mania  de  la  hamaca  no  es  hecha  red,  sino  entera  e  muy  gentil  tela 
delgada  e  ancha . . .  Hay  otras,  que  la  manta  es  de  paja  texida  e  de  colores  e 
labores.'  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  131,  130,  138,  142,  181.  'Muy 
bneuas  redes  con  anzuelos  de  hueso  que  hacen  de  concha  de  tortuga.'  Vega, 
Hist.  Descub.  Amer.,  p.  145.  'Teniaii  los  Reyes  y  Senores  ricos  y  senalados 
vasos  con  que  bebian.'  Las  Casas,  Hist.  Apolof/etica,  MS.,  cap.  Ixv.  Com 
pare  further:  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  i.,  lib.  vii.,  cap.  xvi.,  lib.  ix.,  cap. 
i.,  dec.  ii.,  lib.  ii.,  cap.  i.;  Peter  Martyr,  dec.  ii.,  lib.  i.,  dec.  vii.,  lib.  x.; 
Jfichler's  Darien,  pp.  66,  77;  Meyer,  Nach  dem  Sacramento,  pp.  21-2. 


ISTHMIAN  BOATS  AND  NAVIGATION.  767 

Houses;  which  are  all  the  Uses  they  have  for  Cloth: 
And  they  never  weave  a  piece  of  Cotton  with  a  design 
to  cut  it,  but  of  a  size  that  shall  just  serve  for  the  partic 
ular  use.  The  Threads  thus  coming  from  the  Roller  are 
the  Warp;  and  for  the  Woof,  they  twist  Cotton -yarn 
about  a  small  piece  of  J/acaw-wood,  notch 'd  at  each  end; 
And  taking  up  every  other  Thread  of  the  Warp  with  the 
Fingers  of  one  Hand,  they  put  the  Woof  through  with 
the  other  Hand,  and  receive  it  out  on  the  other  side: 
and  to  make  the  Threads  of  the  Woof  lie  close  in  the 
Cloth,  they  strike  them  at  every  turn  with  a  long  and 
thin  piece  of  J/ocattf-wood  like  a  Ruler,  which  lies  across 
between  the  Threads  of  the  Warp  for  that  purpose."65 

The  canoes  and  rafts  of  the  Isthmians  are  admirably 
adapted  to  the  navigation  of  their  rivers  and  gulfs, 
and  the  men  who  manage  them  are  skillful  boatmen. 
The  canoes  vary  in  size;  some  are  dug  out  from  the 
single  trunk  of  a  tree,  others  are  constructed  of  bark. 
The  largest  are  thirty-five  feet  in  length  by  three  in 
breadth,  and  are  capable  of  carrying  many  persons,  besides 
a  considerable  amount  of  cargo.  They  are  so  lightly 
built  that  little  difficulty  is  experienced  in  passing  them 
over  obstructions,  and  those  of  smaller  size  are  often  car 
ried  on  the  head.  They  draw  very  little  water,  and  are 
propelled  with  paddles  by  two  persons,  one  in  the  stern, 
the  other  in  the  bow.  When  passing  over  rapids,  palancas, 
or  poles,  are  used,  with  crotchets  attached,  which  answer 
the  purpose  of  a  boat-hook  in  laying  hold  of  the  bank 
or  overhanging  branches  of  trees,  where  the  depth  of 
water  prevents  the  pole  reaching  the  bottom.  The  rafts 
are  made  from  an  exceedingly  light  and  soft  timber 
similar  to  cork- wood.  Three  or  four  logs  are  bound  to- 

65  Laet,  Novus  Orbis,  p.  348;  Seemann's  Voy.  Herald,  vol.  i.,  p.  320;  Pirn 
a^d  Seemann's  Dotlings,  p.  29;  Cockburn's  Journey,  pp.  172-3,  243-4;  Wafer's 
We  10  Voy.,  pp.  92-4,  100-2.  Referring  to  Chiriqui  earthen  relics;  'The 
vessels. . .  .are  neatly  and  sometimes  very  gracefully  formed  of  clay. . .  .Sev 
eral  bear  resemblance  to  Roman,  Grecian,  and  Etruscan  jars;. .  .Dr.  Merritt 
mentioned  that  the  natives  of  the  Isthmus  now  make  their  rude  earthen 
utensils  of  a  peculiar  black  earth,  which  gives  them  the  appearance  of 
iron.'  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  176.  In  Veragua  'vide  sabanas  grandes  de 
algodon,  labradas  de  muy  sotiles  labores;  otras  pintadas  muy  sutilmente  a 
colores  con  pinceles.'  Colon,  in  Navarrete,  Col.  de  Viages,  torn,  i.,  p.  308. 


768  WILD  TKIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

gether  with  ropes  and  across  them  are  laid  smaller  tim 
bers  of  the  same  wood,  fastened  down  with  hard  wooden 
pegs  that  are  easily  driven  through.  The  rafts  are  chiefly 
employed  for  fishing  or  crossing  large  rivers.  Canoes 
are,  however,  quite  as  frequently  used  for  fishing  pur 
poses:60 

The  native  products  are  gold,  pearls,  tortoise-shell, 
ivory-nuts,  cacao,  caoutchouc,  corozo-nuts,  cocoa-nuts, 
dried  venison,  lard,  and  deer-skins ;  these  are  offered  in 
considerable  quantities  to  foreigners,  and  in  exchange 
they  receive  salt  and  ironware,  besides  various  trinkets 
and  such  domestic  utensils  as  they  are  in  need  of.  The 
value  of  the  pearls  was  lessened  on  account  of  their 
practice  of  throwing  oysters  into  the  fire  in  order  to 
open  them,  which  partially  destroyed  their  lustre.  The 
natives  of  the  coast  carry  into  the  interior  dried  fish  and 
salt,  which  they  barter  for  gold  dust  and  other  products. 
At  Pueblo  Nuevo  sarsaparilla  forms  a  principal  article 
of  trade.  The  native  traders  are  very  shrewd,  and  as 
a  rule  practice  fair  dealing.  On  his  march  through  the 
country,  Yasco  Nunez  de  Balboa  found  the  people  in 
possession  of  large  quantities  of  gold,  jewelry,  and  pearls. 
Everywhere  along  his  route  he  received  presents  of  gold ; 
indeed,  in  some  places  he  found  this  metal  in  greater 
abundance  than  food.67 

The  streams  of  this  region  are  subject  to  frequent 
swellings,  caused  by  heavy  rains.  After  the  subsiding 

C6  '  En  estas  islas  de  Chara  e  Pocosi  no  tienen  canoas,  sino  balsas' ....  In 
the  Province  of  Cueba  '  tienen  canoas  pequenas,  tambien  las  usan  grandes 
. . .  .hay  canoa  quo  lleva  dinqtienta  6  sessenta  hombres  e  mas.'  Ovicdo,  Hist. 
Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  110,  159.  See  also:  Michler's  Darien,  pp.48,  66-7;  Wafer's 
New  Voy.,  p.  96;  Montanus,  Nienwe  Weereld,  p.  67;  and  Dapper,  Neue  Welt, 
p.  75;  Puydl,  in  Land.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxviii.,  p.  99;  Acosta,  N. 
Granada,  p.  43. 

e?  Gomara,  Hist.  Ind.,  fol.  74,  88;  Balboa,  in  Navarrete,  Col.de  Viages, 
torn,  iii.,  pp.  384-5;  Peter  Martyr,  dec.  viii.,  lib.  vi.;  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec. 
i.,  lib.  vii.,  cap.  xvi.,  lib.  x.,  cap.  iii.;  Belcher's  Voyage,  vol.  L,  p.  250; 
Selfridge's  Darien  Surveys,  pp.  10-11;  Puydi,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol. 
xxxviii.,  p.  99;  Gisborne's  Darien,  p.  154;  Otis'  Panama,  p.  77;  Cullen's  Da 
rien,  pp.  65-6.  '  Qtiando  los  indios  no  tienen  guerra,  todo  su  exercicjio  es 
tractur  e  trocar  quarito  tienen  unos  con  otros. . .  .unos  llevan  sal,  otros  mahiz, 
otro^  mantas,  otros  hamucas,  otros  algodon  hilado  d  por  hilar,  otros  pesca- 
dos  salados;  otros  llevaii  oro.'  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  140,  torn,  ii., 
p.  340. 


AKTS  AND  GOVERNMENT.  769 

of  these  floods,  the  natives  procure  gold  from  the  river 
beds;  they  also  burn  the  grass  in  the  mountains  and 
pick  up  the  metal  left  exposed  on  the  surface  in  large 
quantities.  In  the  district  of  Yeragua  and  in  Darien 
they  have  workers  in  gold,  crucibles  for  melting  metals, 
and  implements  of  silversmiths.  They  understand  the 
alloying  of  gold,  from  which  they  make  vases  and  many 
kinds  of  ornaments  in  the  shape  of  birds  and  different 
varieties  of  animals.  The  relics  which  from  time  to 
time  have  been  exhumed  in  Chiriqui  and  other  parts  of 
the  Isthmus,  prove  that  the  natives  had  an  excellent 
knowledge  of  the  art  of  working  and  also  of  sculpturing 
in  gold  and  stone.  Painting  and  glazing  on  jars  and 
other  descriptions  of  pottery  was  an  art  in  which  the 
men  of  Chiriqui  were  famous.68  The  Isthmians  possessed 
only  a  very  slight  knowledge  of  the  computation  of  time. 
They  calculate  the  hour  of  the  day  by  the  height 
of  the  sun  in  the  heavens,  and  have  no  division  of  time 
into  years,  months,  or  weeks.  Their  enumeration  is 
limited  to  twenty,  and  beyond  that  they  count  by  twen 
ties  to  one  hundred ;  their  knowledge  of  numbers  does 
not  go  further.69 

In  the  provinces  of  Cueba,  Cornagre,  and  other  parts 
of  Darien  the  eldest  son  succeeded  to  the  government 
upon  the  death  of  his  father.  As  soon  as  the  funeral 
ceremonies  were  over,  the  heir  received  the  congratula 
tions  of  the  attendant  nobles,  the  highest  and  most  aged 
of  whom  conducted  him  to  a  chamber  and  laid  him  in  a 
hammock.  His  subjects  then  came  to  offer  their  sub 
mission  accompanied  with  presents,  which  consisted  of 
large  stores  of  edibles  and  fruits  of  every  kind.  They 

68  « Este  cacique  Davaive  tiene  grand  fundicion  de  oro  en  su  casa;  tiene 
cient  hombres  a  la  contina  que  labran  oro.'  Balboa,  in  Navarrete,  Col.  de 
Viages,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  364-5.     '  Hay  grandes  mineros  de  cobre:  hachas  de 
ello,  otras  cosas  labradas,  fundidas,  soldadas  hube,  y  fraguas  con  todo  su 
aparejo  de  platero  y  los  crisoles.'  Colon,  in  Id.,  torn,  i.,  p.  308.     In  Panama, 
'graiides  Entalladores,  y  Pintores.'  Ddvila,    Teatro  Edes.,  torn,  ii.,  fol.  56. 
Compare  further:  Benzoni,  Hist.  Mondo  Nuovo,  fol.  88;  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen., 
dec.  ii.,  lib.  ii.,  cap.  x.;  Pirn  and  Seemann's  Dottings,  pp.  29-30;  Peter  Mar 
tyr,  dec.  iii.,  lib.  iv.;  Bidwett's  Isthmus,  p.  37. 

69  Wafer's  New  Voy.,  pp.  178-86;  Lussan,  Jour,  du  Voy.,  p.  46;  Puydt,> 
in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxviii.,  p.  99. 

Vol.  I.    49 


770  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

greeted  him  with  triumphal  songs  in  which  they  re 
counted  the  deeds  of  his  ancestors,  as  well  as  those  of 
other  lords  of  the  land,  telling  him  who  were  his  friends 
and  who  his  enemies.  Much  wine  was  consumed  and 
the  rejoicing  lasted  several  days.  Afterwards  ambassa 
dors  were  dispatched  to  inform  all  the  neighboring 
caciques  of  the  new  accession,  desiring  their  good  will 
and  friendship  for  the  future.  In  the  province  of  Pana 
ma  upon  the  death  of  the  lord,  the  eldest  brother  suc 
ceeded  him,  and  if  there  were  no  brothers  the  succession 
went  to  a  nephew  by  the  sister's  side.  The  chiefs  held  un 
disputed  authority  over  their  people  and  were  implicitly 
obeyed.  They  received  no  tribute  but  required  personal 
service  for  house-building,  hunting,  fishing,  or  tilling 
the  ground ;  men  so  employed  were  fed  and  maintained 
by  the  chief.  In  Cueba  the  reigning  lord  was  called 
quebi,  in  other  parts  he  was  called  tiba.  The  highest  in 
rank  after  the  tiba  had  the  title  of  sacos,  who  commanded 
certain  districts  of  the  country.  Piraraylos  were  nobles 
who  had  become  famous  in  war.  Subject  to  the  sacos 
were  the  cobras  who  enjoyed  certain  lands  and  privi 
leges  not  accorded  to  the  common  people.  Any  one 
wounded  in  battle,  when  fighting  in  presence  of  the  tiba, 
was  made  a  cabra  and  his  wife  became  an  espave  or 
principal  woman.  A  constable  could  not  arrest  or  kill 
a  cabra;  this  could  be  done  only  by  the  tiba;  once 
struck  by  the  tiba,  however,  any  person  might  kill  him, 
for  no  sooner  was  he  wounded  by  his  chief  than  his 
title  and  rank  dropped  from  him.  Constables  were 
appointed  whose  duty  it  was  to  arrest  offenders  and 
execute  judgment  on  the  guilty.  Justice  was  adminis 
tered  without  form  by  the  chief  in  person  who  decided 
all  controversies.  The  cases  must  be  stated  truthfully, 
as  the  penalty  for  false  testimony  was  death.  There 
was  no  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  chief.  Theft 
was  punishable  with  death  and  anyone  catching  a  thief 
in  flagrante  delictu,  might  cut  off  the  offender's  hands 
and  hang  them  to  his  neck.  Murder  was  also  punished 
by  death;  the  penalty  for  adultery  was  death  to  both 


PUNISHMENTS  AND  SLAVERY.  771 

parties.  In  Darien,  he  who  defloured  a  virgin  had  a 
brier  thrust  up  his  virile  member,  which  generally 
caused  death.  The  facts  had  to  be  proved  on  oath,  the 
form  of  taking  which  was  to  swear  by  their  tooth.  As 
I  have  said,  a  constable  could  not  arrest  or  kill  a  noble; 
consequently  if  one  committed  a  crime  punishable  with 
death,  the  chief  must  kill  him  with  his  own  hand,  and 
notice  was  given  to  all  the  people  by  beating  the  large 
war  drum  so  that  they  should  assemble  and  witness  the 
execution.  The  chief  then  in  presence  of  the  multitude 
recited  the  offence,  and  the  culprit  acknowledged  the 
justice  of  the  sentence.  This  duty  fulfilled,  the  chief 
struck  the  culprit  two  or  three  blows  on  the  head  with 
a  macana  until  he  fell,  and  if  he  was  not  killed,  any 
one  of  the  spectators  gave  him  the  finishing  stroke. 
Criminals  who  were  executed  were  denied  the  right  of 
burial.  The  -Caribs  had  no  chiefs,  every  man  obeyed 
the  dictates  of  his  own  passions,  unrestrained  by  either 
government  or  laws.70 

Slavery  was  in  force  among  the  various  nations  in 
habiting  the  Isthmus,  and  every  principal  man  retained 
a  number  of  prisoners  as  bondsmen ;  they  were  called 
pacos,  and,  as  I  have  already  mentioned,  were  branded 
or  tattooed  with  the  particular  mark  of  the  owner  on  the 
face  or  arm,  or  had  one  of  their  front  teeth  extracted. 
When  traveling,  the  slaves  had  to  carry  their  lord's 
effects,  and  a  dozen  or  more  were  detailed  to  carry  his 
litter  or  hammock,  which  was  slung  on  a  pole  and  borne 
on  the  shoulders  of  two  men  at  a  time,  who  were  relieved 
at  intervals  by  two  others,  the  change  being  made  without 

?o  '  Besftn  los  pies  al  hijo,  o  sobrino,  que  hereda,  estando  en  la  cama:  que 
vale  tanto  como  juramento,  y  coronacion.'  Gomara,  Hist.  Ind.,  fol.  255-6, 
88.  'Todos  tenian  sus  Reies,  y  Seiiores,  a  quien  obedecian.'  Torquemada, 
Monarq.  Ind.,  tom.ii.,  p.  346.  'Los  hijos  heredauan  a  los  padres,  siendo 
auidos  en  la  principal  muger ....  Los  Caziques  y  senores  eran  muy  tenidos  y 
obedecidos.'  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  i.,  lib.  vii.,  cap.  xvi.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  i., 
cap.  x.  See  also,  Ouiedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  129-30,  142,  156-7;  Quin- 
tana,  Vidasde  Espanoles,  (Balboa  J  p.  9;  Andagoya,  in  Navarrete,  Col.  de  Viac/es, 
torn,  iii.,  p.  399;  Wafer's  New  Voy.,  p.  163;  Dapper,  Neue  Welt,  p.  73;  Wal 
lace,  in  Miscellanea  Curiosa,  vol.  iii.,  p.  418;  Puydt,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc., 
Jour.,  vol.  xxxviii.,  p.  97;  Funnell's  Voyage,  pp.  131-2;  Selfridge's  Darien 
Surveys,  p.  20. 


772  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

stopping.  On  his  march  across  the  Isthmus  in  1513, 
Vasco  Nunez  found  some  negro  slaves  belonging  to  the 
cacique  of  Quarecas,  but  the  owner  could  give  no  infor 
mation  relative  to  them,  except  that  there  were  more  of 
that  .color  near  the  place,  with  whom  they  were  con 
tinually  at  war.71 

Caciques  and  lords  married  as  many  wives  as  they 
pleased.  The  marriage  of  the  first  wife  was  celebrated 
with  a  great  banquet,  at  the  close  of  which  the  bride 
was  handed  over  to  her  husband.  Subsequent  wives 
were  not  married  with  ceremonies  or  rejoicings,  but  took 
the  place  of  concubines,  and  were  subject  to  the  orders 
of  the  first  wife.  The  number  of  wives  was  limited 
only  by  the  wealth  of  the  lord.  Yasco  Nunez  took  pris 
oner  the  cacique  Turnanama  with  all  his  family,  among 
which  were  eighty  wives.  The  children  of  the  first  wife 
were  legitimate,  while  those  of  others  were  bastards  and 
could  not  inherit.  Marriage  was  not  contracted  with 
strangers  or  people  speaking  a  different  language,  and 
the  tiba  and  lords  only  married  with  the  daughters  of 
noble  blood.  Divorces  were  brought  about  by  mutual 
consent  and  for  slight  causes,  and  sometimes  wives  were 
exchanged.  If  a  woman  was  barren,  they  promptly 
agreed  upon  a  separation,  which  took  place  when  the 
woman  had  her  menstrual  period,  in  order  that  there 
might  be  no  suspicion  of  pregnancy.  When  a  maiden 
reached  the  age  of  puberty,  she  was  kept  shut  up,  some 
times  for  a  period  of  two  years.  In  some  parts  of  Da- 
rien,  when  a  contract  of  marriage  was  made,  all  the 
neighbors  brought  presents  of  maize  or  fruits,  and  laid 
them  at  the  door  of  the  bride' s  father ;  when  the  offer 
ings  were  all  made,  each  one  of  the  company  was  given 
a  calabash  of  liquor ;  then  followed  speeches  and  dancing, 
and  the  bridegroom's  father  presented  his  son  to  the 
bride,  and  joined  their  hands;  after  which  the  bride 
was  returned  to  her  father,  who  kept  her  shut  up  in  a 
house  with  him  for  seven  days.  During  that  time  all 

71  Qviedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  8,  126,  129;  Gornara,  Hist.  Ind.,  fol. 
77;  Montanus,  Nieuwe  Weereld,  p,  66;  Dapper,  Neue  Welt,  p.  74. 


FAMILY  KELATIONS  OF  THE  ISTHMIANS.  773 

the  friends  assisted  in  clearing  a  plantation  and  build 
ing  a  house  for  the  couple,  while  the  women  and  chil 
dren  planted  the  ground.  The  seven  days  having 
elapsed,  another  merrymaking  took  place,  at  which  much 
liquor  was  drunk.  The  bridegroom  took  the  precaution 
to  put  away  all  weapons  which  were  hung  to  the  ridge 
pole  of  his  house,  in  order  to  prevent  any  serious  fight 
ing  during  their  drunken  orgies,  which  lasted  several 
days,  or  until  all  the  liquor  was  consumed.  If  a  man  had 
several  wives,  he  often  kept  each  one  in  a  separate 
house,  though  sometimes  they  all  lived  together;  a 
woman  who  was  pregnant  always  occupied  a  house  to 
herself.72  Women  are  easily  delivered,  and  the  young 
infant  is  tied  to  a  board  on  its  back  or  between  two 
pillows,  and  is  kept  so  confined  until  able  to  walk,  the 
board  being  removed  only  to  wash  the  child.  Male 
children  are  early  accustomed  to  the  use  of  weapons,  and 
when  able  to  carry  a  few  provisions  for  themselves,  they 
accompany  their  fathers  on  hunting  expeditions.  Girls 
are  brought  up  to  household  duties,  cooking,  weaving, 
and  spinning.  Prostitution  was  not  infamous;  noble 
ladies  held  as  a  maxim,  that  it  was  plebeian  to  deny  any 
thing  asked  of  them,  and  they  gave  themselves  up  to 
any  person  that  wooed  them,  willingly,  especially  to 
principal  men.  This  tendency  to  licentiousness  carried 
with  it  extremes  in  the  use  of  abortives  whereby  to 
avoid  the  consequence  of  illicit  pleasures,  as  well  that 
they  might  not  be  deprived  of  them,  as  to  keep  their 
breasts  from  softening ;  for,  said  they,  old  women  should 
bear  children,  not  young  ones,  who  have  to  amuse  them 
selves.  Sodomy  was  practiced  by  the  nations  of  Cueba, 

72  Puydt,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxviii.,  p.  98;  Mdcgregor's 
Progress  of  Amer.,  pp.  823-5,  829;  Las  Casas,  Hist.  Apologetica,  MS.,  cap. 
ccxliv.  '  Casauanse  con  hijas  de  sus  hermanas:.  y  los  senores  tenian  muchas 
mugeres.'  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  i.,  lib.  vii.,  cap.  xvi.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  i.,  cap. 
x.  '  De  las  mugeres  principales  de  sus  padres,  y  hermanas  6  hijas  guardan 
que  no  las  tomen  por  mugeres,  porque  lo  tienen  por  malo.'  ^Andagoya,  in 
Navarrete,  Col.  de  Viages,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  402-3.  Of  wives:  'They  may  haue 
as  many  as  they  please,  (excepting  their  kindred,  and  allies)  vnlesse  they  be 
widdowes. . .  .in  someplace  a  widdow  marryeth  the  brother  of  her  former 
husb  md,  or  his  kinsman,  especially  if  hee  left  any  children.'  Peter  Martyr, 
dac.  vii.,  lib.  x  ,  dec.  viii.,  Lb.  viii. 


774  WILD  TEIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMEKICA. 

Careta,  and  other  places.  The  caciques  and  some  of 
the  head  men  kept  harems  of  youths,  who,  as  soon  as 
destined  to  the  unclean  office,  were  dressed  as  women, 
did  women's  work  about  the  house,  and  were  exempt 
from  war  and  its  fatigues.  They  went  by  the  name  of 
camayoas,  and  were  hated  and  detested  by  the  women.73 
Their  public  amusements  were  called  areitos.  a  species 
of  dance  very  nearly  resembling  some  in  the  northern 
provinces  of  Spain.  They  took  place  upon  occasions  of 
a  marriage  or  birth,  or  when  they  were  about  to  go  forth 
on  a  hunting  expedition,  or  at  the  time  of  harvest. 
One  led  the  singing,  stepping  to  the  measure,  and  the 
rest  followed,  imitating  the  leader.  Others  again  en 
gaged  in  feats  of  arms  and  sham  battles,  while  singers 
and  improvisator!  related  the  deeds  of  their  ancestors 
and  historical  events  of  the  nation.  The  men  indulged 
freely  in  fermented  liquors  and  wines,  the  drinking  and 
dancing  lasting  many  hours  and  sometimes  whole  days, 
until  drunk  and  exhausted  they  fell  to  the  ground. 
Actors  in  appropriate  costumes  counterfeited  the  various 
pursuits  of  fishing,  hunting,  and  agriculture,  while  oth 
ers,  in  the  guise  of  jesters  and  fools,  assisted  in  enliven 
ing  the  scene.  Their  principal  musical  instruments 
were  drums  and  small  whistles  made  of  reeds ;  they  had 
also  javelins  with  holes  pierced  in  them  near  the  end, 
so  that  when  cast  into  the  air  a  loud  whistling  noise  was 
produced.74  They  have  various  kinds  of  wines  and 
liquors  both  sweet  and  sour.  One  is  obtained  from  a 

73  The  women  '  observe  their  Husbands  with  a  profound  Respect  and  Duty 
upon  all  occasions;  and  on  the  other  side  their  Husbands  are  very  kind  and 
loving  to  them.     I  never  knew  an  Indian  beat  his  Wife,  or  give  her  any  hard 
Words. . .  .They  seem  very  fond  of  their  Children,  both  Fathers  and  Mothers.' 
Wafer's  New  Voy.,  pp.  156-66.     'Tienen  mancebias  publicas  de  mugeres,  y 
aun  de  hombres  en  muchos  cabos.'  Gomara,   Hist.  Ind.,  fol.  87.     See  also: 
Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  in.,  pp.  18,  20,  133-4;  Quintana,  Vidas  de  Espanoles, 
(Balboa],  pp.  9-10. 

74  '  Pipes,  or  fluites  of  sundry  pieces,  of  the  bones  of  Deere,  and  canes  of 
the  riuer.     They  make  also  little  Drummes  or  Tabers  beautified  with  diuers 
pictures,  they  forme  and  frame  them  also  of  gourdes,  and  of  an  hollo  we  piece 
of  timber  greater  than  a  marines  arme.'  Peter  Martyr,  dec.  viii.,  lib.  viii. 
See  also:  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  127,  130,   137,  156;  Gomara,  Hist. 
Ind.,  fol.  88;  Darien,  Defence  of  the  Scots'  Settlement,  pp.  72-3;   Macgregor's 
Progress  of  Amer.,  pp.  825,  832;   Warburtoris  Darien,   p.  32i;  Las  Casas, 
Hist.  Apologetica,  MS.,  cap.  ccxliii. 


INTOXICATING  LIQUORS.  775 

species  of  palm-tree,  by  tapping  the  trunk  near  the  top, 
and  inserting  a  leaf  into  the  cut.  The  liquor  drawn  off 
soon  ferments,  and  in  two  or  three  days  is  fit  to  drink; 
or  it  is  boiled  with  water  and  mixed  with  spices. 
Another  kind  called  chicha  is  made  from  maize ;  a  quan 
tity  of  the  grain  is  soaked  in  water,  then  taken  out  and 
left  to  sprout,  when  it  is  bruised  and  placed  in  a  large 
vessel  filled  with  water,  where  it  is  allowed  to  remain 
until  it  begins  to  turn  sour.  A  number  of  old  women 
then  collect  and  chew  some  of  the  grain,  which  they 
spit  out  into  large  gourds  until  they  have  a  sufficient 
quantity;  this,  as  soon  as  it  ferments,  is  added  to  the 
water  in  the  vessel,  and  in  a  short  time  the  whole  under 
goes  fermentation.  When  the  liquor  is  done  working  it 
is  drawn  off  from  the  sediment,  and  a  strongly  intoxi 
cating  liquor  is  thus  produced,  which  is  their  favorite 
beverage.  They  have  another  method  of  making  chicha, 
by  boiling  the  sprouted  grain  in  water  till  the  quantity 
is  considerably  reduced;  it  is  then  removed  from  the 
fire  and  left  to  settle  and  cool.  In  two  days  it  becomes 
clear  and  fit  to  drink,  but  after  five  or  six  days  it  begins 
to  acidify  so  that  only  a  moderate  quantity  is  made  at 
a  time.  Different  varieties  of  wines  and  liquors  are 
made  from  dates,  bananas,  pineapples,  and  other  fruits, 
and  we  are  told  that  the  first  Spanish  explorers  of  the 
country  found  large  quantities  of  fermented  liquors 
buried  beneath  the  ground  under  their  house-tree,  be 
cause  if  stored  in  their  houses  the  liquor  became  turbid 
from  constant  agitation.  The  cellar  of  the  king  Coma- 
gre  is  described  as  being  filled  with  great  vessels  of 
earth  and  wood,  containing  wine  and  cider.  Peter  Mar 
tyr,  in  his  account  of  the  visit  of  Yasco  Nunez  and  his 
company  to  the  king,  says  "they  drunke  wines  of  sun 
dry  tastes  both  white  and  black."  Tobacco  is  much 
used  by  the  Isthmians ;  the  natives  of  Costa  Rica  roll 
the  leaf  up  in  the  form  of  a  cigar,  and  tie  it  with  grass 
threads;  they  inhale  the  smoke,  and,  retaining  it  for  a 
short  time,  pass  it  out  through  the  mouth  and  nostrils. 
The  cigar  used  by  the  natives  of  the  isthmus  of  Panama, 


776  WILD  TRIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

is  much  larger.  Mr  Wafer  thus  describes  their  manner 
of  making  and  smoking  it:  "  Laying  two  or  three  Leaves 
upon  one  another,  they  roll  up  all  together  side-ways 
into  a  long  Roll,  yet  leaving  a  little  hollow.  Round  this 
they  roll  other  Leaves  one  after  another,  in  the  same 
manner  but  close  and  hard,  till  the  Roll  be  as  big  as  ones 
Wrist,  and  two  or  three  Feet  in  length.  Their  way  of 
Smoaking  when  they  are  in  Company  together  is  thus : 
A  Boy  lights  one  end  of  a  Roll  and  burns  it  to  a  Coal, 
wetting  the  part  next  it  to  keep  it  from  wasting  too  fast. 
The  End  so  lighted  he  puts  into  his  Mouth,  and  blows 
the  Smoak  through  the  whole  length  of  the  Roll  into 
the  Face  of  every  one  of  the  Company  or  Council,  tho' 
there  be  2  or  300  of  them.  Then  they,  sitting  in  their 
usual  Posture  upon  Forms,  make,  with  their  Hands 
held  hollow  together,  a  kind  of  Funnel  round  their 
Mouchs  and  Noses.  Into  this  they  receive  the  Smoak 
as  'tis  blown  upon  them,  snuffing  it  up  greedily  and 
strongly  as  long  as  ever  they  are  able  to  hold  their 
Breath,  and  seeming  to  bless  themselves,  as  it  were,  with 
the  Refreshment  it  gives  them."  After  eating  heartily, 
more  especially  after  supper,  they  burn  certain  gums 
and  herbs  and  fumigate  themselves  to  produce  sleep.75 
The  Isthmians  are  good  walkers,  their  tread  firm,  but 
light  and  soft  as  a  cat,  and  they  are  exceedingly  active 
in  all  their  movements.  When  traveling  they  are 
guided  by  the  sun,  or  ascertain  their  course  by  observ 
ing  the  bark  of  the  trees;  the  bark  on  the  south  side 
being  always  the  thickest.  When  fatigued  by  travel 
they  scarify  their  legs  with  a  sharpened  reed  or  snakes' 
teeth.  They  are  very  expert  swimmers  and  the  dwell- 

75  In  Comagre,  'vinos  blancos  y  tintos,  hechos  de  mayz,  y  rayzes  de  frutas, 
y  de  cierta  especie  de  palma,  y  de  otras  cosas:  los  quales  vinos  loauan  los  Cas- 
tellanos  quando  los  beuian.'  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  L,  lib.  ix.,  cap.  ii. 
*  Tenia  vna  bodega  con  muchas  cubas  y  tinajas  llenas  de  vino,  hecho  de  grano,  y 
fruta,  bianco,  tinto,  dulce,  y  agrete  de  datiles,  y  arrope.'  Gomara,  Hist.  Ind., 
fol.  73.  '  Hacian  de  maiz  vino  bianco  i  tinto .  .  .  .Es  de  mm  buen  sabor  aun- 
que  como  unos  vinos  bruscos  6  de  gascufi  i.'  Las  Casas,  Hist.  Ind.,  MS.,  torn, 
ii.,  cap.  xxvi.  See  also:  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  136-7,  141-2;  torn, 
iv.,  pp.  96-7;  Montanus,  Nieuwe  Weereld,  pp.  64,  285;  Dapper,  Neue  Welt,  pp. 
71,  321;  Wafer's  New  Voy.,  pp.  87,  102-3,  153-5,  164,  169-70;  Puydt,  in 
Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxviii.,  p.  96. 


ISTHMIAN  SORCERESS.  777 

ers  on  the  coast  pass  much  of  their  time  in  the  water. 
In  salutation  they  turn  their  backs  to  each  other.  No 
one  will  accept  a  gift  from  a  stranger  unless  with  the 
especial  permission  of  the  chief.76 

They  believe  largely  in  spirits  and  divinations,  and 
have  sorcerers  called  places  who  are  held  in  much  re 
spect  and  awe.  The  piaces  profess  to  have  the  power 
of  foretelling  the  future  and  raising  spirits.  When 
putting  in  practice  their  arts  they  retire  to  a  solitary 
place,  or  shut  themselves  up  in  a  house,  where,  with 
loud  cries  and  unearthly  sounds  they  pretend  to  consult 
the  oracle.  Boys  destined  to  be  piaces  are  taken  at  the 
age  often  or  twelve  years  to  be  instructed  in  the  office; 
they  are  selected  for  the  natural  inclination  or  the 
peculiar  aptitude  and  intelligence  which  they  display 
for  the  service.  Those  so  chosen  are  confined  in  a  soli 
tary  place  where  they  dwell  in  company  with  their  in 
structors.  For  two  years  they  are  subjected  to  severe 
discipline,  they  must  not  eat  flesh  nor  anything  having 
life,  but  live  solely  on  vegetables,  drink  only  water,  and 
not  indulge  in  sexual  intercourse.  During  the  probation 
ary  term  neither  parents  nor  friends  are  permitted  to 
see  them ;  at  night  only  are  they  visited  by  professional 
masters,  who  instruct  them  in  the  mysteries  of  the 
necromantic  arts.  In  the  province  of  Cueba  masters  in 
these  arts  are  called  tequincis.  It  is  asserted  of  the  piaces 
that  they  could  foretell  an  eclipse  of  the  moon  three 
months  before  the  time.  The  people  were  much  troubled 
with  witches,  who  were  supposed  to  hold  converse  with 
evil  spirits,  and  inflicted  many  ills  especially  upon  chil 
dren.77 

76  «  Quando  hablan  vno  con  otro,  se  ponen  do  espaldas.'  Colon,  Hist. 
Almirante,  in  Barcia,  Ilistoriadores,  torn,  i.,  p.  Ill;  Wafer's  New  Voy.,  pp. 
177-9. 

K  Gomara,  Hist.  Ind.,  fol.  255;  Pder  Martyr,  dec.  vii.,  lib.  x.,  dec.  viii., 
lib.  viii.;  Wafer's  New  Voy.,  pp.  37-9;  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  ii.,  lib.  iii., 
cap.  v.;  Selfridge's  Darien  Surveys,  pp.  10-11;  Vega,  Hist.*  Descub.  Amer.,  p. 
145.  '  Deste  n ombre  tequina  se  ha^e  mucha  diferenc,ia;  porque  a  qualquiera 
ques  mas  habil  y  experto  en  algun  arte, . . . .  le  Hainan  tequina,  que  quiere 
dec,ir  lo  mesmo  qtie  maestro:  por  manera  que  al  ques  maestro  de  las  respon- 
siones  e  inteligeucias  con  el  diablo,  llamaiile  tequina  en  aquel  arte,  porque 
aqueste  tal  es  el  que  administra  sus  ydolatrfas  e  cerimonias  e  sacrifices,  y  el 


778  WILD  TEIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

The  Isthmians  are  a  healthful  and  long-lived  race. 
The  ills  most  common  to  them  are  fevers  and  venereal 
disease.  The  latter,  as  Oviedo  affirms,  was  introduced 
into  Europe  from  Hayti,  or  Espanola,  where  it  was  prev 
alent  as  well  as  throughout  Tierra  Firme.  This  is  a  sub 
ject  that  has  given  rise  to  much  contention  among 
authors,  but  the  balance  of  testimony  seems  to  indicate 
that  the  venereal  disease  in  Europe  was  not  of  American 
origin,  although  the  disease  probably  existed  in  America 
before  the  coming  of  Europeans.  The  remedies  em 
ployed  by  the  Isthmians  for  the  complaint  were  gua- 
yacan  wood,  and  other  medicinal  herbs  known  to 
them.  They  are  much  troubled  with  a  minute  species 
of  tick-lice  that  cover  their  limbs  in  great  numbers, 
from  which  they  endeavor  to  free  themselves  by  apply 
ing  burning  straw.  Another  insect,  more  serious  in  its 
consequences  and  penetrating  in  its  attacks,  is  the  chegoe, 
or  pulex  penetrans;  it  burrows  under  the  skin,  where  it 
lays  its  eggs,  and  if  not  extracted  will  in  time  increase 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  endanger  the  loss  of  the  limb. 
The  natives  remove  it  with  any  sharp-pointed  instru 
ment.  They  are  liable  to  be  bitten  by  venomous  snakes, 
which  are  numerous  in  the  country  and  frequently  cause 
death.  Whenever  one  is  bitten  by  such  a  reptile,  the 
sufferer  immediately  ties  above  the  wounded  part  a 
ligature  made  from  plants  well  known  to  the  natives, 
and  which  they  usually  carry  with  them ;  this  enables 
him  to  reach  a  village,  where  he  procures  assistance,  and 
by  means  of  herbal  applications  is  often  cured.  Some 
of  them  are  subject  to  a  skin  disease  somewhat  similar 
in  its  appearance  to  ringworm ;  it  spreads  over  the  whole 
body  until  eventually  the  skin  peels  off.  Those  who  are 
thus  afflicted  are  called  carates.  These  people  are  gen 
erally  very  hardy  and  strong,  with  great  powers  of  en 
durance.  The  piaces,  as  medicine-men,  consult  their 

que  habla  con  el  diablo.'  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  p.  127.  'Tenian  6 
habia  entre  estas  gentes  unos  sacerdotes  que  llamaban  en  su  lengua  "Piachas" 
muy  espertos  en  el  arte  magica,  tanto  que  se  revestia  en  ellos  el  Diabolo  y 
hablaba  por  boca  de  ellos  muchas  falsedades,  conque  los  teuia  cautivos.'  Las 
Casas,  Hist.  Apologetica,  MS.,  cap.  ccxlv. 


MEDICAL  PKACTICE.  '   779 

oracles  for  the  benefit  of  all  those  who  require  their 
services.  The  sucking  cure  obtains  in  these  parts  as 
well  as  northward.  When  summoned  to  attend  a  pa 
tient,  if  the  pain  or  disease  is  slight,  the  medicine-man 
takes  some  herbs  in  his  mouth,  and  applying  his  lips  to 
the  part  affected,  pretends  to  suck  out  the  disorder;  sud 
denly  he  rushes  outside  with  cheeks  extended,  and  feigns 
to  spit  out  something,  cursing  and  imprecating  at  the 
same  time;  he  then  assures  his  patient  that  he  has 
effected  a  cure  by  extracting  the  cause  of  the  pain. 
When  the  sickness  is  of  a  more  serious  nature,  more 
elaborate  enchantments  are  enacted,  ending  in  the  prac 
titioner  sucking  it  out  from  the  sick  person's  body,  not, 
however,  without  undergoing  infinite  trouble,  labor,  and 
contortions,  till  at  last  the  piace  thrusts  a  small  stick 
down  his  own  throat,  which  causes  him  to  vomit,  and  so 
he  casts  up  that  which  he  pretends  to  have  drawn  out 
from  the  sufferer.  Should  his  conjurations  and  tricks 
not  prove  effectual,  the  physician  brings  to  his  aid  cer 
tain  herbs  and  decoctions,  with  which  he  is  well 
acquainted;  their  knowledge  of  medicine  is,  however, 
more  extensive  in  the  treatment  of  external  than  of 
internal  diseases.  The  compensation  given  to  the  piace 
is  in  proportion  to  the  gravity  of  the  case,  and  the 
ability  of  the  individual  to  reward  him.  In  cases  of 
fever,  bleeding  is  resorted  to;  their  mode  of  practicing 
phlebotomy  is  peculiar  and  attended  with  much  unneces 
sary  suffering.  The  operator  shoots  a  small  arrow  from 
a  bow  into  various  parts  of  the  patient's  body  until  a 
vein  be  accidentally  opened ;  the  arrow  is  gauged  a  short 
distance  from  the  point  to  prevent  its  penetrating  too 
far.78  Oviedo  tells  us  that  in  the  province  of  Cueba  the 

78  The  priests  '  comunmente  eran  sus  medicos,  e  conosqian  muchas  hier- 
vas,  de  que  usaban,  y  eran  apropriadas  a  diversas  enferinedades.'  Oviedo, 
Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  126,  138-9,  141,  torn,  i.,  pp.  56-7.  'According  to 
the  diners  nature,  or  qualitie  of  the  disease,  they  cure  them  by  diuers  super 
stitions,  and  they  are  diuersly  rewarded.'  Peter  Martyr,  dec.  viii.,  cap.  viii. 
Compare  further;  Gomara,  Hist.  Ind.,  fol.  88;  Las  Casas,  Hist.  Apologetica, 
MS.,  cap.  ccxlv. ;  Wafer's  New  Voy.,  p.  28;  Selfridye's  Darien  Surveys,  p.  10; 
Puydt,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  <7bur.,  vol.  xxxviii.,  p.  9t;  Purchas  his  Pilgrimage, 
vol.  v.,  p.  893. 


780  WILD  TKIBES  OF  CENTRAL  AMEKICA. 

practice  of  sucking  was  carried  on  to  a  fearful  extent, 
and  with  dire  consequences.  The  persons,  men  and 
women,  who  indulged  in  the  habit  were  called  by  the 
Spaniards  chupadores.  They  belonged  to  a  class  of  sor- 
cerersrand  the  historian  says  they  went  about  at  night 
visiting  certain  of  the  inhabitants,  whom  they  sucked  for 
hours,  continuing  the  practice  from  day  to  day.  until 
finally  the  unfortunate  recipients  of  their  attentions  be 
came  so  thin  and  emaciated  that  they  often  died  from 
exhaustion.79 

Among  certain  nations  of  Costa  Rica  when  a  death 
occurs  the  body  is  deposited  in  a  small  hut  constructed 
of  plaited  palm-leaves ;  food,  drink,  as  well  as  the  weap 
ons  and  implements  that  served  the  defunct  during  life 
are  placed  in  the  same  hut.  Here  the  body  is  preserved 
for  three  years,  and  upon  each  anniversary  of  the  death 
it  is  redressed  and  attended  to  amidst  certain  ceremo 
nies.  At  the  end  of  the  third  year  it  is  taken  out  and 
interred.  Among  other  tribes  in  the  same  district,  the 
corpse  after  death  is  covered  with  leaves  and  surrounded 
with  a  large  pile  of  wood  which  is  set  on  fire,  the  friends 
dancing  and  singing  round  the  flames  until  all  is  con 
sumed,  when  the  ashes  are  collected  and  buried  in  the 
ground.  In  Yeragua  the  Dorachos  had  two  kinds  of 
tombs,  one  for  the  principal  men  constructed  with  flat 
stones  laid  together  with  much  care,  and  in  which  were 
placed  costly  jars  and  urns  filled  with  food  and  wines 


79  '  Quedame  de  de<jir  que  en  aquesta  lengiia  de  Cueva  hay  mnclios  ii 
dios  hechiQeros  e  en  especial  un  c,ierto  genero  de  malos,  que  los  chripstiam 


in- 

.    ,  ,   *  ,    tianos 

en  aquella  tierra  Hainan  chupadores. . .  .Estos  chupan  a  otros  hasta  que  los 
secan  e  matin,  e  sin  calentura  alguna  de  dia  en  dia  poco  a  poco  se  enflaques- 
?en  tanto,  que  se  les  pueden  contar  los  huesos,  que  se  les  pares^en  solamente 
cubiertos  con  el  cuero;  y  el  vientre  se  les  resuelve  de  manera  quel  ombligo 
traen  pegado  a  los  lomos  y  espina^o,  e  se  tornan  de  aquella  forma  que  pin- 
tan  a  la  muerte,  sin  pulpa  ni  carne.  Estos  chupadores,  de  noche,  sin  ser 
sentidos,  van  a  ha^er  mal  por  las  casas  agenas :  e  ponen  la  boca  en  el  om 
bligo  de  aquel  que  chupan,  y  estan  en  aquel  exerc^io  una  6  dos  horas 
6  lo  que  les  paresc,e,  teniendo  en  aquel  trabaxo  al  pac,iente,  sin  que  sea  pode- 
roso  de  se  valer  ni  defender,  no  dexando  de  sufrir  su  dano  con  silen^io.  & 
conosc,e  el  assi  ofendido,  e  vee  al  malhechor,  y  aun  les  hablau:  lo  qual,  assi 
los  que  hac^en  este  mal  como  los  que  le  pades<jen,  han  confessado  algunos 
dellos;  e  dicen  questos  chupadores  son  criados  e  naborias  del  tuyra,  y  quel 
se  los  manda  assi  haqer,  y  el  tuyra  es,  como  esta  dicho,  el  diablo.'  Oviedo, 
Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  159-60. 


ISTHMIAN  GRAVES  AND  MOURNING.  781 

for  the  dead ;  those  for  plebeians  were  merely  trenches, 
in  which  were  deposited  with  the  occupant  some  gourds 
of  maize  and  wine  and  the  place  filled  with  stones.  In 
some  parts  of  Panama  and  Darien  only  the  chiefs  and 
lords  received  funeral  rites.  Among  the  common  people 
a  person  feeling  his  end  approaching  either  went  himself 
or  was  led  to  the  woods  by  his  wife,  family,  and  friends, 
who,  supplying  him  with  some  cake  or  ears  of  corn  and 
a  gourd  of  water,  there  left  him  to  die  alone,  or  to  be 
assisted  by  wild  beasts.  Others  with  more  respect  for 
their  dead,  buried  them  in  sepulchres  made  with  niches 
where  they  placed  maize  and  wine  and  renewed  the 
same  annually.  With  some,  a  mother  dying  while  suck 
ling  her  infant,  the  living  child  was  placed  at  her  breast 
and  buried  with  her  in  order  that  in  her  future  state 
she  might  continue  to  nourish  it  with  her  milk.  In 
some  provinces  when  the  cacique  became  sick,  the 
priests  consulted  their  oracles  as  to  his  condition  and  if 
they  received  for  answer  that  the  illness  was  mortal,  one 
half  of  his  jewelry  and  gold  was  cast  into  the  river  as  a 
sacrifice  to  the  god  they  reverenced,  in  the  belief  that 
he  would  guide  him  to  his  final  rest ;  the  other  half  was 
buried  in  the  grave.  The  relatives  of  the  deceased 
shaved  the  head  as  a  sign  of  mourning  and  all  his  weap 
ons  and  other  property  were  consumed  by  fire  in  order 
that  nothing  should  remain  as  a  remembrance  of  him.  In 
Panama,  Nata,  and  some  other  districts,  when  a  cacique 
died,  those  of  his  concubines  that  loved  him  enough, 
those  that  he  loved  ardently  and  so  appointed,  as  well 
as  certain  servants,  killed  themselves  and  were  interred 
with  him.  This  they  did  in  order  that  they  might  wait 
upon  him  in  the  land  of  spirits.  They  held  the  belief 
that  those  who  did  not  accompany  him  then,  would, 
when  they  died  a  natural  death,  lose  the  privilege  of 
being  with  him  afterwards,  and  in  fact  that  their  souls 
would  die  with  them.  The  privilege  of  attending  on 
the  cacique  in  his  future  state  was  believed  to  be  only 
granted  to  those  who  were  in  his  service  during  his  life 
time,  hence  such  service  was  eagerly  sought  after  by 


782  WILD  TBIBES  OF  CENTKAL  AMERICA. 

natives  of  both  sexes,  who  made  every  exertion  to  be 
admitted  as  servants  in  his  house.  At  the  time  of  the 
interment,  those  who  planted  corn  for  him  during  his 
lifetime  had  some  maize  and  an  implement  of  husbandry 
buried,  with  them  in  order  that  they  might  commence 
planting  immediately  on  arrival  in  the  other  world.  In 
Comagre  and  other  provinces  the  bodies  of  the  caciques 
were  embalmed  by  placing  them  on  a  cane  hurdle, 
hanging  them  up  by  cords,  or  placing  them  on  a  stone, 
or  log;  and  round  or  below  the  body  they  made  a  slow 
fire  of  herbs  at  such  a  distance  as  to  dry  it  gradually 
until  only  skin  and  bone  remained.  During  the  process 
of  embalming,  twelve  of  the  principal  men  sat  round  the 
body,  dressed  in  black  mantles  which  covered  their  heads, 
letting  them  hang  down  to  their  feet ;  at  intervals  one 
of  them  beat  a  drum  and  when  he  ceased  he  chanted 
in  monotonous  tones,  the  others  responding.  Day  and 
night  the  twelve  kept  watch  and  never  left  the  body. 
When  sufficiently  dried  it  was  dressed  and  adorned  with 
many  ornaments  of  gold,  jewels,  and  feathers,  and  set 
up  in  an  apartment  of  the  palace  where  were  kept 
ranged  round  the  walls  the  remains  of  his  ancestors, 
each  one  in  his  place  and  in  regular  succession.  In 
case  a  cacique  fell  in  battle  and  his  body  could  not  be 
recovered,  or  was  otherwise  lost,  the  place  he  would 
have  occupied  in  the  row  was  always  left  vacant. 
Among  other  tribes  the  body  after  being  dried  by  fire 
was  wrapped  in  several  folds  of  cloth,  put  in  a  ham 
mock,  and  placed  upon  a  platform  in  the  air  or  in 
a  room.  The  manner  in  which  the  wives,  attendants, 
and  servants  put  themselves  to  death  was,  with  some, 
by  poison;  in  such  case,  the  multitude  assembled  to 
chant  the  praises  of  their  dead  lord,  when  those  who  were 
to  follow  drank  poison  from  gourds,  and  dropped  dead 
instantly.  In  some  cases  they  first  killed  their  children. 
With  others  the  funeral  obsequies  of  a  principal  chief 
were  conducted  differently.  They  prepared  a  large 
grave  twelve  ox  fifteen  feet  square  and  nine  or  ten  feet 
deep;  round  the  sides  they  built  a  stone  bench  and 


FUNERAL  RITES  ON  THE  ISTHMUS.  783 

covered  it  with  painted  cloth ;  in  the  middle  of  the  grave 
they  placed  jars  and  gourds  filled  with  maize,  fruit,  and 
wines,  and  a  quantity  of  flowers.  On  the  bench  was 
laid  the  dead  chief  dressed,  ornamented,  and  jeweled, 
while  around  him  sat  his  wives  gaily  attired  with  ear 
rings  and  bracelets.  All  being  prepared  the  assembled 
multitude  raised  their  voices  in  songs  declaring  the 
bravery  and  prowess  of  the  deceased ;  they  recounted  his 
liberality  and  many  virtues  and  highly  extolled  the 
affection  of  his  faithful  wives  who  desired  to  accompany 
him.  The  singing  and  dancing  usually  lasted  two  days 
and  during  its  continuance  wine  was  freely  served  to  the 
performers  and  also  to  the  women  who  were  awaiting 
their  fate.  At  the  expiration  of  such  time  they  became 
entirely  inebriated  and  in  a  senseless  condition,  when 
the  final  act  was  consummated  by  throwing  dead  and 
doomed  into  the  grave,  and  filling  it  with  logs,  branches, 
and  earth.  The  spot  was  afterwards  held  in  sacred 
remembrance  and  a  grove  of  trees  planted  round  it. 
At  the  end  of  a  year  funeral  honors  were  celebrated  in 
memory  of  the  dead.  A  host  of  friends  and  relatives 
of  equal  rank  with  the  deceased  were  invited  to  partici 
pate,  who  upon  the  day  appointed  brought  quantities  of 
food  and  wine  such  as  he  whose  memory  they  honored 
delighted  in,  also  weapons  with  which  he  used  to  fight, 
all  of  which  were  placed  in  a  canoe  prepared  for  the 
purpose;  in  it  was  also  deposited  an  effigy  of  the  de 
ceased.  The  canoe  was  then  carried  on  men's  shoulders 
round  the  court  of  the  palace  or  house,  in  presence  of 
the  deceased,  if  he  was  embalmed,  and  afterwards 
brought  out  to  the  centre  of  the  town  where  it  was 
burned  with  all  it  contained, — the  people  believing  that 
the  fumes  and  smoke  ascended  to  the  soul  of  the  dead 
and  was  pleasing  and  acceptable  to  him.80  If  the  body 

so  '  Ay  muchos,  que  piensan,  que  no  ay  mas  de  nacer,  y  morir :  y  aquel- 
los  tales  no  se  entierran  con  pan,  y  vino,  ni  con  mugeres,  ni  mocos.  Los  que 
creen  la  immortal idad  del  alma,  se  entierra:  si  son  Senores,  con  oro,  armas, 
plumas,  si  no  lo  son,  con  mayz,  vino,  y  mantas.'  Gomara,  Hist.  Ind.,  fol. 
255,  88.  '  Hums  reguli  penetrale  ingressi  cameram  reperiunt  pensilibus 
repletam  cadaueribus,  gossampinis  funibus  appensis.  Interrogati  quid  sibi 


784  WILD  TKIBES  OF  CENTKAL  AMERICA. 

had  been  interred  they  opened  the  sepulchre ;  all  the 
people  with  hair  disheveled  uttering  loud  lamenting 
cries  while  the  bones  were  being  collected,  and  these 
they  burned  all  except  the  hinder  part  of  the  skull, 
which  was  taken  home  by  one  of  the  principal  women 
and  preserved  by  her  as  a  sacred  relic. 

The  character  of  the  Costa  Ricans  has  ever  been  that 
of  a  fierce  and  savage  people,  prominent  in  which  qual 
ities  are  the  Guatusos  and  Buricas,  who  have  shown 
themselves  strongly  averse  to  intercourse  with  civiliza 
tion.  The  Talamancas  are  a  little  less  untameable, 
which  is  the  best,  or  perhaps  the  worst,  that  can  be  said. 
The  Terrabas,  also  a  cruel  and  warlike  nation,  are  nev 
ertheless  spoken  of  by  Fray  Juan  Domingo  Arricivita 
as  endowed  with  natural  docility.  The  natives  of  Boca 
del  Toro  are  barbarous  and  averse  to  change.  In  Chi- 
riqui  they  are  brave  and  intelligent,  their  exceeding 
courage  having  obtained  for  them  the  name  of  Valientes 
or  Indios  Bravos  from  the  early  discoverers;  they  are 
also  noted  for  honesty  and  fair  dealing.  The  same  war 
like  and  independent  spirit  and  fearlessness  of  death  pre 
vails  among  the  nations  of  Yeragua.  Panama,  and 
Darien.  The  inhabitants  of  Panama  and  Cueba  are 
given  to  lechery,  theft,  and  lying ;  with  some  these  qual 
ities  are  fashionable;  others  hold  them  to  be  crimes. 
The  Mandingos  and  natives  of  San  Bias  are  an  inde 
pendent  and  industrious  people,  possessing  considerable 
intelligence,  and  are  of  a  docile  and  hospitable  disposi- 

uellet  ea  superstitio :  parentum  esse  et  auorum  atanorumque  Comogri  regul- 
ea  cadauera,  inquiunt.  De  quibus  seruandis  maxiinam  esse  apud  eos  curami 
et  pro  religione  earn  pietatem  haberi  recensent:  pro  cuiusque  gradu  indu, 
menta  cuique  cadaueri  imposita,  auro  gemmisque  superintexta.'  Peter  Mar 
tyr,,  dec.  ii.,  lib.  iii.,  dec.  iii.,  lib.  iv.,  dec.  vii.,  lib.  x.,  dec.  viii.,  lib.  ix. 
4  Viendo  la  cantidad  e  numero  de  los  muertos,  se  conosce  que  tantos  senores 
ha  avido  en  aquel  Estado,  e  qual  fue  hijo  del  otro  6  le  sub(jedio  en  el  sefiorio 
segund  la  orden  sub^esiva  en  que  estan  puestos.'  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn, 
iii.,  pp.  155-6,  142.  For  further  accounts  see  Wagner  and  Scherzer,  Costa 
Rica,  pp.  556,  560;  Cockburn's  Journey,  p.  183;  Seemann's  Voy.  Herald,  vol. 
i.,  pp.  314,  316,  319;  Pirn  and  Seemann's  Dottings,  p.  30;  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen., 
dec.  i.,  lib.  vii.,  cap.  xvi.,  lib.  ix.,  cap.  ii.,  dec.  ii.,  lib.  iii.,  cap.  v.,  dec.  iv., 
lib.  i.,  cap.  xi.;  Quintana,  Vidas  de  Espailoles,  (BalboaJ  p. 10;  Andagoya,  in 
Navarrete,  Col.  deViages,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  401-2;  Carli,  Cartas,  pt  i.,  pp.  105-6; 
Las  Casas,  Hist.  Apologetica,  MS.,  cap.  ccxlii.,  ccxlvii.;  Purchas  His  Pil- 
grimes,  vol.  v.,  p.  894. 


ISTHMIAN  CHARACTEK.  785 

tion.  The  inhabitants  of  Darien  are  kind,  open-hearted, 
and  peaceable,  yet  have  always  been  resolute  in  oppos 
ing  all  interference  from  foreigners;  they  are  fond  of 
amusements  and  inclined  to  indolence;  the  latter  trait 
is  not,  however,  applicable  to  all,  a  noticeable  exception 
being  the  Cunas  and  Chocos  of  the  Atrato  Valley,  who 
are  of  a  gentle  nature,  kind,  hospitable,  and  open- 
hearted  when  once  their  confidence  is  gained  ;  they  are 
likewise  industrious  and  patient,  and  M.  Lucien  de  Puydt 
says  of  the  former:  "Theft  is  altogether  unknown 
amongst  the  Cunas."  Colonel  Alcedo,  speaking  of  their 
neighbors,  the  Idibaes,  calls  them  treacherous,  incon 
stant,  and  false.  In  the  interior  and  mountain  districts 
the  inhabitants  are  more  fierce  than  those  from  the  coast  ; 
the  former  are  shy  and  retiring,  yet  given  to  hospitality. 
On  the  gulf  of  Uraba  the  people  are  warlike,  vainglori 
ous,  and  revengeful.81 

Thus  from  the  icy  regions  of  the  north  to  the  hot  and 
humid  shores  of  Darien  I  have  followed  these  Wild 
Tribes  of  the  Pacific  States,  with  no  other  object  in 
view  than  faithfully  to  picture  them  according  to  the 
information  I  have  been  able  to  glean.  And  thus  I 
leave  them,  yet  not  without  regret  :  for  notwithstanding 
all  that  has  been  said  I  cannot  but  feel  how  little  we 
know  of  them.  Of  their  mighty  unrecorded  past,  their 
interminable  intermixtures,  their  ages  of  wars  and  con 
vulsions,  their  inner  life,  their  aspirations,  hopes,  and 

si  The  Terrabas  'naciones  ____  las  mas  bravas  e*  inddmitas  de  todas  ---- 
Indies  dotados  de  natural  docilidad  y  dulzura  de  gemo.'Arricivita,  Cronica 
Serdfica,  p.  19.  Speaking  of  the  natives  of  Panama;  'muy  denotes  del  tra- 
bajo,  y  enemigos  de  la  ociosidad.'  Ddvila,  Teatro  Ecles.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  56. 
Darien:  'Son  inclinados  a  juegos  y  hurtos,  son  muy  haraganes.'  Gomara, 
Hist.  Ind.,  fol.  88.  San  Bias  tribes:  'They  are  very  peaceable  in  their  na 
tures'  ____  Chucunas  and  Navigandis:  'The  most  warlike'.  .  .  Coast  tribes, 
'from  contact  with  foreigners,  are  very  docile  and  tractable'.  .  .  .The  Sassar- 
dis:  '  As  a  whole,  this  tribe  are  cowardly,  but  treacherous.'  Self  ridge's  Darien 
Surveys,  pp.  10-11,  36.  Compare  further,  Froebel's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  24;  Squier, 
in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1856,  torn,  cli.,  p.  6;  Boyle's  Ride,  vol.  i.,  pref., 
p.  xii.;  Wagner  and  Scherzer,  Costa  Rica,  p.  557;  Gage's  Neio  Survey,  p.  426; 
Michler's  Darien,  p.  26;  Alcedo,  Dice.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  413;  Puydt,  in  Lcmd.  Geog. 
Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxviii.,  p.  96;  Macgregor's  Progress  of  Amer.,  p.  81"  0;  Otis' 
Panama,  p.  77;  (Mien's  Darien,  pp.  65-0,  68-9. 
V 


OL.  I.    50 


786  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

fears,  how  little  do  we  .know  of  all  this!  And  now  as 
the  eye  rests  upon  the  fair  domain  from  which  they 
have  been  so  ignobly  hurried,  questions  like  these  arise: 
How  long  have  these  baskings  and  battlings  been  going 
on?  What  purpose  did  these  peoples  serve?  Whence 
did  they  come  and  whither  have  they  gone? — questions 
unanswerable  until  Omniscience  be  fathomed  and  the 
beginning  and  end  made  one. 


TBIBAL    BOUNDARIES. 

The  WILD  TRIBES  OP  CENTRAL  AMERICA,  the  last  groupal  division  of  this 
"work,  extend  from  the  western  boundary  of  Guatemala,  south  and  eastward, 
to  the  Rio  Atrato.  I  have  divided  the  group  into  three  subdivisions,  namely: 
the  Guatemalans,  the  Mosquitos,  and  the  Isthmians. 

The  GUATEMALANS,  for  the  purposes  of  this  delineation,  embrace  those 
nations  occupying  the  present  states  of  Guatemala,  Salvador,  and  portions 
of  Nicaragua. 

The  Lacandones  are  a  wild  nation  inhabiting  the  Chammd  mountains  on 
the  boundary  of  Guatemala  and  Chiapas.  '  Mountains  of  Chamma,  inhab 
ited  by  the  wild  Indians  of  Lacanddn ....  a  distinction  ought  to  be  drawn 
between  the  Western  and  Eastern  Lacandones.  All  the  country  lying  on  the 
W.,  between  the  bishopric  of  Ciudad  Real  and  the  province  of  Vera  Paz, 
'was  once  occupied  by  the  Western  Lacandones. . .  .The  country  of  the  Eastern 
Lacandones  may  be  considered  as  extending  from  the  mountains  of  Chamma, 
a  day  and  a  half  from  Coban,  along  the  borders  of  the  river  de  la  Pasion  to 
Peten,  or  even  further.'  Escobar,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xi.,  pp.  93- 
•4.  Upon  the  margin  of  the  Rio  de  la  Passion.  Juarros'  Hist.  Guat.,  p. 
271.  'TJn  tribu  de  Mayas  sauvages  appeles  Lacandons,  qui  habitent  un  dis 
trict  immense  dans  le  centre  du  continent,  embrasse  toute  la  partie  occiden- 
tale  du  Peten;  erre  sur  les  bords  superieurs  de  I'llsumasinta  et  le  pays  qui  se 
trouve  au  sud  de  1'endroit  d'ou  j'ecris.'  Galindo,  in  Antiq.  Mex.,  torn,  i.,  div. ii., 
p. 67.  '  The  vast  region  lying  between  Chiapa,  Tabasco,  Yucatan,  and  the  re 
public  of  Guatemala ...  is  still  occupied  by  a  considerable  body  of  Indians, 
the  Lacandones  and  others.'  Squier,  in  Hist.  Mag.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  65.  '  The  vast 
region  embracing  not  less  than  from  8000  to  10,000  square  miles,  surround 
ing  the  upper  waters  of  the  river  Usumasinta,  in  which  exist  the  indomitable 
Lacandones."  Id.,  p.  67.  'Mais  la  contre'e  qui  s'etendait  au  nord  de  Caha- 
bon,  siege  provisoire  des  Dominicains,  et  qui  comprenait  le  pays  de  Dolores 
•et  celui  des  Itzas,  etait  encore  a  peupres  inconnue.  La  vivaient  les  Choles, 
les  belliqueux  et  feroces  Mopans,  les  Lacandons  et  quelques  tribus  plus  ob 
scures,  dont  1'histoire  a  neglige  les  noms.-'  Morelet,  Voyage,  torn,  ii.,  p. 
78,  torn,  i.,  p.  318.  'They  are  reduced  to-day  to  a  very  insignificant 
number,  living  on  and  near  Passion  river  and  its  tributaries.'  Berendt,  in 
Smithsonian  Kept.,  1867,  p.  425.  'In  the  north  of  Vera  Paz,  to  the  west  of 
Peten,  and  all  along  the  Usumacinta,  dwell  numerous  and  warlike  tribes, 


THE  MAMES  OF  GUATEMALA.  787 

called  generally  Lacandones.'  Boyle's  Ride,  vol.  i.,  pref.,  p.  xvi.;  Fossey, 
Mexique,  p.  471;  Pimentel,  Mem.  sobre  la  Raza  Indigena,  p.  197. 

The  Mames  '  occupied  the  existing  district  of  GiiegUetenango,  a  part  of 
Quezaltenango,  and  the  province  of  Soconusco,  and  in  all  these  places  the 
Mam  or  Pocoman  language  is  vernacular.  It  is  a  circumstance  not  a 
little  remarkable,  that  this  idiom  is  also  peculiar  to  places  very,  distant 
from  the  country  of  the  Mams:  viz.  in  Amatitan,  Mixco,  and  Petapa,  in 
the  province  of  Sacatepeques;  Chalchuapa,  in  St.  Salvador;  Mita,  Jalapa, 
and  Xilotepeque,  in  Chiquimula.'  Juarros'  Hist.  Guat.,  p.  169.  'El  Mame 
6  Pocoman  le  usan  los  mames  6  pocomanes,  que  parecen  no  ser  mas 
que  dos  tribus  de  uua  misma  nacion,  la  cual  formaba  un  estado  pode- 
roso  en  Guatemala.  Se  extendio  por  el  distrito  de  Huehuetenango,  en  la  pro- 
vincia  de  este  nombre,  y  por  parte  de  la  de  Quetzaltenango,  asi  como  por  el 
distrito  de  Soconusco  en  Chiapas.  En  todos  estos  lugares  se  hablaba  mame 
6  pocoman,  lo  mismo  que  en  Amatitlan,  Mixco  y  Petapa,  de  la  provincia  de 
Zacatepec  d  Guatemala;  en  Chalchuapa,  perteneciente  a  la  de  San  Salvador; 
y  en  Mita,  Jalapa  y  Jiloltepec,  de  la  de  Chiquimula.'  Balbi,  in  Pimentel, 
Cuadro.,  torn,  i.,  p.  81.  'Leur  capitale  etait  Gueguetenango,  au  nord-est  de 
la  ville  actuelle  de  Guatemala,  et  les  villes  de  Masacatan,  Cuilco,  Chiantla  et 
Istaguacan  etaient  enclavees  dans  leur  territoire.'  Squier,  in  Nouvelks  An- 
nales  des  Voy.,  1857,  torn,  cliii.,  p.  177.  '  A  1'ouest,  jusqu'aux  frontieres  de 
Chiapas,  s'etendaient  les  Mams,  proprement  dits  Mam-Yoc,  dans  leurs  his- 
toires,  partages  en  plusieurs  families  egalement  puissantes  qui  gouvernaient 
souverainement  cette  contree,  alors  designee  sous  le  noni  commun  d'Otzoya 
(de  otzoy,  eortes  d'ecrevisses  d'or) :  c'etaient  d'un  cote  les  Chun-Zak-Yoc, 
qui  avaient  pour  capitale  Qulaha,  que  son  opulence  et  son  etendue  avaient 
fait  surnommer  Nima-Amag  ou  la  Grande-Ville,  dite  depuis  Xelahun-Quieh, 
ou  Xelahuh,  et  Quezaltenango;  les  Tzitzol,  dont  la  capitale  etait  peut-etre 
Chinabahul  ou  Huehuetenango,  les  Ganchebi  (see  note  below  under  Ganche- 
bis)  et  les  Bamaq.  Ceux-ci,  dont  nous  avons  connu  les  descendants,  etaient 
seigneurs  d'Iztlahuacan  (San-Miguel-Iztlahuacan),  dont  le  plateau  est  encore 
aujourd'hui  parseme  de  ruines  au  milieu  desquelles  s'eleve  1'humble  bour- 
gade  de  ce  nom:  au-dessus  domine,  a  une  hauteur  formidable,  Xubiltenam 

(ville  du  Souffle) Ganchebi,  ecrit  alternativement  Canchebiz,  Canchevez  et 

Ganchebirse.  Rien  n'indique  d'une  maniere  precise  ou  regnait  cette  famille : 
mais  il  se  pourrait  que  ce  fut  a  Zipacapan  ou  a  Chivun,  dont  les  ruines 
existent  a  trois  lieues  au  sud  de  cette  derniere  localite;  la  etait  1'ancien 
Oztoncalco.'  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Popol  Vuh,  introd.,  pp.  264-5.  'Habi- 
taban  el  Soconusco,  desde  tiempos  remotos,  y  era  un  pueblo  autocton;  los 
olmecas  que  llegaron  de  la  parte  de  Mexico,  les  redujeron  a  la  servidumbre, 
y  una  fraccion  de  los  vencidos  emigre  hasta  Guatemala.'  Orozco  y  Berra, 
Geografia,  p.  168.  The  Mamey,  Achi,  Cuaahtemalteca,  Hutateca,  and  Chiri- 
chota  '  en  la  de  los  Suchitepeques  y  Cuaahtemala.'  Palacio,  in  Pacheco,  Col. 
Doc.  Ined.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  7.  Mame  '  Parle  dans  les  localites  voisiues  de  Hue 
huetenango.'  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  MS.  Troano,  torn,  ii.,  p.  viii.  '  On 
retrouve  encore  aujourd'hui  leurs  restes  parmi  les  Indiens  de  la  province 
de  Totonicapan,  aux  frontieres  de  Chiapas  et  des  Lacandons,  au  nord- 
ouest  de  1'etat  de  Guatemala.  La  place  forte  de  Zakuleu  (c'est-a-dire,  Terre 


788  TBIBAL  BOUNDAEIES. 

blanche,  mal  a  propos  orthographic  Socoleo),  dont  on  admire  les  vastes 
debris  aupres  de  la  ville  de  Huehuetenango,  resta,  jusqu'au  temps  de  la  con- 
quete  espagnole,  la  capitale  des  Mems.  Cette  race  avait  etc  anterieurement 
la  maitresse  de  la  plus  grande  partie  de  1'etat  de  Guatemala.'  Brasseur  de 
Bourbourg,  Hist.  Nat.  Civ.,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  119-20. 

The  Pokomams,  or  Pokonchis,  lived  in  the  district  of  Vera  Paz  in  Guate 
mala,  '  sous  le  nom  d'Uxab  et  de  Pokomani,  une  partie  des  treize  tribus  de 
Tecpan,  dont  la  capitale  etait  la  grande  cite  de  Nimpokom,  etait  maitresse 
de  la  Verapaz  et  des  provinces  situees  au  sud  du  Motagua  jusqu'a  Palin  '  (2 
leagues  N.  W.  of  Kabinal).  Brasseur  deBourbourg,  PopolVuh,  introd.,  p.  264. 
Us  '  paraissent  avoir  occupe  une  grande  partie  des  provinces  guatemaliennes. ' 
Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Hist.  Nat.  Civ.,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  84,  506.  'Toute  la  rive 
droite  du  Chixoy  (Lacandon  ou  haut  Uzumacinta),  depuis  Coban  (ecrit 
quelquefois  Coboan)  jusqu'au  fleuve  Motagua,  les  montagnes  et  les  vallees 
de  Gagcoh  (San-Cristoval),  de  Taltic,  de  Kabinal  et  d'Urran,  une  partie 
des  departements  actuels  de  Zacatepec,  de  Guatemala  et  de  Chiquimula, 
jusqu'au  pied  des  volcans  de  Hunahpu  (volcans  d'Eau  et  de  Feu),  devinrent 
leur  proie.'  Id.,  pp.  121-2.  « Le  pocomchi,  le  pokoman,  le  cakchi,  semes 
d'Amatitan  a  Coban.'  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  MS.  Troano,  torn,  ii.,  introd., 
p.  viii.  In  'La  Verapaz,  la  poponchi,  caechi  y  colchi.'  Palacio,  in  Pacheco, 
Col.  Doc.  Ine'd.,  torn.  vi.,p  .7.  'La  lengua  pocomana  se  habla  en  Amatitan, 
Petapa,  San  Chrisobal,  Pinula,  y  Hermita  6  Llano  de  la  Culebra  de  Guate 
mala.'  Hervds,  Catdlogo,  torn,  i.,  p.  305.  'Ala  nacion  Poconchi  pertene- 

cen  los  lugareso  misiones llamadas  Santa  Cruz,  San  Christobal,  Taktik, 

Tucuru,  y  Tomasiu.'  Ib. 

The  Quiches  inhabit  the  centre  of  the  state  of  Guatemala.  '  Quiche  then 
comprehended  the  present  districts  of  Quiche,  Totonicapan,  part  of  Quezal- 
tenango,  and  the  village  of  Rabinal;  in  all  these  places  the  Quiche  language 
is  spoken.  For  this  reason,  it  may  be  inferred  with  much  probability,  that 
the  greater  part  of  the  province  of  Sapotitlan,  or  Suchiltepeques,  was  a  col 
ony  of  the  Quichees,  as  the  same  idiom  is  made  use  of  nearly  throughout  the 
whole  of  it.'  Juarros'  Hist.  Guat.,  p.  168.  'Les  Quiches,  or Utletecas,  habi- 
taient  la  frontiere  du  sud,  les  chefs  de  Sacapulus  et  Uspatan  a  Test,  et  les 
Lacandones  independants  au  nord.  Us  occupaient  probablement  la  plus 
grande  partie  du  district  actuel  de  Totonicapan  et  une  portion  de  celui  de 
Quesaltenango.'  Squier,  in  Nouuelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1857,  torn,  cliii.,  p. 
177.  '  Leurs  postes  principaux  furent  etablis  sur  les  deux  cotes  du  Chixoy, 
depuis  Zacapulas  jusqu'a  Zactzuy.'  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Hist.  Nat.  Civ., 
torn,  ii.,  pp.  131-2;  Wappdus,  Geog.  u.  Stat.,  pp.  286,  288,  291. 

The  Cakchiquels  are  south  of  the  Quiches.  '  The  territory  of  the  Kachi- 
queles  was  composed  of  that  which  now  forms  the  provinces  of  Chimalte- 
nango  and  Sacatepeques,  and  the  district  of  Solola;  and  as  the  Kachiquel 
language  is  also  spoken  in  the  villages  of  Patulul,  Cotzumalguapan,  and 
others  along  the  same  coast,  it  is  a  plausible  supposition  that  they  were 
colonies  settled  by  the  Kachiquels,  for  the  purpose  of  cultivating  the  desirable 
productions  of  a  warmer  climate  than  their  own.'  Juarros'  Hist.  Guat.,  p. 
169.  '  La  capitale  fut,  en  dernier  lieu,  Iximche  ou  Tecpau-Guatemala,  lors 
de  la  declaration  de  1'mdependence  de  cette  nation.'  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg , 


GUATEMALANS.  789 

Popol  Vuh,  introd.,  p.  270.  'Der  westliche  Theil  der  Provinz  [Atitan]  mit 
16  Dorfern  in  4  Kirchspielen,  von  Nachkommen  der  Kachiquelen  und  Zutu- 
gilen  bewohnt.'  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  p.  338.  '  Los  paises  de  la  nacion  Cak- 
chiquila  son  Chimaltenango,  Zumpango,  Tejar,  Santo  Domingo,  San  Pedro 
las  Huertas,  San  Gaspar,  San  Luis  de  las  Carretas,  y  otros  diez  lugares,  todos 
pertenecientes  a  las  misiones  de  los  PP.  dominicos;  y  a  las  de  los  PP.  ob» 
servantes  de  san  Francisco  pertenecen  Isapa,  Pason,  Tepan-guatemalan 
Comalapa,  San  Antonio,  San  Juan  del  Obispo,  y  otros  quince  lugares  a  lo 
menos  de  la  misma  nacion  Cakchiquila,  cuyas  poblaciones  estan  al  rededor 
de  Guatemala.'  Hervds,  Catdlogo,  torn,  i.,  p.  305. 

The  Zutugils  dwelt  near  the  lake  of  Atitlan.  'The  dominion  of  the 
Zutugiles  extended  over  the  modern  district  of  Atitau,  and  the  village  of 
San  Antonio,  Suchiltepeques.'  Juarros'  Hist.  Guat.,  p.  169.  'La  capital  de 
los  cachiqueles  era  Patinamit  d  Tecpanguatemala,  ciudad  grande  y  fuerte;  y 
la  de  los  zutuhiles,  Atitan,  cerca  de  la  laguna  de  este  nombre  y  que  se  tenia 
por  inexpugnable.'  Pimentel,  Cuadro,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  121-2. 

The  Chortis  live  on  the  banks  of  the  Motagua  River.  The  Chiquinmla 
4  Indians  belong  to  the  Chorti  nation. '  Gavarrete,  in  Panama  Star  and  Herald, 
Dec.  19,  1867;  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  48. 

Brasseur  de  Bourbourg  describes  quite  a  number  of  very  ancient 
nations,  of  some  of  which  he  endeavors  to  fix  the  localities,  and  which 
I  insert  here.  Dan  or  Tamub  founded  a  monarchy  on  the  Guatemalan 
plateau.  Their  '  capitale,  Am  'g-D.in,  existait,  suivant  toute  apparence, 
entre  les  monts  Tohil  et  Mainah,  a  trois  lieues  a  peine  au  nord  d'Ut- 
latlan.'  Popol  Vuh,  introd.,  pp.  148,  262.  '  Ilocab  etendait  sa  domina 
tion  a  1'ouest  et  au  sud  de  Tamub,  et  la  cite  d'Uquincat,  siege  principale 
de  cette  maison,  occupait  un  plateau  etroit,  situe  entre  les  memes  ravins 
qui  ceignent  un  peu  plus  bas  les  ruines  d'Utlatlan.'  'La  ville  d'Uquincat 
(forme  antique),  Avec  le  filet  (a  mettre  le  mai's),  etait  sur  un  plateau 
au  nord-ouest  de  ceux  d'Utlatlan,  dont  elle  n'etait  separee  que  par  ses 
ravins;  on  en  voit  encore  les  ruines  connues  aujourd'hui  sous  le  nom  de 
P '-Ilocab,  en  Ilocab.'  Id.,  p.  263.  Agaab,  '  dont  les  possessions  s'etendaient 
sur  les  deux  rives  du  Chixoy  ou  Lacandon.'  '  C'etait  une  nation  puissante 
dont  les  principales  villes  existaient  a  peu  de  distance  de  la  rive  gauche  du 
fleuve  Chixoy  ou  Lacandon  (Eio  Grande  de  Sacapulas).  L'une  d'elles  etait 
Carinal,  dont  j'ai  visite  le  premier,  en  1856,  les  belles  ruines,  situees  sur  les 
bords  du  Pacalag,  riviere  qui  se  jette  dans  le  Lacandon,  presque  vis-a-vis 
1'einbouchure  de  celle  de  Eabinal,  dans  la  Verapaz.'  Ib.  Cabinal,  '  la  capi 
tale  etait  a  Zameneb,  dans  les  montagnes  de  Xoyabah  ou  Xolabah,  [Entre 
les  rochers].'  Id.,  p.  270.  Ah-Actulul,  '  sept  tribus  de  la  nation  Ah-Actulul, 
qui  s'etaient  etablies  sur  des  territoires  dependants  de  la  souverainete* 
d' Atitlan.'  '  Ces  sept  tribus  sont:  Ah-Tzuque,  Ah-Oanem,  Manacot,  Mana- 
zaquepet,  Vancoh,  Yabacoh  et  Ah-Tzakol-Quet  ou  Queh. — Ac-Tulul  peut-etre 
pour  Ah-Tulul.'  Id.,  p.  274.  '  Ah-Txiquinaha,  ceux  ou- les  habitants  de 
Tziquinaha  (Nid  d'oiseau),  dont  la  capitale  fut  Atitlan,  sur  le  lac  du  meme 
nom.'  Id.,  p.  296.  Acutee,  'nom  aussi  d'une  aucienne  tribu  dont  on  re- 
trouve  le  souvenir  dans  Chuvi-Acutec,  au-dessus  d'Acutec,  sur  le  territoire 
de  Chalcitan,  pres  de  Malacatan  et  de  Huehuetenango.'  Id.,  pp.  342-3. 
Cohah,  'nom  d'une  tribu  antique  dans  1'orient  des  Quiches.'  Id.,  p.  353. 


790  TRIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

The  Chontales  dwell  in  the  mountain  districts  N.E.  of  Lake  Nicaragua, 
besides  having  miscellaneous  villages  in  Guerrero,  Oajaca,  Tabasco,  Guate 
mala,  and  Honduras.  '  En  el  Departamento  de  Tlacolula . .  . .  y  se  encuentran 
choutales  en  Guerrero,  en  Tabasco  y  en  Guatemala.'  Orozco  y  Berra,  Geo- 
grafta,  pp.  186-7.  In  San  Salvador,  Choluteca,  Honduras,  Nicaragua. 
Palado,  in  Pacheco,  Col.  Doc.  Ined.,  torn,  vi.,  pp.  7,  26,  35.'  Qmechapa  . . . 
20  Leguas  sudostlich  von  Oajaca  und  10  Leguas  sudwestlich  von  Nejapa 

An  den  Granzen  des  Landes  der  Chontales.' '  Tlapalca tepee.    Haupt- 

ort  im  Lande  der  Chontales.'  Muhlenpfordt,  Mejico,  torn,  ii.,  pt  i.,  pp.  172-3, 
175,  192.  '  Les  Chontales  s'etaient  vus  en  possession  de  toute  la  contree 
qui  s'etend  entre  la  mer  et  la  chaino  de  Quyecolani  . . .  etaient  en  posses 
sion  non  seulement  de  Nexapa,  mais  encore  de  la  portion  la  plus  importante 
de  la  montagne  de  Quiyecolani.'  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Hist.  Nat.  Civ., 
torn,  iii.,  pp.  3,  47.  '  Au  nord-ouest  du  grand  lac,  les  Chondals  occupaient 
le  district  montagneux  appele  encore  aujourd'hui  Chontales,  d'apres  eux.' 
Holinski,  La  Californie,  p.  290.  '  Inhabitants  of  the  mountainous  regions  to 
the  north-east  of  the  lake  of  Nicaragua.'  Froebel's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  52.  '  Au 
nord  des  lacs,  les  Chontales  barbares  habitaient  la  cordillere.'  Brasseur  de 
Bourbourg,  Hist.  Nat.  Civ.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  110.  '  The  Chontals  covered  Chon 
tales,  northward  of  Lake  Nicaragua,  and  lying  between  the  tribes  already 
given,  and  those  on  the  Caribbean  Sea.'  Stout's  Nicaragua,  p.  114.  '  Bewoh- 
ner  der  Gebirgsgegenden  nordostlich  vom  See  von  Nicaragua.'  Froebel,  Aus 
Amer.,  torn,  i.,  p.  285.  'In  Nicaragua  die  Chontales  im  Hochlande  im  N. 
des  Managua-Sees.'  Wappdus,  Geog.  u.  Stat.,  p.  246.  'Deste  lugar  [Yztepe- 
que]  cornienqan  los  Chontales.'  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iv.,  lib.  viii.,  cap. 
x.  '  The  Chondals  or  Chontals,  the  third  great  division  mentioned  by 
Oviedo,  occupied  the  wide,  mountainous  region,  still  bearing  the  name  of 
Chontales,  situated  to  the  northward  of  Lake  Nicaragua,  and  midway  be 
tween  the  nations  already  named  and  the  savage  hordes  bordering  the  Carib 
bean  Sea.'  Squier's  Nicaragua,  (Ed.  1856,)  vol.  ii.,  p.  311.  '  On  the  northern 
shores  of  the  Lake  of  Nicaragua.'  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang,  p.  48.  *  The  Lencas 
....  under  the  various  names  of  Chontals,  and  perhaps  Xicaques  and  Payas, 
occupying  what  is  now  the  Department  of  San  Miguel  in  San  Salvador,  of 
Comayagua,  Choluteca,  Tegucigalpa,  and  parts  of  Olancho  and  Yoro  in 
Honduras,  including  the  islands  of  Koatan,  Gaanaja,  and  their  dependencies.' 
Squier's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  252. 

The  Pipiles  '  n'y  occupaient  guere  quelques  cantons  sur  les  cotes  de 
1' ocean  Pacifique,  dans  la  province  d'ltzcuintlan  et  ne  s'internaient  que  vers 
les  frontieres  de  1'etat  de  San-Salvador,  le  long  des  rives  du  rio  Paxa.'  Bras 
seur  ds  Bourbourg,  Hist.  Nat.  Civ.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  120.  'Welche  den  ganzen 
westlichen  Theil  des  heutigen  Staates  von  S.  Salvador  siidlich  vom  Rio 
Lsmpa,  das  sogen.  Raich  Cozcotlan  bewohnten.'  Wappfius,  Geog.  u.  Stat., 
pp.  322,  326.  '  Are  settled  along  the  coasts  of  the  Pacific,  from  the  province 
of  Escuintla  to  that  of  St.  Salvador In  a  short  time  these  Pipiles  multi 
plied  immensely,  and  spread  over  the  provinces  of  Zonzonate,  St.  Salvador, 
and  St.  Miguel.'  Juarros'  Hist.  Guat.,  pp.  202,  224.  Among  'los  Izalcos  y 

oosta  de  Guazacapan San  Salvador Honduras Nicaragua.'  Palado, 

in  Pacheco,  Col.  Doc.  Ined.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  7. 


NATIONS  OF  NICAKAQUA.  791 

Nonohualcas.  'A  la  falda  de  nn  alto  yolcan  (San  Vicente)  estan  cautro 
lugares  de  indios,  que  llaman  los  Nunualcos.'  Id.,  p.  25. 

Tlascaltecs.  '  In  mehreren  Puncten  San  Salvadors,  wie  z.  B.  in  Isalco, 
Mexicaaos,  Nahuisalco  leben  noch  jetzt  Indianer  vom  Stamme  der  Tlaskal- 
teken.'  Scherzer,  Wanderungen,  p.  456. 

The  Cholutecs  '  occupied  the  districts  north  of  the  Nagrandans,  extending 
along  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca  into  what  is  now  Honduras  territory.'  Stout's 
Nicarauga,  p.  114.  '  The  Cholutecans,  speaking  the  Cholutecan  dialect,  sit 
uated  to  the  northward  of  the  Nagrandans,  and  extending  along  the  Gulf  of 
Fonseca,  into  what  is  now  the  territory  of  Honduras.  A  town  and  river  in 
the  territory  here  indicated,  still  bear  the  name  of  Choluteca,  which  how 
ever  is  a  Mexican  name.'  Squier's  Nicaragua,  (Ed.  1856,)  vol.  ii.,  p.  310. 
These  Soconusco  exiles  settled  '  dans  les  terres  qui  s'etendent  au  nord  et  a 
1'ouest  du  golfe  de  Conchagua,  aux  frontieres  de  Honduras  et  de  Nicaragua.' 
Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Hist.  Nat.  Civ.,  torn.  ii.  p.  79.  '  Beyond  them  (Na 
grandans)  on  the  gulf  of  Fonseca,  a  nation  called  the  Cholutecans  had  their 
seats.'  Froebel's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  53. 

Maribios,  a  tribe  formerly  inhabiting  the  mountain  region  about  Leon. 
'Ihre  Wohnsitze  bildeten  die  Provinz  Maribichoa.'  Froebel,  Aus  Amer.,  torn, 
i.,  p.  333. 

'  Ay  en  Nicaragua  cinco  leguajes ....  Coribici  . . .  Chorotega ....  Chondal 
Orotiiia Mexicano.'  Gomara,  Hist.  Ind.,  fol.  264.  '  Hablauan  en  Nica 
ragua,  cinco  lenguas  diferentes,  Coribizi,  que  lo  hablan  mucho  en  Chuloteca 
. . .  .Los  de  Chontal, ...  .la  quarta  es  Orotina,  Mexicana  es  la  quinta.'  Her- 
rera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  iii.,  lib.  iv.,  cap.  vii.  '-In  Nicaragua  there  were  fiue 
linages,  and  different  languages:  the  Coribici,  Ciocotoga,  Ciondale,  Oretigua, 
and  the  Mexican.'  Purchas  his  Pilgrimage,  vol.  v.,  887;  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen., 
torn,  iv.,  p.  35;  Busckmann,  Ortsnamen,  p.  132. 

The  Chorotegans  '  occupied  the  entire  country  north  of  the  Niquirans, 
extending  along  the  Pacific  Ocean,  between  it  and  Lake  Managua,  to  the 
borders,  and  probably  for  a  distance  along  the  shores  of  the  gulf  of  Fouseca. 
They  also  occupied  the  country  south  of  the  Niquirans,  and  around  the  gulf 
of  Nicoya,  then  called  Orotina.'  Squier's  Nicaragua.,  (Ed.  1856,) vol.  ii.,  p.  310. 
'  Welche  die  Gegenden  zwischen  der  Siidsee  und  dem  Managua-See  von  der 
Fonseca-Bai  siidwarts  bis  zu  den  aztekisch  sprechenden  Indianern  bewohnen 
und  auch  siidlich  von  den  Niquirians  bis  zur  Bai  von  Nicoya  sich  ausbreiten.' 
Wappiius,  Geog.  u.  Stat.,  p.  246.  '  North  of  the  Mexican  inhabitants  of 
Nicaragua  (the  Niquirans),  between  the  Pacific  Ocean,  Lake  Managua,  and 
the  Gulf  of  Fonseca.'  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  48.  Before  the  conquest  they 
occupied  '  les  regions  aujourd'hui  a  peu  pres  desertes  qui  s'etendent  entre 
le  territoire  de  Tehuantepec  et  celui  de  Soconusco,  sur  les  bords  de  1' Ocean 
Pacifique.'. . .  .To  escape  the  Olmec  tyranny  they  emigrated  to  'golfe  de 
Nicoya;  de  la,  ils  retournerent  ensuite,  en  passant  les  monts,  jusqu'au  lac  de 
Nicaragua  et  se  fixerent  sur  ses  bords.'  Driven  off  by  the  Nahuas  '  les  uns, 
se  dirigeant  au  nord-ouest,  vont  fonder  Nagarando,  au  bord  du  lac  de  Mana 
gua,  tandis  que  les  autres  contournaient  les  rivages  du  golfe  de  Nicoya,  que 
1'on  trouve  encore  aujourd'hui  habites  par  leurs  descendants.'  Brasseur  de 
Bourbourg,  Popol  Vuh,  introd.,  pp.  cc.,  ccii.  '  Als  die  Spanier  naeh  Nicara- 


792  TRIBAL  BOUNDAEIES. 

gua  kamen,  war  diess  Volk  an  der  Kiiste  verbreitet ....  wohnten  langs  der 
Kiiste  des  Australoceans.'  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  pp.  397-8. 

The  Dirians  '  occupied  the  territory  lying  between  the  upper  extremity  of 
Lake  Nicaragua,  the  river  Tipitapa,  and  the  southern  half  of  Lake  Managua 
and  the  Pacific,  whose  principal  towns  were  situated  where  now  stand  the 
cities  of  Granada,  then  (called  Salteba,)  Masaya,  and  Managua,  and  the  vil 
lages  of  Tipitapa,  Diriomo  and  Diriamba.'  Squier's  Nicaragua,  (Ed.  1856,) 
vol.  ii.,  p.  310.  «  Groupes  dans  les  localites  encore  connues  de  Liria,  de 
Diriome,  de  Diriamba,  de  Monbacho  et  de  Lenderi,  sur  les  hauteurs  qui  form- 
ent  la  base  du  volcan  de  Mazaya.'  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Hist.  Nat.  Civ., 
torn,  ii.,  p.  111.  '  Occupied  Masaya,  Managua,  Tipitapa,  Diriomo,  and 
Diriamba.'  Stout's  Nicaragua,  p.  114;  Froebel,  Aus  Amer.,  torn,  i.,  p.  287. 

The  Nagrandans.  '  Entre  les  Dirias  et  la  Choluteca  etait  situee  la  province 
des  Mangnes  ou  Nagarandas  (Torquemada  dit  que  Nagarando  est  un  mot 
de  leur  langue.  Oviedo  les  appelle  Nagrandas),  dont  les  fertiles  campagnes 
s'etendaient,  au  nord  et  a  1'ouest  du  lac  de  Managua,  jusqu'a  la  mer;  on  y 
admirait  les  cites  florissantes  de  Chinandega,  de  Chichigalpa,  de  Pozoltega,  de 
Telica,  de  Subtiaba,  de  Nagarando,  appelee  aussi  Xolotlan,  de  Matiares  et 
une  foule  d'autres,  reduites  maintenant,  pour  la  plupart,  a  de  miserables 
bourgades.'  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Hist.  Nat,  Civ.,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  111-12. 
'  The  Nagrandans  occupied  the  plain  of  Leon  between  the  northern  extreme 
of  Lake  Managua  and  the  Pacific.'  Stout's  Nicaragua,  p.  114.  'An  welche 
sich  weiter  nordwestwarts  (the  last  mention  was  Dirians)  die  Bewohner  der 
Gegend  von  Leon,  welche  Squier  Nagrander  nennt. . .  .anschlossen.'  Froebel, 
Aus  Amer.,  torn,  i.,  p.  287.  '  Chorotega  tribe  of  the  plains  of  Leon,  Nica 
ragua.'  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  130;  Squier's  Nicaragua,  (Ed.  1856,)  vol.  ii., 
p.  310. 

The  Niquirans  '  settled  in  the  district  of  Nicaragua,  between  the  Lake  of 
Nicaragua  and  the  Pacific  Ocean.'  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang.,  p.  134.  '  Au  centre 
du  pays,  sur  le  lac  Nicaragua,  appele  Cocibolca  par  les  indigenes,  vivaient 
les  Niquirans.'  Ilolinski,  La  California,  p.  290.  Onietepec.  'This  island 
was  occupied  by  the  Niquirans.'  Squier's  Nicaragua,  (Ed.  1856,)  vol.  ii.,  p. 
313;  Boyle's  Ride,  vol.  i.,  p.  74. 

The  Orotinans  occupied  '  the  country  around  the  Gulf  of  Nicoya,  and  to 
the  southward  of  Lake  Nicaragua.'  Squier's  Nicaragua,  (Ed.  1856,)  vol.  ii., 
p.  310.  '  Am  Golfe  von  Orotina  oder  Nicoya. . .  .Unter  den  geographischen 
Namen  im  Laiide  der  Orotiner  stosst  man  auf  den  Vulkaii  Orosi,  im  jetzigen 
Costa  Rica,  wahrend  einer  der  Yulkane  in  der  Kette  der  Maribios,  bei  Leon, 
also  im  Lande  der  Nagrander,  Orota  heisst.'  Froebel,  Aus  Amer.,  torn,  i., 
p.  287.  '  Les  Orotinas,  voisins  du  golfe  de  Nicoya,  dont  les  villes  princi- 
pales  etaitent  Nicoya,  Orotina,  Cantren  et  Chorote.'  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg, 
Hist.  Nat.  Civ.,  torn,  ii.,  pp.  110.  '  Settled  the  country  south  of  Lake  Nicara 
gua  around  the  Gulf  of  Nicoya.'  Stout's  Nicaragua,  p.  114. 

The  MOSQUITOS,  as  a  subdivision  of  this  group,  inhabit  the  whole  of  Hon 
duras,  the  eastern  portion  of  Nicaragua,  and  all  that  part  of  the  coast  on  the 
Caribbean  Sea  known  as  the  Mosquito  Coast. 

The  Xicaques  '  exist  in  the  district  lying  between  the  Rio  TJlua  and  Rio 
Tinto It  seems  probable  that  the  Xicaques  were  once  much  more 


MOSQUITO  NATIONS.  793 

•widely  diffused,  extending  over  the  plains  of  Olancho,  and  into  the  Depart 
ment  of  Nueva  Segovia,  in  Nicaragua.'  Squier's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  244.  '  Se 

rencontrent  principalement  dans  le  departement  de  Yoro (some)  a  1'em- 

bouchure  de  la  riviere  Choloma,  et  le  reste  est  disperse  dans  les  montagnes 
a  1'ouest  de  la  plaine  de  Sula.  Dans  le  departement  de  Yoro,  ils  sont  repan- 
dus  dans  le  pays  depuis  la  riviere  Sulaco  jusqu'a  la  baie  de  Honduras.'  Id., 
in  Nouvelks  Annales  des  Voy.,  1858,  torn,  clx.,  pp.  133-4.  Yoro  department; 
'  Welche  am  oberen  Lauf  der  Fliisse  und  in  dem  Berg-  und  Hiigellande 
zwischen  der  Kiiste  und  dem  Thale  von  Olancho  \vohnen.'  Wappdus,  Geog. 
u.  Stat.,  p.  317. 

The  Poyas.  '  In  the  triangle  between  the  Tinto,  the  sea,  and  the  Bio 
Wanks,  or  Segovia.'  Squier's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  244.  '  Inhabit  the  Poyer 
mountains,  beyond  the  Embarcadero  on  the  Polyer  Biver.'  Young's  Narra 
tive,  p.  80.  '  Den  westlichen  Theil  des  Distrikts  Tagnzgalpa,  zwischen  den 
Fliissen  Aguan  und  Barbo.'  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  p.  389.  '  Inhabit  the  heads 
of-  the  Black  and  Patook  rivers.'  Bell,  iuLond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxii., 
p.  258. 

The  Towkas,  '  bewohnen  die  siidlichen  Gegenden  des  Distrikts  (Taguz- 
galpa)  und  das  Gebirge.'  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  pp.  390-1.  'Their  principal 
residence  is  at  the  head  of  Patook  Biver.'  Young's  Narrative,  p.  87.  '  They 
dwell  along  the  Twaka  river  which  is  a  branch  of  the  Prinz  Awala.'  Bell,  in 
Lond.  Geoy.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxii.,  p.  258. 

The  '  Toonglas  inhabit  along  the  other  branch  of  the  same  river.'  Ib. 
The  Smoos  '  inhabit  the  heads  of  all  the  rivers  from  Blewfields  to  Patook.' 
Id.,  p.  256. 

The  Cookras  '  reside  about  one  hundred  and  thirty  miles  from  its  mouth' 
(the  Bio  Escondido).  Strangeways'  Mosquito  Shore,  p.  30. 

The  Caribs  '  now  occupy  the  coast  from  the  neighborhood  of  the  port  of 

Truxillo  to  Carataska  Lagoon Their  original  seat  was  San  Vincent,  one 

of  what  are  called  the  Leeward  Islands,  whence  they  were  deported  in  a  body, 
by  the  English,  in  1798,  and  landed  upon  the  then  unoccupied  island  of 
lioatan,  in  the  Bay  of  Honduras.'  They  afterwards  removed  to  the  main 
land  '  in  the  vicinity  of  Truxillo,  whence  they  have  spread  rapidly  to  the 
eastward.  All  along  the  coast,  generally  near  the  mouths  of  the  various 
rivers  with  which  it  is  fringed,  they  have  their  establishments  or  towns.' 
Bard's  Wailcna,  p.  316.  '  Now  settled  along  the  whole  extent  of  coast  from 
Cape  Gracias  a  Dios  to  Belize.'  Froebel's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  185.  '  Dwell  on 
the  sea  coast,  their  first  town,  Cape  Town,  being  a  few  miles  to  the  west 
ward  of  Black  Biver.'  Young's  Narrative,  pp.  71,  122,  134.  In  Boatan:  '  Die 
Volksmenge  besteht  aus  Caraiben  und  Sambos,  deren  etwa  4,000  auf  der  In- 
sel  seyn  sollen.'  Hassel,  Mex.  Guat.,  p.  386.  'Unter  den  Caraibendorfern 
sind  zu  nennen:  Stanu  Creek. . .  .unfern  im  S.  von  Belize,  und  von  da  bis 
zur  Siidgrenze  Settee,  Lower  Stanu  Creek,  Silver  Creek,  Seven  Hills  und 
Punta  Gorda.'  Wappdus,  Geog.  u.  Stat.,  p.  300  See  also:  8-ivers,  Mittelameri- 
ka,  pp.  154,  179;  Morelet,  Voyage,  torn,  ii.,  p.  289. 

The  Ramas  extend  from  Greytown  to  Blewfields,  a  region  '  uninhabited 
except  by  the  scanty  remnant  of  a  tribe  called  Bamas. '  '  Inhabit  a  small 
island  at  the  southern  extremity  of  Blewfields  Lagoon;  they  are  only  a  miser- 


794  TBIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

able  remnant  of  a  numerous  tribe  that  formerly  lived  on  the  St.  John's 
and  other  rivers  in  that  neighbourhood.  A  great  number  of  them  still  live 
at  the  head  of  the  Bio  Frio,  which  runs  into  the  St.  John's  River  at  San  Carlos 
Fort.'  Sell,  in  Land.  Geog.  Soe.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxii.,  pp.  242,  259.  '  Bama  Cay, 
in  Blewfiels  Lagoon.  This  small  island  is  the  refuge  of  a  feeble  remnant 
of  the  once  powerful  Bama  tribe.'  Pirn  and  Seemann's  Dotlings,  p.  278. 

The  Mosquitos  inhabit  '  the  whole  coast  from  Pearl  Key  Lagoon  to  Black 
Biver,  and  along  the  banks  of  the  Wawa  and  Wanx,  or  Wanks  Bivers  for  a 
great  distance  inland.'  Sell,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxii.,  p.  250. 
'  L'interieur  du  pays  est  occupe  par  la  nation  sauvage  et  indomptable  des 
Mosquitos-Sombos.  Les  cotes,  surtout  pres  le  cap  Gracias  a  Dios,  sont 
habitees  par  une  autre  tribu  d'Indiens  que  les  navigateurs  anglais  ont  appeles 
Mosquitos  de  la  cote.'  Malte-Brun,  Precis  de  la  Geog.,  torn,  vi.,  p.  472. 
An  dem  Ende  dieser  Provinz  (Honduras),  nahe  bey  dem  Cap,  Gratias-a- 
Dios,  findet  man  die  beruhmte  Nation  der  Mosquiten.'  Belaporte,  Reisen, 
torn,  x.,  p.  404.  'Nearly  the  whole  coast  of  Honduras;  and  their  most 
numerous  tribe  exists  near  the  Cape  Gracios  a  Dios.'  Bonny castk's  Span. 
Amer.,  vol.  i.,  p.  172.  '  Ocupan  el  terreno  de  mas  de  sesenta  leguas,  que 
corren  desde  la  jurisdiccion  de  Comaniagua,  hasta  la  de  Costa-Bica.'  Bevista 
Mex.,  torn,  i.,  p.  404.  'Die  Sambo,  oder  eigentlichen  Mosquitoindianer 
welche  den  grossten  Theil  der  Seekiiste  bis  zum  Black  river  hinauf  und  die 
an  derselben  belegenen  Savannen  bewohnen.'  Mosquitoland,  Benefit,  p.  19. 
'  Inhabiting  on  the  Main,  on  the  North  side,  near  Cape  Gratia  Dios ;  between 
Cape  Honduras  and  Nicaragua.'  Dampier's  Voyages,  vol.  i.,  p.  7.  'Inhabit 
a  considerable  space  of  country  on  the  continent  of  America,  nearly  extend 
ing  from  Point  Castile,  or  Cape  Honduras,  the  southern  point  of  the  Bay  of 
Truxillo,  to  the  northern  branch  of  the  river  Nicaragua,  called  usually  St. 
Juan's;  and  comprehending  within  these  limits  nearly  100  leagues  of  land 
on  the  sea  coast,  from  latitude  11  to  16  deg.'  Henderson's  Honduras,  pp.  211- 
12.  The  Sambos  'inhabit  the  country  from  Sandy  Bay  to  Potook.'  Strange- 
ways1  Mosquito  Shore,  p.  330.  '  The  Sambos,  or  Mosquitians,  inhabit  the 
sea  coast,  and  the  savannas  inland,  as  far  west  as  Black  Biver.'  Young's 
Narrative,  p.  71.  'The  increase  and  expansion  of  the  Caribs  has  already 
driven  most  of  the  Sambos,  who  were  established  to  the  northward  and  west 
ward  of  Cape  Gracias  a  Dios,  into  the  territory  of  Nicaragua,  southward  of 
the  Cape.'  Squier's  Honduras  [Lond.,  1870,]  p.  169;  Id.,  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  228. 

The  ISTHMIANS,  the  last  sub-division  of  this  group,  embrace  the  people 
of  Costa  Bica,  together  with  the  nations  dwelling  on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama, 
or  Darien,  as  far  as  the  gulf  of  Uraba,  and  along  the  river  Atrato  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Napipi,  thence  up  the  last-named  river  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
'  The  Indian  tribes  within  the  territory  of  Costarrica,  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  Parcialidades,  are  the  Valientes,  or  most  eastern  people  of  the  state ; 
the  Tiribees,  who  occupy  the  coast  from  Bocatoro  to  the  Banana;  the  Tala- 
mancas  and  Blancos,  who  inhabit  the  interior,  but  frequent  the  coast 
between  the  Banana  and  Salt  Creek;  the  Montafios  and  Cabecares,  who  are 
settled  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  high  lands  bounding  Veragua,  and  the 
Guatusos,  inhabiting  the  mountains  and  forest  between  Esparsa  and  Baga- 


ISTHMIAN  NATIONS.  795 

ses,  and  towards  the  north  of  these  places. '  Galindo,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc., 
Jour.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  134.  From  Boca  del  Toro  towards  the  west  coast  dwell  the 
Viceitas,  Blancos,  Valientes,  Guatusos,  Tiribis,  and  Talamancas.  Wagner 
and  Scherzer,  Costa  Rica,  p.  554.  Blancos,  Valientes,  and  Talamancas  '  ent- 
lang  der  Ostkiiste  zwischen  dem  Rio  Zent  und  Boca  del  Toro,  im  Staate 
Costa  Rica.'  Id.,  p.  573. 

The  Guatusos  'vom  Nicaragua  -  See  an  den  Rio  Frio  aufwarts  und 
zwischen  diesem  und  dem  San  Carlos  bis  zum  Hochlande.'  Wappdus, 
Geog.  u.  Stat.,  p.  357.  'Inhabit  a  territory  lying  between  the  Merivales 
mountains  on  the  west,  the  lake  of  Nicaragua  and  the  San  Juan  river 
on  the  north,  the  Atlantic  shore  on  the  east,  and  the  table  land  of  San 
Jose  upon  the  south.'. . .  .The  Rio  Frio  'head-waters  are  the  favorite  haunt 

or  habitation  of  the  Guatusos occupy  the  north-east  corner  of  Costa 

Rica.'  Boyle's  Ride,  vol.  i.,  pref.,  pp.  xii.,  xix.,  p.  298.  They  inhabit  'the 
basin  of  the  Rio  Frio,'  Squier's  Cent.  Amer.,  p.  405;  Id.,  in  Nouvelles  An- 
nales  des  Voy.,  1856,  torn,  cli.,  p.  5;  Id.,  in  IRst.  Mag.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  65;  Vigne's 
Travels,  vol.  i.,  p.  77. 

The  Guetares  '  viven  enc,ima  de  las  sierras  del  puerto  de  la  Herradura  e 
se  extienden  por  la  costa  deste  golpho  al  Poniente  de  la  banda  del  Norte 
hasta  el  confiii  de  los  Chorotegas.'  Oviedo,  Hist.  Gen.,  torn,  in.,  p.  108. 

The  Blancos  '  welche  ungefahr  5  Tagereisen  sudostlich  von  Angostura  in 
den  Bergen  hausen.'  Wagner  and  Scherzer,  Costa  Rica,  pp.  556,  554. 

The  Valientes  and  Ramas,  '  zwischen  dem  Punta  Gorda  und  der  Lagune 
von  Chiriqui.'  Mosquitoland,  Bericht,  p.  9. 

Inhabiting  the  Isthmus  were  numerous  tribes  speaking  different  lan 
guages,  mentioned  by  early  writers  only  by  the  name  of  the  chief, 
which  was  usually  identical  with  that  of  both  town  and  province.  In  the 
province  of  Panama  there  were  '  quatro  senores  de  lenguas  diferentes. . .  .De 

alii  se  baxaua  a  la  prouincia  de  Nata ....  treynta  leguas  de  Panama otro 

llamado  Escoria,  ocho  leguas  de  Nata. . .  .Ocho  leguas  mas  adelante,  la  buelta 
de  Panama,  auia  otro  Cazique  dicho  Chiru,  de  lengua  dif erente :  yotrassiete 
leguas  mas  adelante,  hazia  Panama,  estaua  el  de  Chame,  que  era  el  remate 
de  la  lengua  de  Coyba :  y  la  prouincia  de  Paris  se  hallaua  doze  leguas  de 
Nata,  Les  hueste.'  Herrera,  Hist.  Gen.,  dec.  ii.,  lib.  iii.,  cap.  vi.  Westward 

from  the  gulf  of  Uraba  '  hay  una  provincia  que  se  dice  Careta yendo  mas 

la  costa  abajo,  fasta  cuarenta  leguas  desta  villa,  entrando  la  tierra  adentro 
fasta  doce  leguas,  esta  un  cacique  que  se  dice  Comogre  y  otro  que  se  dice 
Poborosa.'  Balboa,  in  Navarrete,  Col.  de  Viages,  torn,  iii.,  p.  366.  'En  la 
primera  provincia  de  los  darieles  hay  las  poblaciones  siguientes:  Seraque, 
Surugunti,  Queno,  Moreri,  Agrazenuqua,  Occabayanti  y  Uraba.'  Hervds, 
Catdlogo,  torn,  i.,  p.  280.  'Treinta  y  tantas  leguas  del  Darien  habia  una 

provincia  que  se  decia  Careta,  y  otra  cinco  leguas  de  ella  que  se  dice  Acla 

La  primera  provincia  desde  Acla  hacia  el  ueste  es  Comogre En  esta  tierra 

esta  una  provincia  que  se  llama  Peruqueta,  de  una  mar  a  otra,  y  la  isla  de  las 
Perlas,  y  golfo  de  S.  Miguel,  y  otra  provincia,  que  llamamos  las  Behetrias 
por  no  haber  en  ella  ningun  senor,  se  llama  Cueva:  es  toda  una  gente  y  de 

una  lengua Desde  esta  provincia  de  Peruqueta  hasta  Adechame  que  son 

cerca  de  40  leguas  todavia  al  ueste,  se  llama  la  provincia  de  Coiba,  y  la  len- 


796  TEIBAL  BOUNDARIES. 

gua  es  la  de  Cueva desde  Burica  hasta  esta  provincia,  que  se  dice  To- 

breytrota,  casi  que  cada  senor  es  diferente  de  lengua  uno  de  otro Desde 

aqui  tornando  a  bajar  cerca  de  la  mar,  venimos  a  la  provincia  de  Nata 

esta  30  leguas  de  Panama tenia  por  contrario  a  un  senor  que  se  decia  Es- 

coria,  que  tenia  sus  poblaciones  en  un  rio  grande  ocho  leguas  de  Meta. . . . 
Esta  es  lengua  por  si.  Y  ocho  leguas  de  alii  hacia  Panama  esta  otro  senor 
que  se  dice  Chiru,  lengua  diferente.  Siete  leguas  de  Chiru,  hacia  Panama, 
esta  la  provincia  de  Chame:  es  el  remate  de  la  lengua  de  Coiba. . .  .Chiman 

dos  leguas  de  Comogre. . .  .desde  este  Chiman. . .  la  provincia  de  Poco- 

rosa,  y  de  alii  dos  leguas  la  vuelta  del  ueste. . .  .la  de  Paruraca,  donde  comi- 

eiiza  la  de  Coiba,  y  de  alii  la  misma  via  cuatro  leguas la  de  Tubanama,  y 

de  alii  a  ocho  leguas  todo  a  esta  via la  de  Chepo,  y  seis  leguas  de  alii 

....  la  de  Chepobar,  y  dos  leguas  delante la  de  Pacora,  y  cuatro  de  alii 

...  .la  de  Panama,  y  de  alii  otras  cuatro. . .  .la  de  Periquete,  y  otras  cuatro 

adelante la  de  Tabore,  y  otras  cuatro  adelante. . .  .la  de  Chame,  que  es 

remate  de  la  lengua  y  provincia  de  Coiba . . . .  de  Chame  a  la  provincia  del 
Chiru  hay  ocho  leguas. . .  .y  este  Chiru  es  otra  lengua  por  si.'  Andagoya,  in 
Navarrete,  Col.  de  Viages,  torn,  iii.,  pp.  397-8,  407-8,  410. 

The  Guaimies.  '  En  la  provincia  de  Veraguas,  situada  a  9  grades  de  lati- 
tud  boreal,  esta  la  nacion  delos  Guaimies  d  Huamies.  Hervds,  Catdlogo,  torn. 
i.,  pp.  280-1.  'Los  quales  indios,  segun  decian,  no  eran  naturales  de 
aquella  comarca:  antes  era  su  antigua  patria  la  tierra  que  esta  junto  al  rio 
grande  de  Darien.'  Cieza  de  Leon,  in  Id.,  p.  281. 

'  The  Indians  who  at  present  inhabit  the  Isthmus  are  scattered  over 
Bocas  del  Toro,  the  northern  portions  of  Veraguas,  the  north-eastern  shores 
of  Panama,  and  almost  the  whole  of  Darien,  and  consist  principally  of 
four  tribes,  the  Savanerics,  the  San  Bias  Indians,  the  Bayanos,  and  the 
Cholos.  Each  tribe  speaks  a  different  language.'  Seemann's  Voy.  Herald, 
vol.  i.,  p.  317.  'Les  Goajiros,  les  Motilones,  les  Guainetas  et  les  Cocinas, 
dans  les  provinces  de  Rio-Hacha,  de  Upar  et  de  Santa-Marta;  et  les  Da- 
riens,  les  Cunas  et  les  Chocoes,  sur  les  rives  et  les  affluents  de  1'Atrato  et 
les  cotes  du  Darien.'  Eoqudte,  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des  Voy.,  1855,  torn, 
cxlvii.,  pp.  24-5. 

'  The  Savanerics  occupy  the  northern  portion  of  Veraguas.'  Ib. 

The  Dorachos  occupied  western  Veragua.  Id.,  p.  312. 

The  Manzanillo,  or  San  Bias  Indians,  '  inhabit  the  north-eastern  portion 
of  the  province  of  Panama.'  Id.,  p.  320.  '  The  chief  settlement  is  about  San 
Bias,  the  rest  of  the  coast  being  dotted  over  with  small  villages.'  Gisborne's 
Darien,  p.  156.  '  Their  principal  settlements  are  on  the  upper  branches  of 
the  Chepo,  Chiman,  and  Congo,  on  the  Tuquesa,  Ucurganti,  Jubuganti,  and 
Chueti,  branches  of  the  Chuquanaqua,  and  on  the  Pucro  and  Paya.'  Cullen's 
Darien,  p.  69.  '  The  whole  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  except  a  small  portion 
of  the  valley  of  the  Tuyra,  comprising  the  towns  of  Chipogana,  Pinogana, 
Yavisa,  and  Santa  Maria,  and  a  few  scattering  inhabitants  on  the  Bayamo 
near  its  mouth,  is  uninhabited  except  by  the  San  Bias  or  Darien  Indians . . . 
They  inhabit  the  whole  Atlantic  coast  from  San  Bias  to  the  Tarena,  mouth 
of  the  Atrato,  and  in  the  interior  from  the  Sucubti  to  the  upper  parts  of  the 
Bayamo.'  Self  ridge's  Darien  Surveys,  p.  10. 


NATIONS  OF  THE  ISTHMUS.  797 

The  Mandmgos  '  occupy  the  coast  as  far  as  the  Bay  of  Caledonia.'  Pitydt, 
in  Land.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xxxviii.,  p.  92;  Eeichardt,  Cent.  Amer.,  p. 
161;  Ludewig's  Ab.  Lang,  p.  61. 

The  Bayanos,  '  about  the  Eiver  Chepo.'  Id.,  p.  18;  Seemann's  Voy.  Herald, 
vol.  i.,  p.  321. 

The  Cholos,  '  extending  from  the  Gulf  of  San  Miguel  to  the  bay  ef  Choco, 
and  thence  with  a  few  interruptions  to  the  northern  parts  of  the  Kepublic  of 
Ecuador.'  Seemann's  Voy.  Herald,  vol.  i.,  p.  321.  'Inhabiting  part  of  the 
Isthmus  of  Darien,  east  of  the  river  Chuquanaqua,  which  is  watered  by  the 
river  Pay  a  and  its  branches  in  and  about  lat.  8°  15'  N.,  and  long.  77°  20'  W.' 
Latham,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol.  xx.,  p.  189. 

'  The  Cunas  have  established  themselves  on  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of 
Uraba,  near  the  outlets  of  the  Atrato.'  Puydt,  in  Lond.  Geog.  Soc.,  Jour.,  vol. 
xxxviii.,  p.  92. 

The  Cunacunas,  '  on  the  south-easterly  side  of  the  Isthmus.'  Ludeicir/'s  Ab, 
Lang.,  p.  59.  '  The  remnants  of  the  Chucunaquese  who  in  1861  dwelt  on 

the  banks  of  the  river  which  bears  their  name have  gone  up  towards  the 

north.'  Ib. 

The  Chocos,  'on  the  Leon  and  the  different  tributaries  of  the  Atrato.' 
Michler's  Darien,  p.  26. 

The  Caimanes,  (  between  Punta  Arenas  and  Turbo.'  Ib. 

The  Urabds,  'en  las  selvas  y  bosques  de  la  Provincia  de  Uraba.'  Alcedo, 
Dice.,  torn,  v.,  p.  258. 

The  Idibas  '  del  Keyno  de  Tierra-Firme  y  Gobierno  de  Panama,  son  con- 
finantes  con  los  Chocoes  y  los  Tatabes.'  Id.,  torn,  ii.,  p.  413. 

The  Payas  'on  the  river  of  that  name.'  Self  ridge's  Darien  Surveys,  p. 
36. 


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